research methods in anthoropology qualitative and quantitative approaches 4th by bernard

ANTHROPOLOGY • RESEARCH METHODS Bernard Research Methods in Anthropology is the standard textbook for methods classes H Russell Bernard in anthropology programs Written in Russ Bernard’s unmistakable conversational style, this fourth edition continues the tradition of previous editions, which have launched tens of thousands of students into the fieldwork enterprise with a combination of rigorous methodology, wry humor, and commonsense advice The author has thoroughly updated his text and increased the length of the bibliography by about 50 percent to point students and researchers to the literature on hundreds of methods and techniques covered He has added and updated many examples of real research, which fieldworkers and students can replicate There is new material throughout, including sections on computer-based interviewing methods; management of electronic field notes; recording equipment and voice recognition software; text analysis; and the collection and analysis of visual materials Whether you are coming from a scientific, interpretive, or applied anthropological tradition, you will learn field methods from the best guide in both qualitative and quantitative methods H Russell Bernard is professor of anthropology at the University of Florida He is also the editor of Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology, the author of Social Research Methods, and the founder and current editor of the journal Field Methods For orders and information please contact the publisher ISBN 978-0-7591-0868-4 A Division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc 1-800-462-6420 www.altamirapress.com RESEARCH METHODS IN ANTHROPOLOGY FOURTH EDITION FOURTH EDITION RESEARCH METHODS IN ANTHROPOLOGY QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES Research Methods in Anthropology Research Methods in Anthropology Fourth Edition Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches H Russell Bernard A Division of R OW M A N & L I T T L E F I E L D P U B L I S H E R S , I N C Lanham • New York • Toronto • Oxford AltaMira Press A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, MD 20706 www.altamirapress.com PO Box 317, Oxford, OX2 9RU, UK Copyright ᭧ 2006 by AltaMira Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bernard, H Russell (Harvey Russell), 1940– Research methods in anthropology : qualitative and quantitative approaches / H Russell Bernard.—4th ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7591-0868-4 (cloth : alk paper)— ISBN 0-7591-0869-2 (pbk : alk paper) Ethnology—Methodology I Title GN345.B36 2006 301Ј.072—dc22 2005018836 Printed in the United States of America ⅜ ϱ ீThe paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992 Contents Preface Anthropology and the Social Sciences vii The Foundations of Social Research 28 Preparing for Research 69 The Literature Search 96 Research Design: Experiments and Experimental Thinking 109 Sampling 146 Sampling Theory 169 Nonprobability Sampling and Choosing Informants 186 Interviewing: Unstructured and Semistructured 210 10 Structured Interviewing I: Questionnaires 251 11 Structured Interviewing II: Cultural Domain Analysis 299 12 Scales and Scaling 318 13 Participant Observation 342 14 Field Notes: How to Take Them, Code Them, Manage Them 387 15 Direct and Indirect Observation 413 16 Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis 451 17 Qualitative Data Analysis I: Text Analysis 463 18 Qualitative Data Analysis II: Models and Matrices 522 v vi Contents 19 Univariate Analysis 549 20 Bivariate Analysis: Testing Relations 594 21 Multivariate Analysis 649 Appendix A: Table of Random Numbers 697 Appendix B: Table of Areas under a Normal Curve 700 Appendix C: Student’s t Distribution 703 Appendix D: Chi-Square Distribution Table 704 Appendix E: F Tables for the 05 and 01 Levels of Significance 706 Appendix F: Resources for Fieldworkers 710 References 711 Subject Index 771 Author Index 791 About the Author 803 Preface S ince 1988, when I wrote the first edition of this book, I’ve heard from many colleagues that their departments are offering courses in research methods This is wonderful Anthropologists of my generation, trained in the 1950s and 1960s, were hard-pressed to find courses we could take on how research There was something rather mystical about the how-to of fieldwork; it seemed inappropriate to make the experience too methodical The mystique is still there Anthropological fieldwork is fascinating and dangerous Seriously: Read Nancy Howell’s 1990 book on the physical hazards of fieldwork if you think this is a joke But many anthropologists have found that participant observation loses none of its allure when they collect data systematically and according to a research design Instead, they learn that having lots of reliable data when they return from fieldwork makes the experience all the more magical I wrote this book to make it easier for students to collect reliable data beginning with their first fieldwork experience We properly challenge one another’s explanations for why Hindus don’t eat their cattle and why, in some cultures, mothers are more likely than fathers are to abuse their children That’s how knowledge grows Whatever our theories, though, all of us need data on which to test those theories The methods for collecting and analyzing data belong to all of us What’s in This Book The book begins with a chapter about where I think anthropology fits in the social sciences With one foot planted squarely in the humanities and the other in the sciences, there has always been a certain tension in the discipline between those who would make anthropology a quantitative science and those whose goal it is to produce documents that convey the richness—indeed, the uniqueness—of human thought and experience vii viii Preface Students of cultural anthropology and archeology may be asked early in their training to take a stand for qualitative or quantitative research Readers of this textbook will find no support for this pernicious distinction I lay out my support for positivism in chapter 1, but I also make clear that positivism is not a synonym for quantitative As you read chapter 1, think about your own position You don’t have to agree with my ideas on epistemological issues to profit from the later chapters on how to select informants, how to choose a sample, how to questionnaire surveys, how to write and manage field notes, and so on Chapter introduces the vocabulary of social research There’s a lot of jargon, but it’s the good kind Important concepts deserve words of their own, and chapter is full of important concepts like reliability, validity, levels of measurement, operationism, and covariation Whenever I introduce a new term, like positivism, hermeneutics, standard error of the mean, or whatever, I put it in boldface type The index shows every example of every boldfaced word So, if you aren’t sure what a factorial design is (while you’re reading about focus groups in chapter 9, on interviewing), the index will tell you that there are other examples of that piece of jargon in chapter (on experiments), in chapter 10 (on questionnaires), and in chapter 18 (on qualitative analysis) Chapter is about choosing research topics We always want our research to be theoretically important, but what does that mean? After you study this chapter, you should know what theory is and how to tell if your research is likely to contribute to theory or not It may seem incongruous to spend a lot of time talking about theory in a textbook about methods, but it isn’t Theory is about answering research questions and so is method I don’t like the bogus distinction between method and theory, any more than I like the one between qualitative and quantitative Chapter is also one of several places in the book where I deal with ethics I don’t have a separate chapter on ethics The topic is important in every phase of research, even in the beginning phase of choosing a problem to study Chapter is about searching the literature Actually, ‘‘scouring’’ is a better word than ‘‘searching.’’ In the old days, BC (before computers), you could get away with starting a research paper or a grant proposal with the phrase ‘‘little is known about ’’ and filling in the blank Now, with online databases, you simply can’t that Chapter is about research design and the experimental method You should come away from chapter with a tendency to see the world as a series of natural experiments waiting for your evaluation Chapters 6, 7, and are about sampling Chapter is an introduction to Subject Index T-scores, 591 t-test, two sample, 595–98; test for statistical significance, 597–98 24-hour recall test, 297, 418 two-group posttest-only design without random assignment, 126, 126–28 two-group pretest-posttest design without random assignment, 122, 122–23 two-group pretest-posttest with random assignment, 118–21, 120 Two Leggings (Crow man), 472 two-tailed test, 584 Tylor, Edward, 516 Type I error, 586–87 Type II error, 586–87 unconstrained pile sort method See free pile sorts unidimensional variables, 29–30, 321, 335 unique identifier, 552 unitizing, 510 units of analysis, 49–52; ecological fallacy, 51–52; rule about, 51 univariate analysis, 549; chi-square test, 591–92, 593; coding and, 550–55; dispersion measures, 580–84; distribution, visualization of, 572–80; frequency distribution, 558–60, 558–61, 566; raw data, 555–58 Unobtrusive Measures (Webb), 445 unobtrusive observation: disguised field observation, 437–44; ethics, 448 See also participant observation; indirect observation unstandardized regression coefficients, 666 unstructured interviewing, 210, 211–12, 213–17; case example, 213–15; initial steps, 215; language, importance of, 224–25; pacing, 225; practice, 223–24; presentation of self, 226–27; probing, 217–23; respondents, han- 789 dling of, 216–17, 222–23; voice recording and, 227–32 See also interviewing Urban Life and Culture, 346 validity, 28, 53; determination of, 56–60; of focus groups, 236–37; internal vs external validity, 113; participant observation and, 354–56; problem with, 60; of statistical significance testing, 640–44 See also threats to validity value neutrality, 372 values, 35–37 variables, 28–29; antecedent variables, 63, 607; character variables, 555; conceptual definitions of, 37–40; dependent vs independent, 34–35; dichotomous variables, 30–33; dummy variables, 496, 623; interval and ratio variables, 47–48; intervening variables, 63, 607; major kinds of, 90–91; multidimensional variables, 29–30; nominal variables, 45–47; ordinal variables, 47; qualitative variables, 556; transforming variables, 634–35; unidimensional variables, 29–30, 321 variance, 581–82; accounting for, 630–31 video, 423–25 Vienna Circle of logical positivists, 18–19 vignettes, 291–92 voice recognition software, 231–32 Voltaire, 11 Wah’Kon-Tah (Mathews), 471 Watergate experiment, 142–43 The Way to Rainy Mountain (Momaday), 471–72 WCJ (World Cultures Journal), 518 Web of Science, 97, 98–100 weighting, 156, 663 Whyte, W F., 197 790 Wentz, Frances Thundercloud, 473 Werner, Oswald, 299 Wichita Study, 163–65 Wilder, Douglas, 241 William of Ockham, 59 Williams, Holly, 230 Williams, Reverend Samuel, 10 Windelband, Wilhelm, 81 Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, 289 withholding of treatment, 141 within-group variance, 598, 599, 600; minimizing, 154 word lists, 495 World Cultures Journal (WCJ), 518 world systems theory, 65 Subject Index Wright, Sewall, 670 writing, participant observation and, 368 ␹2 See chi-square Xiloj, Andre´s, 476–77 Xime´nez, Francisco, 476 Young and Garro’s decision tables, 527–30 Yule’s Q, 620–21 Zapotec children Study, 415–18 zero-order correlation, 659, 660 zero point, 48 z-scores, 171, 590–91 Zwickler, Thomas, 377 Author Index Numbers in italics refer to figures and tables Abel, M H., 92 Abelson, R P., 480 Adair, J., 467 Adams, K., 85 Addams, J., 18 Agar, M., 198, 359, 367 Ahrentzen, S., 61 Aiello, J R., 441 Akkerboom, H., 283 Aldridge, D., Alexander, J., 300 Algase, D L., 414 Al-Krenawi, A., 192 Allen, J T., 495 Allport, F H., 449 Al-Nuaim, A A., 158 Altmann, J., 417 Altorki, S., 374 American Statistical Association, 281 Anderson, A B., and E S Anderson, 158 Anderson, C A., 64 Anderson, M., 465, 466 Andrews, F M., 340 Angrosino, M V., 343 Aquilino, W S., 243, 259 Archer, D., 445 Aronson, E., 130 Arp, W., III, 93 Ashkenazi, M., 376 Ashton-Vouyoucalos, S., 127, 504–5, 506 Associated Press, 424 Aunger, R., 50–51, 240 Axinn, W G., 240, 267 Ayres, I., 438 Bachman, J G., 283 Baker, J., 94 Baker, R., 211, 232 Baksh, M., 410–11 Bales, R F., 420, 421 Balicki, A., 466–67 Barber, N., 518 Barker, J C., 343 Barnes, J H., 253 Barroso, J., 190 Barry, H., III, 61, 85–86, 518 Bartlett, F C., 109 Bartlett, K., 444 Basiotis, P P., 91 Bassuk, E L., 194–95 Baumgartner, R., 285 Beautrais, A L., 194 Bechky, B A., 93 Bechtel, R B., 414 Bechtel, R J., 515 Beck, A T., 259 Beck, C T., 278 Becker, H S., 346 Begley, S., 264 Belk, R W., 94, 195 Belo, J., 465 Belter, R W., 341 791 792 Bem, S L., 32 Bercovici, S., 290 Berk, R., 291 Berman, J., 465 Bermant, G., 10 Bernard, H R., 3, 55, 64, 67, 71, 91, 127, 157, 161, 214, 291, 347, 368, 389, 401, 429, 467–68, 469–70, 478–79, 479, 494, 506, 552, 556, 589, 596, 616, 693 Berra, Y., 413 Berreman, G D., 350 Berry, J., 327 Bessinger, J B., 495 BeVier, C S., 281 Bickel, R., 35 Bielawski, D., 92 Bieri, D., 341 Billiet, J., 266 Birdwell-Pheasant, D., 458, 459 Black, D., 414 Blair, E., 269 Blalock, H M., Jr., 640 Boas, Franz, 360 Bochner, S., 139–40 Boeckelman, K., 93 Boelen, W A M., 198 Bogdan, R., 366, 387 Bohannan, Paul, 469 Bolton, R., 387 Booth, C., 18 Borgatti, S P., 299, 301, 310, 314, 326, 547, 556, 589, 616, 683 Borgerhoff-Mulder, M B., 427 Boruch, R F., 122 Boserup, E., 84–85, 108 Boster, J S., 56, 85, 202, 305, 311, 313, 314 Bourgois, P I., 343, 347–48, 354, 372 Bowman, K H., 153 Boyle, E., Jr., 638 Bradburn, N M., 239, 247, 248, 249, 260, 269, 272, 282, 296 Bradley, C., 377–78 Brent, E E., 414 Author Index Brettell, C B., 448 Brewer, D D., 248, 249, 301–2 Bridge, R G., 123–24 Bridgman, P W., 44 Brief, A P., 341 Briere, J., 93 Brislin, R W., 277, 361 Britt, C., 128 Brock, J K.-U., 258 Browne, K E., 190 Brugge, D M., 148 Bryant, C., 20 Burling, R., 360, 544 Burton, M L., 309, 310, 310, 311 Butler-Smith, P., 512 Cahn, P S., 290 Cahnman, W J., 152 Cameron, S., 512 Campbell, D T., 114, 122, 123, 134–35, 277 Campbell, G R., 449 Cannell, C F., 217, 239, 247, 270 Cantril, H., 339, 339 Caplan, P J., 75, 89 Carey, J W., 267, 514 Carlson, R A., 512 Carneiro, R L., 324 Caro, T M., 427 Carver, R P., 640 Caserta, M S., 264–65 Cassell, J., 375 Cassidy, R C., 46 Casson, R., 480 Casterline, J B., 243 Chadsey-Rusch, J., 414 Chagnon, N., 379 Chambers, R., 352 Chan, A., 545 Chapkis, W., 440 Chapman, P., 120 Chapple, E D., 415 Chick, G., 433, 434 Chidambaram, V C., 243 Author Index Choi, N., 33 Chomsky, N., Cialdini, R B., 135 Claiborne, W., 83 Cliggett, L., 290 Clignet, R., 65 Coambs, R B., 92 Cobb, W J., 217, 240 Cochran, W G., 183 Cohen, A., 92 Cohen, J., 513, 640, 644 Cohen, S P., 420 Cohen-Kettenis, P T., 46 Cohn, E G., 64–65, 634, 634 Colby, B N., 520 Cole, D., 392 Cole, M., 252 Coleman, J S., 17 Collins, A., 512 Colson, E., 290 Comitas, L., 127, 157, 693 Comte, A., 13 Conaway, M E., 374 Connolly, M., 211 Conrad, F G., 256 Converse, J M., 219, 222 Cook, T D., 123 Cooke, C A., 91 Corbin, J., 402–4, 492, 493, 499 Corral-Verdugo, V., 93 Cowan, G., 509 Crabb, P B., 92 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 156, 432 Curtice, J., 188 Dadds, M R., 414 Daly, M., 79 D’Andrade, R G., 247, 304, 308, 364, 494, 535, 538 Darley, J M., 131 Darwin, C., 414 Davis, D., 375 Davis, D W., 262 Davis, J A., 620 793 Davis, K., 129–30 Davis, N Z., de Ghett, V J., 690, 690 Dehavenon, A L., 424 Dei, Kojo A., 343 de Leeuw, E J., 259 Dellino, D., 62 Deloria, V., 360 de Rada, V D., 281 Descartes, R., DeVellis, R F., 330 DeWalt, K M., 374 Dickerson, S S., 190 Dillman, D A., 261, 280, 283, 284 Dilthey, W., 21 Ditmar, H., 94 Divale, W T., 519 Dobkin de Rios, M., 349, 612, 613 Dohrenwend, B S., 210, 217 Donald, G., Jr., 415 Donnenwerth, G V., 91 Doob, A N., 136 Dordick, G A., 72–73 Doughty, P., 50 Dow, M M., 516 Dressler, W W., 31, 65–66, 308, 641 Drickamer, L C., 414 Drury, C C., 414 Dufour, D., 590–91 Dugdale, V., 253 Dugger, C W., 83 Dungy, C I., 317 Durkheim, E., 89, 638, 673 Dyk, W., 472 Dyk, W., and R Dyk, 472 Dyl, J., 93 Easlea, B., 10 Eckman, P., 414 Edgerton, R B., 89, 92, 289–90 Edmondson, B., 446 Edmonson, M S., 478 Edwards, M., 287 Eibl-Eiblsfeldt, I., 423 794 Eisenstein, E., Ekman, P., 341 El Guindi, F., 466–67 Elifson, K., 361–62 El-Solh, C Fawzi, 374 Ember, C R., and M Ember, 516, 518 Emerson, R M., 391 Erasmus, C J., 426 Erdoes, R., 472 Erikson, K T., 440–41 Erlich, L., 445 Evans, M J., 389 Evans-Pritchard, E E., 369–70, 375 Farnell, B., 421–22, 484 Farringdon, J M., and M G Farringdon, 495 Feigl, H., 19 Feldman, R E., 138–39 Fenton, J., 314 Festinger, L A., 64 Fetterman, D., 366 Fink, J C., 252 Finkel, S E., 241 Finkler, K., 134 Fisher, R A., 692 Fjellman, S M., 458, 460, 460 Fleisher, M., 343, 348 Flores, E., 305, 444 Fluehr-Lobban, C., 74, 75 Foster, G., 290, 401 Fowler, F J., 247, 279 Fox, R J., 281, 283 Frake, C O., 538, 541 Frank, S H., 414 Freeman, D., 360 Freeman, L C., 247 Freilich, M., 198, 389–90 Frisancho, A R., 591 Fry, D P., 415–18 Fuqua, D R., 33 Gable, R K., 278 Gaito, J., 638 Galilei, Galileo, Author Index Gans, L P., 694 Garagiola, J., 413 Garrett, S B., 248, 249 Garro, L C., 305, 522, 527–30, 528, 529, 530 Gatewood, J B., 303–4, 522 Gaulin, S C., 85 Gearing, J., 349 Geertz, C., 23, 425, 436 Gerard, H B., 131 Gilens, M., 91 Gilly, M C., 509–10 Gittelsohn, J., 425 Gladwin, C H., 522, 523 Gladwin, H., 458, 460, 460, 522 Glaser, B G., 492, 493, 503 Glaser, J M., 91 Glass, G V., 107 Glazer, M., 439–40 Godoy, R., 92, 554 Goffman, E., 480 Goldberg, D., 343 Golde, P., 374 Goldsen, J M., 507 Goldstein, M C., 83, 84 Goălge, Z B., 91 Gonzalez, N S., 375 Gonzalez, P., 414 Good, K., 348–49, 430 Goode, E., 512 Goodenough, W., 306–7, 542 Goodman, L., 618 Goodwin, C., 487 Gooren, L J G., 46 Gorden, R L., 211, 217, 225 Gottschalk, L A., 515 Gould, R A., 445 Gove, S., 352 Graham, L R., 422, 484 Graham, M A., 354–55 Graves, T D., 441, 667–68 Gravlee, C C., 31, 254 Greenwald, A G., 640 Gregor, T., 614, 614 Author Index Gregson, S., 93 Grieco, E M., 46 Griffin, J H., 437 Grimshaw, J., 420 Gross, A E., 136 Gross, D R., 83, 84, 425, 427, 431 Guba, E G., 494 Guest, G., 326 Guilmet, G M., 414 Gujarati, D N., 672 Guttman, L., 324 Hadaway, C K., 91 Hall, E T., 441 Halpin, M., 465, 466 Hammel, E A., 316 Handwerker, W P., 80, 86, 161, 353, 596, 663, 678, 678–80, 679, 680 Hanks, William, 478 Hansen, A., 339–40 Hansley, W E., 284 Harari, H., 136, 141 Hargreaves, D J., 94 Harrington, J P., 534 Harris, M., 12, 85, 132–33 Harrison, A., 341 Harrison, E., 293–94 Harrison, G G., 447 Harshbarger, C., 162, 601–2 Hartman, D A., 449 Hartman, J J., 163, 165 Hartmann, D P., 425 Hatch, D., and M Hatch, 152 Hauser, R M., 289 Hayek, F A von, 20 Hazan, A R., 93 Heath, D B., 221 Heberlein, T A., 285 Heckathorn, D D., 193–94 Hedblom, J., 163, 165 Hedican, E J., 542 Helm, J., 449 Hemmings, A B., Henderson, J., 534 795 Henley, N M., 302–3 Henry, G T., 168 Henry, J., 415, 417 Herbert, S., 450 Herdt, G., 343 Herna´ndez Jime´nez, A., 466 Herzfeld, M., 474–75 Herzog, A R., 283 Hewett, P C., 253, 260 Hiatt, L R., 83 Hielscher, S., 89 Hirschman, E C., 510–11 Hochstim, J R., 260 Hodge, L G., 590–91 Holbrook, A L., 257 Holland, D., 72 Horn, W., 248 Hornik, J., 131–32 Horowitz, I L., 74 Houck, L D., 414 House, J S., 285 Houseman, M., 300 Howell, N., 376, 377, 449 Huberman, A M., 388, 402, 403, 457, 494, 495, 497 Hughes, W W., 446, 448 Hume, L., 343 Humphreys, L., 439 Hunt, M M., 108 Hunt, P S., 346 Hursh-Ce´sar, G., 268 Hutchins, E., 481 Hutt, S J., and C Hutt, 414 Hyman, H H., 217, 240 Hymes, D., 475–76, 544 Hymes, V., 476 Ibeh, K I N., 258 ICMR (Institute for Coastal and Marine Resources), 305 Italie, G., 495 Ives, E., 230 Ivis, F J., 269 Jackson, B., 230 Jacobson, L., 244 796 Jacoby, H., 65 James, J E., 607 Jamieson, P., 65 Jargowsky, P A., 52 Jefferson, G., 487 Jenkins, C., 602 Jensen, P M., 92 Jobe, J B., 249 Johnson, A., 401, 427–28, 430, 434 Johnson, J C., 193, 305–6, 314 Johnson, M., 482 Johnson, R K., 91, 297 Johnstone, B K F., 264 Johnstone, B M., 126 Jones, D J., 358 Jones, M., 340 Jones, S E., 441 Joravsky, D., Jordan, B., 342, 424 Jorgensen, D., 371 Jussaume, R A., Jr., 281, 284 Kahn, R L., 217, 239 Kallan, J E., 92 Kane, E W., 242 Kaplan, D., 414 Kaplowitz, M D., 255 Kasl, S V., 93 Kasser, T., 259 Katsurada, E., 33 Katz, D., 239 Katz, K., 244 Kearney, M H., 500–503, 502 Keesing, R M., 472 Keith, J., 340 Kemper, R V., 290, 350, 401 Kemph, B T., 259 Kempton, W., 91, 481, 556, 615 Kendall, C., 313, 542 Kent, R N., 425, 435 Kenyatta, J., 471 Ketterer, M W., 607 Kiecker, P., 263 Kilbride, P L., 369 Author Index Killworth, P D., 71, 214, 347, 401, 429 Killworth, P R P., 343, 390 Kimball, S T., 397, 400 Kinsey, A C., 276 Ki, Adam, 208–9 Kleinman, A., 89 Kluckhohn, K., 217 Kneidinger, L M., 414 Knodel, J., 234, 236 Koivusaari, R., 420 Koocher, G P., 440, 443 Kortendick, O., 326–27, 341, 510 Kraemer, H C., 643 Kreiss, L., 401, 403 Krieger, L., 371 Krippendorf, K., 510, 515 Kroeber, A L., 300, 449 Kronenfeld, D B., 300, 364 Krosnick, J A., 256, 269, 281 Krueger, R A., 233, 237, 238 Kruskal, W., 618 Kubey, R W., 432 Kulick, D., 376 Kunitz, S J., 644, 645, 646 Kunovich, R S., 121 Kurasaki, K S., 496, 497 Laban Moogi Gwako, E., 353 Labovitz, S., 638, 640, 646 Ladd, E C., 153 La Flesche, F., 471 Lakoff, G., 482 Lame Deer, J., 472 Landauer, T K., 517 La Pierre, R T., 246 Laraia, B A., 93 Larson, R., 156, 432 Lastrucci, C L., Latane´, B., 131 Laurent, C., 157–58 Lave, C A., 667–68 Lazarsfeld, P F., 232–33, 649 Lea, K L., Leach, E R., 300, 355 Author Index Leap, W., 376 LeCompte, M D., 355, 414 Lees, S H., 82 Leggett, J C., 241 Lehman, F K., 300 Lehner, P N., 414 Leith, L M., 121–22 Lenski, G E., 241 Leslie, P W., 248 Levine, R V., 396, 442, 444 Levinson, D., 518–19 Levy-Storms, L., 159 Lewin, E., 376 Lewis, O., 34 Lieberman, D., 308 Lieske, J., 676 Lightcap, J L., 79 Likert, R., 327 Lincoln, Y S., 494 Lindeman, M., 32–33 Lininger, C A., 217, 267–68, 268 Livingstone, S., 693 Locke, J., 11 Loether, H J., 618 Lofland, L H., 216, 220, 453, 503 Loftin, C., 128 Loftus, E F., 249 Loosveldt, G., 266 Lowe, J W G., and E D Lowe, 449 Lowie, R H., 361 Lowrey, T M., 92 Lucretius Carus, Titus, Lueptow, L B., 242 Lunt, P., 693 Lurie, N., 472–73 Lynd, R S., and H M Lynd, 346 Maercklein, G H., 607 Mahaffy, K A., 191 Malinowski, B., 344–45, 392 Manzo, J., 488 Marburger, W., 249 Margolis, M., 454, 507–8 Markowitz, F., 376 797 Marquis, G S., 436 Marriott, B., 348 Martin, J., 65 Martı´nez, H., 531–34, 532, 533 Matarazzo, J., 219 Mathews, H F., 50, 483–84 Mathews, J J., 471 Mathewson, G C., 131 Matland, R E., 65 Max-Planck Institute, 16 McCall, G., 414 McCarroll, J E., 92 McCaulay, L J., 242 McCormick, E J., 274 McDonald, D D., 123–24 McGue, M., 92 McSpadden, L A., 339–40 McTavish, D G., 618 Mead, M., 360–61, 373 Means, B., 249 Meh, C C., 414 Mehta, R., 94 Mensch, I N., 415, 417 Merton, R K., 217, 232–33 Metzger, D G., 538 Meyerhoff, B., 373 Middlemist, R D., 442–43 Miles, M B., 388, 402, 403, 404, 457, 494, 495, 497 Milgram, S., 75, 76, 136, 137 Mill, J S., 13–14, 18 Miller, A S., 92 Miller, K W., 161 Miller, L L., 384–86 Mills, J., 130–31 Minton, A P., 91 Mitchell, R., 243 Mizes, J S., 284 Momaday, N S., 471–72 Mona´rrez-Espino, J., 305 Moore, R P., 242 Morchio, G., 223 Morgan, D L., 233, 237 Morgan, L H., 82, 300 798 Morin, R., 281 Morrison, M., and T Morrison, 108 Morse, J M., 510 Mulcahy, F D., 450 Mulcock, J., 343 Murdock, G P., 85, 400, 468, 470, 516, 518 Murphy, G P., 447 Murray, S O., 343 Murray, T., 76 Murtagh, M., 418–19 Mwango, E., 62, 668–69 Nabokov, P., 472 Nachman, S R., 200 Nakamura, T., 92 Nare´, C., 244 Naroll, R., 350, 361, 519 National Cancer Institute, 127 Nave, A., 265 Nederhof, A J., 281 Neihardt, J., 472 Nelson, J E., 263 Nerlove, S B., 309, 310, 310 Newman, K S., 504 Niebel, B W., 17, 414 Nies, M A., 340 Nightingale, F., 18 Nkwi, P N., 235 Nock, S L., 291 Nooney, J G., 91 North, A C., 94 Nyamongo, I K., 496, 498–99 Oberg, K., 380 Oboler, R S., 428, 430 O’Brian, R., 434 O’Brien, M., 509 O’Brien, T O., 253 Ogburn, W F., 20 Ogilvie, D M., 520 Osgood, C E., 336 Oskenberg, L., 262 Otnes, C., 92 Author Index Otterbein, K., 516 Oyuela-Caycedo, A., 165–66, 166, 167 Paddock, J., 508 Pagliari, C., 420 Papadopoulos, F C., 130 Paredes, J A., 83–84 Partridge, W T., 397, 400 Patel, J D., 127 Pauli, J., 359 Pausewang, S., 246 Paxon, H., Payne, S L., 271 Pearson, J., 418 Pelto, G H., 352 Pelto, P J., 64 Pelto, P J., and G H Pelto, 196 Perchonock, N., 314, 315 Pericliev, V., 542 Peters, D L., 274 Petersen, L R., 91 Peterson, L., 259 Peterson, M., 126 Peterson, R A., 243 Pfeiffer, J., 195 Phillips, M., 440 Piliavin, I M., 136, 141 Plattner, S., 461, 462 Poggie, J J., 201, 201, 668 Pollock, P H., 128 Potter, P B., 445 Powdermaker, H., 372, 390 Prebisch, R., 39 Presser, S., 239, 250, 264, 269 Price, D H., 82, 350 Proctor, S P., 92 Puccio, E M., 607 Quandt, S A., 374 Que´telet, A., 12, 18 Quinn, N., 482–83, 522 Radin, P., 360, 466 Ragin, C C., 545 Rappaport, R., 376 Author Index Rashid, R G., 121 Rathje, W L., 446–47, 448 Reboussin, D., 278 Reed, T W., 217 Reese, S D., 241 Reiss, A J., Jr., 414 Repp, A C., 435 Rhode, S., 239 Ribeiro, R P., 66 Ricci, J A., 435 Richards, A I., 293 Richardson, J., 449 Richardson, S A., 210, 217 Ricoeur, P., 23 Rindfleisch, A., 94 Ritenbaugh, C K., 447 Rivers, W H R., 300 Robbins, M C., 200–201 Roberson, L., 341 Roberts, J M., 312, 415, 416 Robinson, M B., and C E Robinson, 61 Robinson, W S., 51, 239 Rogoff, B., 431 Rohner, R., 199, 465 Romney, A K., 203, 204, 205, 207–8, 208, 209, 304, 308, 311, 313, 375 Rose, M G., 91, 478 Rosenberg, L., 194–95 Rosenberg, S D., 520 Rosenhan, D L., 438 Rosenthal, R., 244 Ross, H L., 134–35 Ross, M W., 254–55 Rossi, P H., 291 Roth, P L., 281 Rothschild, R F., 10 Rotton, J., 64–65, 143–45, 442, 634, 634 Rousseau, J.-J., 12 Roy, P., 268 Royal Anthropological Institute, 345–46 Royce, A P., 290, 350 Rozeboom, W., 640 Rubin, D B., 244 Rushforth, S., 542 799 Rutledge, E M., 620, 620 Ryan, G W., 494, 495, 531–34, 532, 533, 556, 589, 616 Sackett, R., 108 Sacks, H., 487, 489, 490 Sahlins, M., 108 Salant, P., 280 Salinas Pedraza, J., 467–68, 469–70, 478–79, 479 Salmon, M H., 77 Sanchez, M E., 223 Sandall, Roger, 199–200 Sands, K., 471 Sanjek, R., 389, 401 Sankoff, G., 306 Sarkodie, S., 437–38 Sarton, G., 12 SAUS, 16, 30, 57, 255 Savala, R., 471 Scaglion, R., 426–27, 430, 431 Schaeffer, N C., 239 Schank, R C., 480 Schegloff, E., 487, 490 Schensul, S L., 305 Scheper-Hughes, N., 342, 374 Scherer, S E., 441–42 Schiller, F C S., 21 Schlegel, A., 61, 85–86, 518 Schmeets, H., 283 Schober, M F., 256 Schuman, H., 219, 222, 239, 269 Schutz, A., 24 Schwarz, B., 607 Schwarz, N., 55, 239, 247, 249, 338 Schweizer, T., 545–48 Science, 214 Scribner, S., 252 Scudder, T., 290 Sechrest, L., 440, 444 Sexton, J D., 467 Shamdasani, P N., 233 Sharpe, R., 438 Shats, M., 143–45 800 Shaw, C R., 346 Shaw, S., 294, 294 Sheatsley, P B., 276 Sheets, J W., 172 Shelley, G A., 226, 398–99, 399, 407, 551 Sherry, J F., Jr., 343 Sherzer, J., 477–78, 479, 484 Shostak, M., 472 Simmons, L W., 472 Sirken, M G., 272 Skinner, B F., Skinner, D., 72 Skruppy, M., 93 Smith, C J., 297 Smith, L D., 19 Smith, M L., 107, 252 Smith, P C., 341 Smith, P H., 495 Smith, T W., 250, 259, 271, 338 Smits, J., 632–33, 633 Snider, J G., 336 Soifer, V., Sokolovsky, J., 602 Solomon, C., 342 Sommerfeld, J., 89 Sparrow, N., 188 Spector, P E., 328, 330 Spradley, J P., 211, 216, 220, 301, 537 Sproull, L S., 414 Squire, P., 279 Srinivas, M N., 381 Stearman, A M., 621, 622 Stein, J., 676 Stemmer, N., Sterk, C E., 372 Stevens, S S., 637–38 Steward, J H., 82–83 Stewart, D W., 233 Stewart, M A., 420 Stimson, R J., 217 Stinson, L., 250 Stockton, E., 401, 403 Stone, P J., 520 Author Index Stouffer, S., 65 Strathern, A., 472 Strauss, A., 402–4, 492, 493, 499, 503 Streib, G F., 218 Studlar, D T., 65 Stunkard, A., 414 Sturtevant, W C., 390 Sudman, S., 55, 247, 249, 272, 282, 296 Sugarman, J R., 155–56 Sugihara, Y., 33 Sugita, E., 87, 358–59 Sullivan, K A., 414 Sullivan, P., 361–62 Sundvik, L., 32–33 Swan, D C., 449 Sykes, R E., 414, 442 Synodinos, N E., 281 Szalai, A., 291 Tannen, D., 491 Taylor, H., 262 Taylor, S J., 383, 387 Tedlock, D., 476–77 Tesch, R., 510 Tewksbury, R., 94 Thiemann, S., 643 Thomas, J S., 670–72, 671 Thurman, Q., 285 Tinsley, H E., 187 Tooker, E., 109 Toth, J., 243 Toulmin, S E., Tourangeau, R., 259, 338 Tremblay, M., 200 Trent, R., 291 Trost, J E., 510 Trotter, R T., II, 303 Truex, G., 407–8 Turley, S K., 281 Turnbull, C., 215, 371, 375 Twenge, J M., 44, 45 Uchendu, V., 471 University of Michigan, 267 Urban, G., 484 Author Index Vadez, V., 55, 93 Valdez-Perez, R E., 542 van der Geest, S., 438 Van Maanen, J., 457, 457, 458 Vannatta, R A., 92 Vasquez, L A., 92 Vaughn, S., 233 Vieco Albarracı´n, J J., 165–66, 166, 167 Vieth, A Z., 91 Vincke, J., 338 Voltaire, 11 Wagley, C., 379, 382 Wainer, H., 640 Waitzkin, H., 485–86 Wallace, A F C., 365 Wallerstein, E M., 65 Wall Street Journal, 424 Wanous, J P., 341 Wapner, S., 93 Ward, T W., 290 Ward, V M., 236 Warner, W L., 346 Warren, C A B., 374 Warriner, K., 285 Warwick, D P., 217, 267–68, 268 Watson, O M., 441 Wax, R., 374, 379 Weatherford, J M., 440 Webb, B P., 346 Webb, E J., 445 Webb, S., and B P Webb, 18 Weeks, M F., 242 Weinberger, M., 188 Weisner, T., 193, 495 Weller, S C., 129–30, 207–8, 208, 209, 313, 317, 688, 688 Wells, G L., 250 Werblow, J A., 120 Werner, D., 327 Werner, O., 277, 314, 315 West, S G., 142 White, D R., 85, 300, 516, 518 White, K R., 108 White, L A., 82, 470 801 Whitehead, T L., 374 Whiting, B W., and J W M Whiting, 422–23 Whiting, J W M., 343, 517 WHO, 352 Whyte, W F., 197–98, 217, 222, 369 Wiederman, M., 512 Wiesel-Lev, R., 192 Wilke, J R., 26 Will, J A., 292 Willett, W C., 607 Williams, B., 125, 125, 295 Williams, G E., 538 Williams, H A., 348 Williams, T., 358 Willimack, D K., 281 Willis, F N., 512 Willms, D G., 494 Willson, M., 376 Wilson, D., 33 Wilson, M., 79 Wilson, R P., 234–35 Windelband, W., 81 Withey, S B., 340 Wittfogel, K A., 82 Wolcott, H., 224, 228, 369, 468, 469, 470 Wolf, D R., 350, 357 Wood, C S., 694 Wood, D D., 425 Woodbury, A., 479 Worth, S., 467 Wuthnow, R., 43 Yamada, S., 281, 284 Yammarino, F J., 280 Young, J C., 305, 522, 527–30, 528, 529, 530 Yu, X., 349 Zehner, R B., 240 Zhao, S., 264 Zinner, D., 414 Zipp, J F., 243 Zorbaugh, H W., 346 About the Author H Russell Bernard (Ph.D., University of Illinois, 1968) is professor of anthropology at the University of Florida He has also held faculty positions at Washington State University and West Virginia University and has taught or done research at the University of Athens, the University of Cologne, the National Museum of Ethnology (Osaka), the University of Michigan, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Dr Bernard works with indigenous people to develop publishing outlets for works in previously nonwritten languages He also does research in social network analysis, particularly on the problem of estimating the size of uncountable populations His book (with Je´ sus Salinas Pedraza) Native Ethnography: A Mexican Indian Describes His Culture (Sage, 1989) won special mention in the 1990 Chicago Folklore Prize Other books include Technology and Social Change (Waveland, 1983, 2d ed., edited with Pertti Pelto), three editions of Research Methods in Anthropology (Sage, 1988; AltaMira, 1994, 2000), Data Analysis with MYSTAT (McGraw-Hill, 1995, with W Penn Handwerker), Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology (AltaMira, 1998), and Social Research Methods (Sage, 2000) Dr Bernard received the 2003 Franz Boas Award from the American Anthropological Association for his service to the discipline He was editor of the journals Human Organization (1976–1981) and American Anthropologist (1981–1989), and he founded and currently edits the journal Field Methods He has worked since 1987 in NSF-supported research methods training programs He is one of the founders of the International Social Network Conference and serves on Board of Directors of the Human Relations Area Files 803 ... was interested in) and to human behavior (what Locke was interested in) In his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1996 [1690]), Locke reasoned that since we cannot see everything and since... gifts from children and other kin, gambling winnings, tax credits, interest on savings, wages paid entirely in cash (including tips), food stamps And don’t think it’s easier in out-of-the-way... how to train interviewers, the merits of face-to-face interviews vs selfadministered and telephone interviews, minimizing response effects, and so on Chapter 11 is about interviewing methods for