i COM M U N I CATI O N R E SE ARCH METH O D S I N P O S T MO D E RN C U LT U RE The second edition of Communication Research Methods in Postmodern Culture continues to explore research from a postmodern perspective.Typical qualitative and quantitative research methods are adjusted to fit the needs of contemporary culture Each chapter is updated with new information and fresh examples Included in the second edition is a new chapter on Internet and social media research The author uses straightforward and easy- to- understand language Both individual and group projects are among the suggested activities This book is important for the study of communication in a changing political, social, economic, and technological environment Larry Z. Leslie is Associate Professor Emeritus of Mass Communications at the University of South Florida, Tampa ii iii C OM M U N I CAT ION RESE A R C H M E T H ODS IN P OS T M ODE R N C U LT UR E A Revisionist Approach Second Edition Larry Z. Leslie iv Second edition published 2018 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis The right of Larry Z. Leslie to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe First published 2010 by Pearson Education Inc Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Leslie, Larry Z author Title: Communication research methods in postmodern culture : a revisionist approach / Larry Z Leslie Description: Second edition | New York, NY : Routledge, 2017 | Includes bibliographical references Identifiers: LCCN 2017016797| ISBN 9781138294202 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138233911 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Communication–Research | Postmodernism Classification: LCC P91.3 L47 2017 | DDC 302.2/0721–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017016797 ISBN: 978-1-138-29420-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-23391-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-23173-0 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Out of House Publishing Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138233911 v For Madison and Matthew vi vii C ONTENTS Preface xiii SE C T I ON I Foundations 1 Welcome A Backward Glance A Postmodern Primer What Is Communication? 10 Why Research? 11 Communication Research 12 Evaluating and Restructuring Our Research Practices 15 Postmodernism and Communication Research 16 Suggested Activities 18 References 19 Understanding Culture and Research Some Important Philosophy 21 Some Essential History 22 Additional Factors to Consider 27 What About Communication Research? 28 A New Research Outlook 29 Postmodern Application of Research Results 32 The Communication Process 33 Research Ethics 34 Federal Regulations 37 Suggested Activities 37 References 38 vii 21 viii C ontents Getting Started Basic Terminology 40 Research Guidelines 43 Suggested Activities 45 References 45 40 Designing a Research Study The Flowchart Process 46 Discuss the Problem 47 Search the Literature 48 Revise the Research Question(s) 52 Select a Research Method 52 Develop a Detailed Plan 53 Handle the Logistics 53 Execute the Project 54 Organize and Analyze Study Results 55 Address the Research Question(s) 55 Evaluate the Study 56 Write the Report 56 Suggested Activities 57 Reference 57 46 SEC T I ON I I Methodologies 59 Focus Group Research A Postmodern Perspective 62 Advantages and Disadvantages 63 Basics 64 Logistics 64 Conducting the Session 67 Solving Potential Problems 68 Analyzing the Data 68 Addressing the Research Questions 71 Evaluating the Study 71 Writing the Report 71 Interesting Alternatives 71 Suggested Activities 72 References 73 61 viii ix C ontents Survey Research Definition and Uses 74 A Postmodern Perspective 75 Issues and Problems 75 Basics 78 Some Sampling Techniques 81 Types of Surveys 83 Telephone Survey 83 Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing 89 Mail Survey 90 Other Types of Surveys 92 Analyzing the Data 94 Additional Data Analysis Suggestions 97 Addressing the Research Questions 99 Evaluating the Study 99 Writing the Report 100 Suggested Activities 100 References 100 Historical Research Part I Oral History by Kim Golombisky 103 A Postmodern Perspective on History 104 Oral History’s Definitions and Uses 105 Issues and Problems in Oral History Research 110 Oral History Research Design 116 Oral History Research Execution 121 Oral History Research Analysis and Presentation 122 Part II Conventional Historical Research by Larry Z. Leslie 124 Definition and Uses 124 A Postmodern Perspective 125 Basics 126 Using Quality Sources 126 Developing a Detailed Plan 131 Logistics 133 Data Gathering 136 Analyzing the Data 137 Addressing the Research Questions 138 Evaluating the Study 139 Writing the Report 139 ix 74 102 264 A pplications Group Evaluation Some students complain about group work One of the chief objections is that some students in a group a lot of work and others little or nothing, yet the group often receives a single grade that applies equally to all group members It is usually not possible for your course instructor to monitor all group activities, so he/she must sometimes rely on the group members’ evaluation of each other in order to get a clear understanding of who contributed to the project and who did not If your instructor chooses to use an evaluation tool as part of an overall assessment of the total group activity, some use may be made of the evaluation Group Name: ______________________________________________________ Instructions: Write the name of each group member in the spaces provided below, then indicate the strength of that individual’s contribution to the group research effort Please use a to scale, with meaning “little or no contribution,” and meaning “important and significant contribution.” Sign your name at the bottom of the page.Your ratings will be kept confidential Name Rating __________________________________ ________ __________________________________ ________ __________________________________ ________ __________________________________ ________ __________________________________ ________ __________________________________ ________ Comments: _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _____________________________ Your Signature Figure 14.1 Group Research Project Member Evaluation Form 264 265 A G roup R esearch P roject form in Figure 14.1 However, your instructor may have some other way to evaluate the contributions of group members A successful group project can go a long way toward helping you understand the complexities of research activity It can also leave you with a sense of satisfaction and a willingness to engage in future research 265 266 INDEX Bold page numbers indicate figures, italic numbers indicate tables a priori coding 155 absolute reality, lack of belief in 9–10 abstracts 248 accents 114 accuracy in literature search and review 49, 50 Achebe, Chinua 102 affect/effect 232 affirmative postmodernists 31–32 agenda setting 30 Allen, Anita 77–78 Amazon 201–202 ambiguity in postmodernism 6, 7 American Association of Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) 76 American Indian Oral History Manual 103 among/between 233 analysis of data 55; commonalities among comments 69, 98; computers, use of for 71; consistency of data 137–138; content analysis 157–159; focus group research 68–71; group research project 263; historical research 137–138; oral history 123; organization of responses 55, 69, 97–98; range of comments 69, 98; summary of findings 70, 99; survey research 94–99; themes and patterns 70, 98–99; transcripts of discussions 68–69; unusual responses 98; variables, sorting comments by 69, 98 analytical constructs 159 APA style 234–238 apostrophes 231–232 appendices 251 266 application program interface (API) 213–214 archiving of oral history 111–112, 122–123, 123–124 audiences: feminist methodology 181–182; for reports 245–246 available samples 81 average response 96 Avery, R.K. 15 Awan, I. 210 Balakier, E. 210 Baum, Willa K 109, 117 Bellmore, A 214–215 Berelson, Bernard 147, 149 Berman, M. 5–6 Bertalanffy, Ludwig von 44 between/among 233 Big Data 201 binary oppositions 164, 168 Bishop, Sarah 116 Bista, K. 215 Blachnio, A. 210 Blumler, J.G. 13, 14 Bober, M. 215 boilerplates 118 Boruch, W. 210 Boyd, D.A. 104 Branthwaite, A. 219 Brennen, Bonnie 106, 107 Bronowski, Jacob 61 budgets for research projects 53–54; content analysis 151; focus group research 63; historical research 135–136; individual research proposal 257; 267 I ndex Internet surveys 92; oral history 119; survey research 75 Burke, S.C. 217 Burt, Elizabeth 107 business histories 109 business reports 131 Butler, C. 146 buzz research 219–220 Capra, F 18, 22, 23 Carroll, Lewis 255 case-study approach 139–141 Chambers, T 217–218 Chenail, R. 217 Chester, J. 201 Chicago style 240–243 Chilisa, Bagele 181 Chomsky, Noam 6 citations and references 48; APA style 234–238; Chicago style 240–243; endnotes 240–242; footnotes 240–242; in-text citations 234–236, 238–239; individual research proposal 256, 257; Internet sources 236, 239; MLA style 238–240; need for 230; References section 236–238; Works Cited page 239–240 closed/open questions 85 coding in content analysis 155–157, 158, 159 Cohen, H. 13 coherence 22 communication: as academic area 11; definition 11; everyday meaning 10; postmodern 10–11; professional associations 14 communication process 33–34, 34, 46–47, 145 communication research: changes to 14–15; communication science defined 28–29; evaluation and restructuring 15–16; guidelines for 43–45; history 12; interdisciplinarity 173–174; mass media 13; metanarratives 30; motivation for 13; postmodernism, new outlook under 29–32; postmodernism and 14–18; problems with 15; public speaking 13–14; purpose of 16, 208; qualitative/ quantitative methods 14, 28; questions to guide 44–45; resistance to change 29; so what? question 16, 208, 249; social science tradition 28; speech communication 13; see also design of research; terms and concepts communication science 28–29 company histories 109 company reports 131 complexity of contemporary culture 4 computer-assisted interviewing: personal interviewing 94; telephone interviews 89 concepts in research; see terms and concepts Condit, C.M 174, 189, 191 conference call TFGs 72 confidentiality: Google Consumer Surveys (GCS) 77–78; Internet research 201–202; oral history 111–112; personal information 201–202; in research 35 Connor, S. 8 constructs, gender and 190–191 consumables for research projects 53 content analysis: advantages and disadvantages 150–151; analysis of data 157–159; analytical constructs 159; ‘behind the scenes’ versions of messages 152; challenges for 146; coding 155–157, 158, 159; content categories 155–156, 159; costs 151; countless contribution to messages 150; data gathering 150–151, 153; definition 147–148; different kinds of content 153; ethnographic 148; example 156–157, 158, 159; history 147; intercoder reliability 156; literature search and review 152; manifest/latent content 147–148; objectivity 151; plan, research 152; population 153–154; postmodern perspective 149–150, 156; quantification in 151, 158; quantitative data 158; rationalism and empiricism 149; recording 155; as replicable 148; replication of previous research 148, 151; research questions 152; sampling 153–154; as systematic 151; time period of messages 152–153; traditions of 148; unitizing 152–153; units of analysis 153; uses of 148–149; validity 148; see also deconstruction Conti, Kris 109 contractions 232 conversation, goal of in postmodern culture 197–198 corporate histories 109 267 268 I ndex costs for research projects 53–54; content analysis 151; focus group research 63; historical research 135–136; individual research proposal 257; Internet surveys 92; oral history 119; survey research 75 cover letters 90, 91, 134 Creedon, P.J. 179 Crenshaw, Kimberlé 174 Czitrom, D.J. 12–13 dangling modifiers 233 Daniel, D. 128 data analysis: commonalities among comments 69, 98; computers, use of for 71; consistency of data 137–138; content analysis 157–159; focus group research 68–71; group research project 263; historical research 137–138; oral history 123; organization of responses 55, 69, 97–98; range of comments 69, 98; summary of findings 70, 99; survey research 94–99; themes and patterns 70, 98–99; transcripts of discussions 68–69; unusual responses 98; variables, sorting comments by 69, 98 data gathering: case-study approach 140; content analysis 150–151; historical research 136–137; individual research proposal 256–257; selection of methods 52–53 data privacy 201–202 de-differentiation 168, 197 decolonization 181 deconstruction: binary oppositions 164, 168; characteristics of 162–163; definitions 160–161; Derrida and 8–9; evaluation of study 166; example 166–169; hermeneutics as root of 162; intertextuality 164, 168; literature search and review 163; logistics 165– 166; negative connotation 161; point of 165; questions used to examine texts 163–164; as research method 161–162; research questions 163, 166; selection of text 163; summary of findings 165; and truth and meaning 162–163; use of term 161; see also content analysis ‘deed of gift’ 119 definition of words 41 demographic questions 85 demographic variables 69, 98 Denzin, Norman 161 268 dependent variables 41 Derrida, Jacques 8, 160, 161 Descartes, René 22 design of research: boilerplates 118; budgets 53–54; communication model, element of involved 46–47; communication models 34; discussion of problem 47–48, 117; evaluation of studies 56; execution of project 54–55; flowchart process 46–57, 47; group research project 262; Internet research 205; literature search 48–52, 117; logistical details 53–54; methods, selection of 52–53; oral history 116– 121; organization and analysis of results 55; plan, research 53; questionnaires 118; research questions 46, 55–56, 117; revision of research question 52; social media monitoring (SSM) 219– 220; social media research 210–212; stating problem/issue 46; writing reports 56–57 DeVault, Marjorie 175, 177 dialects and accents 114 Dibean, W. 154 different from/different than 234 digital technology and communication: and disorder in society 26; impact of 196; see also Internet, information on; Internet research; social media; social media research direct observables 190 discontinuity in postmodernism 6, 7 discussion of problem 47–48, 205 discussion sections of reports 250–251 disorder/order argument 25–27 diversity, feminist recognition of 179–180 Dominick, J.R. 151 Dostoevsky, Fyodor 40 Dow, B.J 174, 189, 191 effect/affect 232 electronic journals 50 Elements of Style,The (Strunk and White) 229 Ellison, N.B. 209 emergent coding 155 empiricism 22, 149 endnotes 240–242 English language 227–228 Enlightenment, The 5 entropy law 25–27, 43–44 269 I ndex epistemology 21–12, 175, 183 essentialism 185–186 ethics: future use of data 115–116; honesty 36–37; informed consent 35, 36, 115; oral history 112, 115–116; personal information, privacy of 201–202; postmodern culture 34–35; privacy and confidentiality 35; in research 35–37; as situational and relative 7; survey research 94 etiquette for interviews 121 evaluation of studies 56; deconstruction 166; focus group research 71; group research project 264, 264–265; historical research 139; survey research 99 expenses for research projects; see budgets for research projects Facebook 209–212 farther/further 232 Faulconer, J.E. 165 Fawer, A. 80 federal regulations 37 feminist historiography 106 feminist methodology: action research 176; assumptions about women and men 185; benefits of 192; biological determinism 185–186; caution in use of gendered terms 187–188; collaboration 181; constructs, gender and 190–191; as critical of research process 175–176; critical perspective 173; decolonization 181; definitions 174–177; diversity, recognition of 179–180; epistemology 175; essentialism 185–186; feminist defined 174; honesty about political agenda 172, 175; indigenous methods 181; interdisciplinarity 173–174; intersectionality 172–173, 174, 180; and knowledge 175; language, importance of 191; language, slipperiness of 185; male/female variables, abandonment of 191; measurement 190–191; methods 177–182; multiple methods 178; non- feminist gender research 189; non- feminist research, critical of 178; oral history 107; paradox over category ‘women’ 188; participants, involvement as individuals 180–181; performative, gender as 186–187; postmodern perspective 173–174; problems and issues 183–192; readers, involvement as persons 181–182; and reality 183; researchers, involvement of as persons 180; romance-novel reading, study of 176–177; semantic derogation 188; shared perspective 177; social change as goal 179; social justice, commitment to 172; standpoint, use of term 180; theory, feminist, engagement with 178–179; transdisciplinarity 179; uses of 182–183; woman/man, defining 183–185; words and labels, interest in 183, 191 fewer/less 232 Feyerabend, Paul 17 field surveys 93–94 Firehose 214 flowchart process for research design 47; communication model, element of involved 46–47; discussion of problem 47–48; evaluation of studies 56; execution of project 54–55; literature search 48–52; logistical details 53–54; methods, selection of 52–53; organization and analysis of results 55; plan, research 53; research questions 46, 55–56; stating problem/issue 46; survey research 78; writing reports 56–57 focus group research: canceling sessions 68; children, presence of 68; commonalities among comments 69; computers, use of for data analysis 71; conducting sessions 67–68; conference call TFGs 72; data analysis 68–71; data and time 65–67; decision- making as reason for 62; domination by individuals 63–64; evaluation of study 71; flexibility 63; going off-track 64; group interaction 61; in-depth information from 63; incentives for attending 66; interviewing comparison 61; location for 66–67; logistics 64–67; as low-cost 63; moderators 65; multiple groups 61; number of participants 61–62; organization of responses by question 69; postmodern perspective 62–63; as preliminary activity 62; problems 68; questions for 64; range of comments 69; recording of sessions 64, 65; recruitment of participants 61, 66; refreshments 67; research questions 64, 71; speed of 63; summary of findings 269 270 I ndex 70; telephone focus groups (TFGs) 72; themes and patterns 70; transcripts of discussions 68–69; uninvited participants 68; use of 62; variables, sorting comments by 69; see also report writing footnotes 240–242 Forbes, Kate 172, 179 Forman, A.E. 210 formats for reports 246–248 Foucault, Michel 8, 35, 177 fragmentation 197 funding for research projects 53–54 further/farther 232 future use 115–116 Gallup, George 12 Garrison, B. 154 gender: and constructs 190–191; defining 183–185; as performative 186–187; theories of 178–179; see also feminist methodology generalizing 78–81, 82 Gil-Egui, G. 210 Gilligan, Carol 190 Golombisky, K 186–187, 208 Google Consumer Surveys (GCS) 77–78 Gosling, S.D. 209 government documents 131 grammar 229–230 group research project: contact information 261; design of research 262; evaluation 264, 264–265; execution of project 263; formation of groups 261; leaders of groups 261; literature search and review 262; methodologies 262; oral presentations 263; organization and analysis of results 263; procedure 261–263; report writing 263; research questions 262, 263; strengths of members 261–262 Gubrium, J.F 126–127 guidelines for research 43–45 Gurevitch, M. 13, 14 Gwynne’s Grammar (Gwynne) 229 Hagen, R. 208 Harding, Sarah 174–175 hermeneutics 162 Heuvelman, A. 217 historical research: academic fields using 124; access to documents/artifacts 135; 270 aims of 102; analysis of data 137–138; budgets and costs 135–136; business reports 131; case-study approach 139– 141; causal connections, caution in 128; consistency of data 137–138; cover letters 133–134, 134; data gathering 136–137; defining history 124; evaluation of study 139; government documents 131; Internet, information on 128–129; Internet research 203; judgments based on evidence 138–139; logistics 133–136; newspapers and magazines 130–131; organization of evidence 138; organizing 132–133; planning 131–133; postmodern perspective 125–126; primary sources 126–127; quality of documents/sources 126–131, 137; quantitative data 137; reasons for 124; record-keeping 136; recording interviews 136; research questions 139; scripts for initial phone calls 134–135; secondary sources 127; single statements 128; social media 129–130; tertiary sources 127–128; time and place of interviews 135; writing reports 139; see also oral history historiography 105–106 Hitchens, Christopher 6 Holmberg, K. 215 Holstein, J.A 126–127 Holsti, O.R. 151 honesty in research 36–37 hooks, bell 174 Hurworth, R. 72 Huston, C.L. 245 hyperreality 197 in to/into 233 independent variables 41 indigenous methods 181 indirect observables 190 individual research project 259–260 individual research proposal: budget 257; citations and references 256, 257; data gathering 256–257; introduction 256; literature search and review 256; proposed media format 257; title page 257–258; topics for 258–259 information availability today 7 information gathering; see data gathering informed consent 35, 36, 115, 203 271 I ndex institutional review boards (IRBs) 37, 116, 202–203 interdisciplinarity 173–174, 179 International Communication Association (ICA) 14 Internet, information on 128–129 Internet research: contacting participants 204, 204–205; design of research 205; discussion of problem 205; e- mail address lists 204, 204–205; ethics 201–202; example projects 205–206; historical research 203; impact of digital technology 196; in-text citations 236, 239; informed consent 203; institutional review boards (IRBs) 202–203; literature search and review 203, 205; origin and development of the Internet 198–199; participants, identifying 202–203; positive/negative sides of the Internet 200; postmodern perspective 197–198; privacy of personal information 201– 202; professional services 203; purpose of communication research 208; research questions 205; sampling 203–205; surveys 92–93; text analysis 203; see also social media research intersectionality 172–173, 174, 180 intersubjectivity 183, 184 intertextuality 164, 168 interviews: etiquette for 121; focus groups comparison 61; length of 121; location for 66–67, 120–121; logs 118, 119; oral history 120–122; time and place of 135 into/in to 233 introductions to reports 249 Irlbeck, E 217–218 Jobs, S. 129 journalism: history 106–107; oral history and 104, 114 journals 50 Katsikeas, P.B.B 168, 197 Kelly, H. 130 Kent, M.L. 199 Kern, R. 210 Khan, M.L 209, 218 Kiernan, V. 159 knowledge: acquisition of 21–22; changing ways of gaining 27; coherence 22; empiricism 22; epistemology 21–22; feminist methodology and 175; pragmatic approach 22; rationalism 22; science and reason as source of 25; web of interrelationships 27; of the whole by examining the parts 23–25, 79 Kohlberg, Lawrence 190 Kosinski, M. 209 Krause, A 217–218 Krenz, C. 96 Krippendorff, Klaus 148, 149, 152, 157, 159 Lambert, F.L. 26 language: correct use of in reports 227–228; feminist interest in 183; meanings of words 41; slipperiness of 185; see also terms and concepts Larson, M.A. 104 Lasswell, Harold D. 147 latent/manifest content 147–148 learning, fragmentation of 23 Lee, K. 214 Leshan, L. 29 Leslie, L.Z. 5 less/fewer 232 letters of introduction and explanation 90, 91, 133–134, 134 LGBTQ Oral History Digital Collaboratory, Canada 111 Li-Barber, K.T. 210 library work 49–51 Likert scale 42 LinkedIn 207 literature search and review: content analysis 152; deconstruction 163; group research project 262; individual research proposal 256; Internet research 203, 205; journals 50; library work 49–51; online information 49, 50; oral history 117; purpose of 48; questions for guidance 48; record- keeping 48, 50; reference citations 48; replication 48; report writing 249–250; sample 50–51; sources of information 48–51; summary of 50–51; truth and accuracy 49, 50 location for research: focus group research 66–67; oral history interviews 120–121 logistics 53–54; deconstruction 165–166; focus group research 64–67; historical research 133–136; 271 272 I ndex Internet surveys 92; survey research 87, 87–89, 88 Lowell, James Russell 74 Lynd, Staughton 107, 115 Lyotard, J. 9, 29 Machiavelli, N. 35 Madden, A. 217 magazines 130–131 mail surveys 90–92 mall-intercept samples 81 manifest/latent content 147–148 Margenau, H. 29 Marshall, Michael 196 mass communication research; see communication research materials for research projects 53 Matz, S.C. 209 McChesney, R.W. 15 McCombs, M.E. 30 McKinney, Cait 111 McLeod, J. 15–16 McLuhan, Marshall 104 McMenemy, D. 217 Mead, Margaret 150 meanings of words 41; see also language; words and labels measurement of variables 41–42 Mechanical World Paradigm 23, 27, 43–44, 79 media history 106–107 media research: agenda setting 30; areas covered 13 memories: as basis of oral history 116; painful 115 men and women: assumptions about 185 See also feminist methodology Merrigan, G. 245 metanarratives 30 methodologies: defined 40; group research project 262; metanarratives 30; report section concerning 250; see also feminist methodology; focus group research; historical research; Internet research; oral history; social media research; survey research; text analysis methods: feminist 177–182; qualitative/ quantitative 14, 28, 40; selection of 52–53 Meyers, C 217–218 MLA style 238–240 272 modern period 5–6; Mechanical World Paradigm 23; science and reason as source of knowledge 25 Molyneux, L. 215 Moor, P.J. 217 more than/over 233 motivation for research 13 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick 198 National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking 14 National Communication Association 14 Nevins, Allan 103 newspapers and magazines 130–131 Nietzsche, F. 8 Njegomir, N.M. 218 nonlocal realities 80 Nord, D.P. 125 Norris, Christopher 161 numbers, symbolic meaning given to 96 numerical data 96 obfuscation 77 objectivity 9–10, 27–28, 151, 183 on the record, speaking, consequences of 115 online information 49, 50 online presentation of oral history 112 online surveys 92–3; see also Internet research open/closed questions 85 operational definition of words 41 oral history: analysis 123; archiving 111–112, 122–123, 123–124; background research on narrators 119; boilerplates 118; bottom-up approach 106–108; budgets and costs 119; communication issues 115; corporate histories 109; ‘deed of gift’ 119; defined 105; design of research 116–121; dialects and accents 114; discussion of problem 117; editing 112; equipment 110–112, 119; ethics 112, 115–116; etiquette for interviews 121; feminist research 107; of genocide 108; history, defining 105–106; history of 103–104; immediacy of 108; informed consent 115; institutional review boards (IRBs) 116; interpersonal challenges 115; interview logs 118, 119; interviews 120–122; issues and problems with 273 I ndex 110–116; and journalism 104, 114; literature search 117; media history 106–107, 108; memories as basis of 116; moving target, history as 104; narrators, identifying 117–118; online presentation 112; overlaps and interruptions 113; painful memories 115; postmodern perspective 104; press release answers 113–114; privacy and confidentiality 111–112; as public relations tool 109; questionnaires 118; recording 110–111; release forms 118–119; reports 123; research question 117; respect for narrators 115; responsibility for defining potential history 108; searching 112; sites for interviews 120–121; speaking on the record, consequences of 115; special populations 116; StoryCorps 103, 104; technological challenges 110–112; technology, communications 104; top-down approach 106–108; traditions 103; transcription 110, 112–115; transcription of interviews 122; use of 108–110; value of 106; voice recognition software 114–115 order/disorder argument 25–27 organization and analysis of results; see data analysis organizational histories 109 over/more than 233 Palen, L. 129 Parable of the Elephant 23–25 paragraphing 231 parallel universes 80 Patterson, S. 219 performative, gender as 186–187 personal information, privacy of 201–202 philosophers associated with postmodernism 8–9 Piele, L.J. 11 Pinterest 207 planning research 53; content analysis 152; historical research 131–133 Poincaré, Henri 21 polling See survey research Poole, S. 201 Pope, Alexander 244 Popov, V. 209 population, research 153–154 positivism 29–30 post-truth 198 postal surveys 90–92 Postman, N. 7 postmodernism: affirmative postmodernists 31–32; ambiguity 6, 7; changes to communication research 14–15; characteristics 10; communication 10–11; and communication research 16–18; content analysis 149–150, 156; conversation, goal of in 197–198; critical perspective 173; de- differentiation 168, 197; defining 9; discontinuity 6, 7; early use of term 7–8; emergence 6; ethics 34–35; feminist methodology 173–174; focus group research 62–63; fragmentation 197; goals of research, view of 11; guidelines for research 43–45; historical research 125–126; history, defining 105–106; hyperreality 197; Internet research 197–198; meaning for life today 9; metanarratives 30; new research outlook under 29–32; objective world, lack of belief in 9–10; oral history 104; outcry against 6; philosophers associated with 8–9; post-truth 198; questions about research results 32–33; as radically different cultural view 18; resisting traditional paradigm 32; sampling 78–81; and the scientific method 17; skeptical postmodernists 31; snapshots, research studies as 33; survey research 75, 95; themes 17–18 Powell, J. 160 pragmatic approach 22 primary sources 126–127 privacy: Google Consumer Surveys (GCS) 77–78; Internet research 201–202; oral history 111–112; personal information 201–202; in research 35 professional associations 14 pronoun-antecedent agreement 231 Przepiorka, A. 210 public relations tool, oral history as 109 public speaking research 13–14 punctuation 231 purpose of communication research 16, 208 purposive samples 81 Pymer, Sarah 116 273 274 I ndex qualitative methods 14, 28, 40 quality of responses to survey research 76 quantitative data: content analysis 151, 158; historical research 137 quantitative methods 14; variables 40–42 quantum mechanics 80 query building 214 questionnaires: demographic questions 85; development of 84–86; mutually exclusive categories 85; numbering 94; open/closed questions 85; oral history 118; pretesting 86–87; research questions 84; response choices 85–86 quota samples 81 Radway, Janice 176–177 Rager, R.C. 217 Ragin, C.C. 11 random digit dialing 81–82 random sampling 78–81; simple 154; systematic 82, 154 rationalism 22, 149 readers, involvement as persons 181–182 Reading the Romance (Radway) 176–177 reality: absolute, lack of belief in 9–10; distrust of as increasing 25; feminist methodology 183; hyperreality 197; scientific thinking about, changes in 80 reason: distrust of as increasing 25; as source of knowledge 25 record-keeping: abbreviations in 136; execution of project 55; focus group sessions 65; historical research 136; literature search and review 48, 50 Reddit 207 references and citations See citations and references Reinharz, Shulamit 177, 179 release forms 118–119 reliability in research 42–43, 43 replication of previous research 48, 148, 151 report writing: abstracts 248; appendices 251; audiences 245–246; discussion sections 250–251; elements of reports 247–251; first-person pronoun, avoidance of 247; formats 246–248; group research project 263; historical research 139; introductions 249; literature review 249–250; methodology section 250; need for reports 244–245; oral history 123; 274 purpose of reports 56; references pages 251; research questions 249–250; results section 250; sections of reports 56–57, 247–251; table of contents 248; title pages 248; variations on format 251–252; see also writing style research: confidentiality 35; as epistemological activity 21; ethics in 35–37; federal regulations 37; goals of 11; guidelines for 43–45; honesty in 36–37; informed consent 35, 36; institutional review boards (IRBs) 37; metanarratives 30; motivation 13; positivism 29–30; postmodernism, new outlook under: 29–32; postmodernist questions about results 32–33; postmodernist view of 11; privacy 35; questions to guide 44–45; resistance to change 29; science in 5; scientific method 11, 17; snapshots, research studies as 33; see also communication research; design of research; methodologies; terms and concepts research assistants 53, 87, 87 research questions 46; case-study approach 140; content analysis 152; deconstruction 163, 166; focus group research 64, 71; group research project 262, 263; historical research 139; Internet research 205; oral history 117; questionnaire development 84; report writing 249–250; revision of 52; survey research 99 researchers: influence on daily life 3–4; involvement of as persons 180 Resnik, F 214–215 response rate to survey research 75 results section of reports 250 Rhodes, D.L. 209 Richardson, J.W. 215 Rifkin, J. 27 right/wrong, confusion about 7 Ritzer, G. 197 Roberts, L. 251 Rocco, M. 209 romance-novel reading, study of 176–177 Rose, G. 208 Roseau, P.M. 31 Rubin, A.M. 11 Rubin, R.B. 11 Ruthven, I. 217 Ryan, Kathleen 113 275 I ndex sampling: available samples 81; composite of time period 154; content analysis 153–154; Internet research 203–205; mail surveys 82; mall-intercept samples 81; multistage 154; postmodernism 78– 81; professional sampling companies 82; purposive samples 81, 154; quota samples 81; random digit dialing 81–82; sampling frame 154; simple random 154; snowball sampling 209; social media research 209; survey research 78–81; systematic random 82, 154; techniques 81–83; volunteer samples 81 Sauers, N.J. 215 Sax, G. 96 Scheurich, J.J. 29–30 science: distrust of as increasing 25; divergence in 17; and reason as source of knowledge 25; in research 5 scientific method 11, 17, 245 scripts for telephone callers 88, 88 second law of thermodynamics 25–27, 43–44 secondary sources 127 self-reporting 76 semantic derogation 188 sentences 231 Shafer, R.J 102, 128, 132 Shaw, D.L. 30 Shipman, M. 27 Shklovski, I. 129 Silverman, M. 207 Sim, S. 6 single statements 128 Sipe, Dan 111 Six Degrees 199 skeptical postmodernists 31 Sloan, W.D. 129 Smith, H. 27 Smith, Linda Tuhiwai 181 snapshots, research studies as 33 Sniatecki, J.L. 209 snowball sampling 209 Snyder, S. 217 so what? question 16, 208, 249 social media 129–130; buzz research 219–20; features 199; first networks 199; platforms 200; possibilities for research 206–208; research into 199–200; social media monitoring (SSM) 219–220; Tumblr 206–207 social media research: application program interface (API) 213–214; designing a project 210–212; example project 215–216, 218–219; Facebook 209–212; features of websites 199; Firehose 214; LinkedIn 207; multifaceted, platforms as 208; Pinterest 207; postmodern perspective 197–198; privacy of personal information 201–202; published studies 209–210, 214–215, 217–218; query building 214; Reddit 207; sampling 209; snowball sampling 209; Streaming API 214; tools and apps 214; tools for 208; Twitter 212–216, 219–220;YouTube 216–219; see also Internet research society, traditional, breakdown of 7 Sokal, Alan D. 16–17 Special, W.P. 210 special populations 116 speech communication research 13 spelling 232 Spigel, L 173–174 split infinitives 233–234 Stake, R.E. 139 standpoint, use of term 180 Stark, R. 251 statement of problem/issue 46 statistics: content analysis 151, 158; survey research 95 Stevenson, Adlai 3 Stillwell, D. 209 StoryCorps 103, 104 Streaming API 214 string theory 80 style of writing; see writing style subjectivity 183 summary of findings 99 survey research: analysis of data 94–99; average response 96; basic activities 78–81; commonalities among comments 98; computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) 89; costs 75; ethics 94; evaluation 99; false/misleading practices 76–77; field surveys 93–94; flowchart process for research design 78; frequency of each response 95; generalizing 78–81, 82; Google Consumer Surveys (GCS) 77–78; Internet surveys 92–93; letters of introduction and explanation 90, 91; logistics 87, 275 276 I ndex 87–89, 88; mail surveys 82, 90–92; numerical data 96; obfuscation 77; organization of responses by question 97–98; postmodern perspective 75; postmodernism 95; problems and issues 75–78; quality of responses 76; range of comments 98; research questions 99; response rate 75; sampling 78–83; scripts for callers 88, 88; self-reporting 76; statistical tests 95; summary of findings 99; surveys defined 74; telephone surveys 83–89; themes and patterns 98–99; training research assistants 87, 87; transcripts of audio records 97; types of 83–94; unusual responses 98; use of 74–75; variables, sorting comments by 98; see also report writing Sutton, J. 129 symbolic meaning given to numbers 96 systematic random samples 82, 154 systems view 44 table of contents 248 technology: digital 26, 196; oral history 104, 110–112; in research 5; see also Internet, information on; Internet research; social media; social media research telephone focus groups (TFGs) 72 telephone surveys 83–89 Terkel, Louis “Studs” 103 terms and concepts: methodology 40; operational definition of words 41; reliability 42–43, 43; theory 43; validity 42–43, 43; variables 40–42 tertiary sources 127–128 text analysis: communication messages 145; communication process 145; Internet research 203; message/text distinction 145; see also content analysis; deconstruction that/who 232 Thelwall, M. 215 themes and patterns in data analysis 70, 98 theory: concept of 43; feminist 178–179 Thomas, D 149, 156 Tinberg, H. 247 title pages 248 Todd, L. 209 276 Topolsky, J. 213 training research assistants 87, 87 transcription: of audio records 97; of discussions 68–69; oral history 112–115, 122 transdisciplinarity 179 travel for research projects 53 truth: literature search and review 49, 50; post-truth 198 Tuchman, G. 127 Tumblr 206–207 Twitter 212–216, 219–220 unitizing 152–153 units of analysis 153 validity in research 42–43, 43, 49, 148 variables: defined 40–41; demographic 69; dependent 41; independent 41; meanings of words 41; measurement 41–42; sorting comments by 69, 98 Verleur, R. 217 voice recognition software 114–115 volunteer samples 81 Ward, G. 16 Weller, K. 200 White, E.B. 227 Whitten, S. 130 who/that 232 Wiener, Norbert 46 Willis, Holly 112 Wilson, N.J. 102 Wimmer, R.D. 151 Wohn, D.Y. 209 women and men: assumptions about 185; defining 183–185; see also feminist methodology words and labels: feminist interest in 183; meanings of words 41; see also terms and concepts Works Cited page 239–240; see also citations and references Works Progress Administration 103 worldviews, change from organic to mechanical 22–23 writing style: APA style 234–238; checklist 231; Chicago style 240–243; citations and references 230, 234– 243; common errors 230, 231–234; correct English 227–228; defined 227; 277 I ndex endnotes 240–242; footnotes 240–242; grammar 229–230; in-text citations 234–236, 238–239; MLA style 238–240; reference books 229–230; Works Cited page 239–240; see also report writing wrong/r ight, confusion about 7 Xu, J 214–215 YouTube 216–219 Yow, Valerie 105 Zhou, S. 129 Zhu, X 214–215 277 278 ... second edition of Communication Research Methods in Postmodern Culture continues to explore research from a postmodern perspective.Typical qualitative and quantitative research methods are adjusted... without intent to infringe First published 2010 by Pearson Education Inc Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Leslie, Larry Z author Title: Communication research methods in postmodern. .. Glance A Postmodern Primer What Is Communication? 10 Why Research? 11 Communication Research? ?? 12 Evaluating and Restructuring Our Research Practices 15 Postmodernism and Communication Research? ??