14 lawrence neuman social research methods qualitative and quantitative approaches

Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches W Lawrence Neuman Seventh Edition Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners ISBN 10: 1-292-02023-7 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02023-5 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed in the United States of America P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y Table of Contents Why Do Research? W Lawrence Neuman What Are the Major Types of Social Research? W Lawrence Neuman 25 Theory and Research W Lawrence Neuman 55 The Meanings of Methodology W Lawrence Neuman 91 How to Review the Literature Review and Conduct Ethical Studies W Lawrence Neuman 125 Strategies of Research Design W Lawrence Neuman 165 Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement W Lawrence Neuman 201 Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling W Lawrence Neuman 245 Experimental Research W Lawrence Neuman 281 10 Survey Research W Lawrence Neuman 315 11 Nonreactive Research and Secondary Analysis W Lawrence Neuman 367 12 Analysis of Quantitative Data W Lawrence Neuman 393 13 Field Research and Focus Group Research W Lawrence Neuman 431 I 14 Analysis of Qualitative Data W Lawrence Neuman 477 15 Writing the Research Report and the Politics of Social Research W Lawrence Neuman 513 16 Bibliography II W Lawrence Neuman 547 Index 587 Why Do Research? Alternatives to Social Science Research What Research Involves—A Scientific Approach Varieties of Social Research Steps in the Research Process Why Learn How to Conduct Social Research? Conclusion The sociologist, then, is someone concerned with understanding society in a disciplined way The nature of this discipline is scientific This means that what the sociologist finds and says about the social phenomena he studies occurs within a certain rather strictly defined frame of reference —Peter Berger, An Invitation to Sociology, p 16 I wrote this text to help you learn about how social scientists research and so you can conduct your own studies I consider two main issues in this chapter: why you should learn about doing social research and the basics of what social science research is all about Social science research is pervasive, and it affects your daily life as well as that of your family, friends, neighbors, and co-workers Findings from social science studies appear on broadcast news programs, in magazines and newspapers, and on many Web sites and blogs They cover dozens of topics and fields: law and public safety, schooling, health care, personal and family relations, political issues, and business activities as well as international and social trends We use the knowledge and principles of social science research, directly or indirectly, as we engage in relationships with family, friends, and co-workers, participate in community life or public policy, and make daily decisions in business, professional life, and health care Social research is not just for college classrooms and professors; high school teachers, parents, business owners, advertis- ers, managers, administrators, officials, service providers, health care professionals, and others use its findings and principles They use them to raise children, reduce crime, manage health concerns, sell products or services, digest news events, and so forth There is little doubt about the importance and centrality of social science research Despite scattered criticism to the contrary, research is highly relevant for understanding social life generally and to the decisions you make each day To see the practical relevance of social research, let us consider a couple raising a three-year-old child One study (Wrigley and Derby, 2005) found that paid child care is quite safe but also discovered striking differences in fatality rates across various types of care Center-based care is far safer than care provided in private homes Another study (Bridges et al., 2007) showed that center-based care significantly raises a child’s reading and math scores, but it has a negative effect on sociobehavioral measures (e.g., the child exhibits less cooperation, more aggression) Children who start at ages two to three get the largest benefit rather From Chapter of Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 7/e W Lawrence Neuman Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education Published by Allyn & Bacon All rights reserved WHY DO RESEARCH? than younger or older children Active parental involvement with a child lessens any negative behavioral consequences from child care Another study (Love et al., 2003) showed that child care centers vary widely in quality Quality of care makes a bigger difference than amount of time in care or whether parents or a care center is providing the care Another study (Sosinsky, Lord, and Zigler, 2007) learned that care center quality was generally higher in nonprofit, nonreligiously affiliated centers than other types Based on these findings, a couple may decide to look for a specific type of child care center, devote time to checking into the quality of care it offers, and make special efforts to encourage their child’s social skill development The studies are not only relevant for specific parents but also have implications for public policy and how a community addresses child care issues Social science research yields valuable information and expands our understanding, but it is not 100 percent foolproof It does not guarantee perfect results every time or offer “absolute truth.” This may be why some people distrust research-based knowledge or why some people, including a few media commentators, even ridicule professional researchers and study results Despite some derision, in a head-to-head comparison with the alternative ways we can learn about the world and make decisions, research readily wins hands-down This is why professionals, educated people, and responsible leaders consistently turn to the methods, principles, and findings of social research when they want to learn more or make important decisions This text considers both the methodology and methods of social science research The terms may seem to be synonyms, but methodology is broader and envelops methods Methodology means understanding the entire research process—including its social-organizational context, philosophical assumptions, ethical principles, and the political impact of new knowledge from the research enterprise Methods refer to the collection of specific techniques we use in a study to select cases, measure and observe social life, gather and refine data, analyze data, and report on results The two are closely linked and interdependent Reading and doing social research can be exciting: It is a process of discovery in which we learn many new things Doing social science research requires persistence, personal integrity, tolerance for ambiguity, interaction with others, and pride in doing top-quality work It also requires logical thinking, carefully following rules, and repeating steps over and again In the research process, we join theories or ideas with facts in a systematic way We also use our creativity To conduct a study, we must organize and plan We need to select research methods appropriate to a specific question We must always treat the study participants in an ethical or moral way In addition, we need to communicate to others how we conducted a study and what we learned from it In this chapter, we consider some alternatives to social science research and why research is preferred We next examine how the enterprise of scientific research works, including the steps in doing a research study and types of social science studies ALTERNATIVES TO SOCIAL SCI ENCE RES EARCH In this section, we look at four commonly used alternatives to social science research that many people rely on to acquire knowledge and make decisions: Personal experience and common sense Experts and authorities Popular and media messages Ideological beliefs and values Knowledge from Personal Experience and Common Sense If something happens to us, if we personally see it or experience it, we probably accept it as true Personal experience or “seeing is believing” is a powerful type of knowledge Unfortunately, it can also lead us astray Something similar to an optical illusion or mirage can occur What appears to be true actually is due to an illusion, yet the power of immediacy and direct personal contact is so strong that we easily fall for illusions without even realizing it WHY DO RESEARCH? This is why many people insist on believing what they personally experience rather than what they learn by reading a carefully conducted research study that was designed to avoid the errors of personal experience This is especially true when research studies contradict what personal experience or common sense tell us Moreover, errors of personal experience reinforce each other A few people even purposely use the distortions of personal experience to mislead others through propaganda, cons or fraud, magic tricks, political manipulation, and advertising gimmicks Entire subfields of research are devoted to uncovering the ways we misjudge, over- or underestimate, and make mistakes Here is an example: Women tend to stick with skin creams that not work Moreover, the less effective a beauty product or treatment, the more likely they will keep using it These are the findings of a study of 300 women, ages 27 to 65, who were trying to achieve a more youthful appearance by using creams, vitamins, and other beauty treatments The findings were not what we might expect: The women were most loyal to products and treatments when they didn’t work! Among women who felt that the treatments were not working, 27 percent stopped using them Among women who felt the treatments were successful, 55 percent stopped using them The researchers think the women keep doing something that did not work because when people don’t feel good about themselves, fear is a more powerful motivator than success Fear about looking older spurred the women to keep trying even when products don’t work.1 While studies that uncover our tendency to misjudge are fun to read, they point to a general principle: Everyday reasoning and perceptions are imperfect and subject to error More significantly, we rarely notice or catch such errors right away if at all Knowledge from personal experience, common sense “facts,” and reasoning might be correct, but they can lead us astray (see Expansion Box 1, What We Think We Will Do and What We Actually Do) For example, common sense says that distributing free condoms in high schools will encourage teens to engage in sexual activity or that imposing harsh punishment, such as the death penalty, EXPANSION BOX What We Think We Will Do and What We Actually Do Social scientists note a paradox: Most people strongly condemn overt racism, yet acts of blatant racism still occur To examine this, Kawakami and associates (2009) conducted an experiment They thought perhaps people inaccurately estimate what they would feel and if they were to witness racism To examine this, they asked non-Black students how they would feel and what they thought they would if a racist act occurred Most predicted that they would be very upset However, when the researchers staged a racist act in front of them, most of the students showed little distress Most said they would avoid a person who made a crude racist comment, but again what people said did not match their actual behavior Study results suggest that one reason racism continues is that many people who believe they would feel upset or take action actually respond with indifference when an act of racism actually occurs Apparently, we are not good at predicting how we will act in real situations when they happen decreases violent crimes—yet numerous studies suggest that both of these beliefs are false Most people think an eyewitness account of a crime is ideal, but studies show they are highly inaccurate Many of us worry about tragic accidents and horrific events, such as a plane crash or a school shooting However, we tend to worry about the “wrong” things because our estimates of something happening are far from actual probabilities based on careful studies Likewise, we can be misled by surface appearances Many people purchased a large, powerful-looking SUV for its safety at a time when crash tests and accident records showed SUVs to be less safe than many meeker looking cars.2 Erroneous “common sense” misperceptions have real consequences Moreover, the media often repeat and spread the misperceptions, schools or businesses make decisions based on them, and lawmakers and politicians advance new laws or policies founded on them We often make the following WHY DO RESEARCH? five errors in our everyday decisions, but the research process tries to reduce such errors Overgeneralization Selective observation Premature closure Halo effect False consensus Overgeneralization occurs when we have some believable evidence and then assume that it applies to many other situations as well Note the word “over.” Generalization can be appropriate but it is limited We can generalize a small amount of evidence to a broader situation but only if we so with great care Unfortunately, many of us tend to generalize far beyond what is acceptable with limited evidence We often generalize from what we know to unknown areas For example, over the years, I have personally known five people who are blind All of them were very outgoing and friendly Can I conclude that all people who are blind are friendly? Do the five people with whom I had personal experience fully represent all people on the planet who are blind? Selective observation is slightly different than overgeneralization It occurs when we take special notice of certain people or events and then generalize from them Most often we focus on particular cases or situations, especially when they fit preconceived ideas We also tend to seek out Overgeneralization Statement that goes far beyond what can be justified based on the data or empirical observations that one has Selective observation Process of examination in a way that reinforces preexisting thinking rather than in a neutral and balanced manner Premature closure Act of making a judgment or reaching a decision and ending an investigation before gathering the amount or depth of evidence required by scientific standards Halo effect Occurrence that allows the prior reputation of persons, places, or things to color one’s evaluations rather than evaluating all in a neutral, equal manner evidence that confirms what we already believe At the same time, most of us tend to overlook the entire range of cases We often dismiss contradictory information as being an exception we can ignore For example, I believe people who are overweight are more outgoing and friendly than thin people My belief comes from stereotypes learned from my parents and media sources I observe people who are overweight and, without being aware, pay more attention to their smiling, laughing, and so on I notice thin people more when they are looking serious, distracted, or angry Without realizing it, I notice people and situations that reinforce my preconceived way of thinking Studies also document our tendency to “seek out” and distort memories to make them more consistent with what we already think Premature closure operates with and inforces the first two errors It occurs when we feel we have the answer and no longer need to listen, seek information, or raise questions For practical purposes, at some point, we need to stop gathering information and come to a decision Unfortunately, most of us are a little lazy or get a little sloppy We gather a small amount of evidence or look at events for a short time and then think we have it figured out We look for evidence to confirm or reject an idea and stop after getting a small amount of evidence and jump to conclusions The halo effect occurs when we overgeneralize from what we believe to be highly positive or prestigious We give a halo to, or a positive reputation to, things or people we respect This halo “rubs off” on other things or people about which we know little Thus, I pick up a report by a person from a prestigious university, say, Harvard or Cambridge University I assume that the author is smart and talented, and I expect the report to be excellent I not make the same assumption about a report written by someone from Unknown University I form an opinion in advance, and I not approach each report on its own merits alone Perhaps a celebrity or person I trust endorses a product or political candidate about which I know little I use my positive feelings as a substitute for doing the work of finding out for myself or as a shortcut when making decisions WHY DO RESEARCH? False consensus is a psychological effect documented by dozens of studies (Marks and Miller, 1987) It suggests that we are not good at distinguishing between what we personally think and what we think most other people believe In short, we tend to see the views of most other people as being similar to our own views This is not a matter of purposely conforming to and copying a crowd perspective Rather, most of us feel that our own views are “normal” or “ordinary” in comparison with others While this might be true, we greatly overestimate how much our views match those of other people In terms of social events and issues, studies suggest that most of us are not very good at judging the thoughts of people around us Social research helps address the errors of personal experience Research standards, rules, and principles are designed to reduce the misjudgment, bias, and distorted thinking that frequently occurs with personal experience Knowledge from Experts and Authorities Most of what we know probably comes from our parents, teachers, and experts as well as from books, film, television, the Internet, and other media Often we accept something as being true because someone with expertise or in a position of authority says it is so or because it appears in an authoritative, trusted source This is using authority as a basis of knowledge In many ways, relying on the wisdom of experts and authorities is a quick, simple, and inexpensive way to learn something An expert may spend a great amount of time to learn something, and we can benefit from that person’s experience and efforts Relying on experts has limitations, and it is easy to overestimate someone’s expertise Authorities may speak on fields they know little about; they can be plain wrong Someone with expertise in one area may extend his or her real authority to an unrelated area Using the halo effect, an expert on one area may illegitimately act as an authority in a different area Have you ever seen commercials in which a movie star or football hero tries to convince you to buy a product? Who decides who is or is not a genuine expert or authority? A person might become a “senior fellow” or “adjunct scholar” in a private “think tank” False consensus A tendency to project one’s way of thinking onto other people In other words, the person assumes that everyone else thinks like he or she does with an impressive name, such as the Center for the Scientific Study of X Some think tanks are legitimate research centers, but many are fronts for wealthy special-interest groups who want to engage in advocacy politics No regulations control the titles of think tanks, and anyone can become a “scholar” in the group Think tanks enable an “expert” to make authoritative statements to the mass media, giving the impression of being neutral and knowledgeable Such people may lack real expertise and make statements based on opinion or ideology, not on research.3 Later in this chapter, you will read about how the scientific community operates and how it determines who is a genuine expert Even if we locate legitimate experts in a specific field, they may disagree Perhaps you have heard the dozens of contradictory and confusing researchbased recommendations about health and diet You might ask what is so great about research if there is so much disagreement This situation happens because much of what fills the mass media using the words “research” or “scientific” does not involve scientific research Unfortunately, the media often use “research” when technically no real research backs a statement Nonetheless, scientists or experts not agree 100 percent of the time In many areas—the best diet, health practice, public policy, or climate change—there is some disagreement Later in this chapter, you will read about the principles of science and the operation of the scientific community and see how disagreement arises and is resolved as part of the process of scientific research More than finding an expert, it is important for us to learn how to think independently and evaluate research on our own Always relying on experts and authorities is not consistent with the principles of a free, democratic society Experts might promote ideas that strengthen their power and position We lose the ability to decide for ourselves if we follow only the authorities This is a reason to learn about research and acquire the skills so we can evaluate strong from weak studies BIBLIOGRAPHY Steinmetz, George (2005b) Scientific authority and the transition to post-Fordism: The plausibility of positivism in the U.S sociology since 1945, in The politics of method in the human sciences: Positivism and its epistemological others, edited by George Steinmetz, pp 275–323 Durham, NC: Duke Univerisity Press Stephens, John (1989) Democratic transition and breakdown in western Europe, 1870–1939: A test of the Moore thesis American Journal of Sociology, 94:1019–1077 Stephenson, Richard M (1978) The CIA and the professor: A personal account American Sociologist, 13: 128–133 Stern, Paul C (1979) Evaluating social science research New York: Oxford University Press Stevens, Carla, and Micah Dial, eds (1994) Preventing the misuse of evaluation New Directions for Program Evaluation, 64 San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Stevenson, Richard W (October 16, 1996) U.S to revise its estimate of layoffs New York Times Stewart, David W (1984) Secondary research: Information sources and methods Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Stewart, Donald E (1983) The television family Melborne: Institute of Family Studies Stimson, Gerry B (1986) Place and space in sociological fieldwork The Sociological Review, 34:641–656 Stinchcombe, Arthur L (1968) Constructing social theories New York: Harcourt, Brace and World Stinchcombe, Arthur L (1973) Theoretical domains and measurement, Part Acta Sociologica, 16:3–12 Stinchcombe, Arthur L (1978) Theoretical methods in social history New York: Academic Press Stinchcombe, Arthur L (2005) The logic of social research Chicago: University of Chicago Press Stoecker, Randy (1993) The federated frontstage structure and localized social movements: A case study of the Cedar-Riverside neighborhood movement Social Science Quarterly, 74: 169–184 Stoecker, Randy (1999) Are academics irrelevant? 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the NSF Sociological Inquiry, 54:188–210 585 586 Index Page references followed by "f" indicate illustrated figures or photographs; followed by "t" indicates a table A A factor, 191, 390 Aborigines, 120 abortion, 161, 175, 180, 241, 387 definition, 180, 241, 387 incidence of, 175 medical, 175 rate, 161, 180, 387 safety of, 161 statistics, 161, 387 Abstract thinking, 70, 77-78 Abuse, 22, 27-29, 33, 39-40, 100, 106, 128, 136, 146-150, 160, 175, 277, 376, 382 Acceptance, 10, 14-15, 51, 85, 96, 131, 183, 240, 242, 286 Accidents, 3, 6, 390 accommodation, 118 actor, 7, 104, 107, 113 adaptation, 66 Addiction, 24, 33, 136 Adolescence, 222, 386 Adolescents, 141, 386 Adulthood, 82, 386 Advertising, 3, 69, 178, 373 advocates, 7, 16, 34, 36, 138, 192-193, 281, 286, 290, 296-298 Affection, 60 Africa, 238 African Americans, 7, 19, 21, 40, 120, 169, 246, 262-263, 376, 385 Age, 9-10, 24, 29, 31, 38, 41, 84-85, 128, 141, 153, 174, 178, 193-194, 204-205, 212-213, 222, 224, 239-240, 249-252, 254, 262, 266, 270, 274, 276-277, 371, 373, 376-377, 381, 387-388 health and, 381 agency, 31, 33, 37, 96, 99, 102, 106, 110, 113, 118, 121, 156, 158, 160-161, 384, 387-388, 390 Aggravated assault, 226 Aggregate, 108, 155 Aggression, 1, 64, 69, 368, 376 Aging, 175, 371, 382 Agriculture, 8, 282, 384 AID, 33, 172, 202-203, 226 AIDS, 153, 276-277 Air pollution, 35 Alaska, 251, 382 Alcohol, 27, 39, 153, 175, 294-295, 370, 382, 386, 390 abuse, 27, 39, 175, 382 effects, 153, 386 Alcohol abuse, 27 Alcohol consumption, 295, 370 Alcoholism, 152, 381 alienation, 86, 203, 205, 208, 220 America, 52, 71-72, 98, 190, 263-264, 381, 385 American Psychological Association, 133-134 American Revolution, 217 American Sociological Association, 15, 146, 156, 242 ancestry, 62 and stratification, 24 Androgyny, 383 Anger, 6, 77, 177 Animals, 11, 157, 300 Anime, 63 anomie, 66 Anthropology, 8, 96, 124, 130-131, 134-135 Antisocial behavior, 87-88 Anxiety, 56, 138, 148-150, 163, 304, 309, 312 Appreciation, 195 approach, 1, 4, 8, 16-18, 20, 28, 32, 43-44, 52, 69-71, 85, 87, 92-93, 96-99, 102-103, 105-107, 109-110, 113-115, 117, 119-120, 122-124, 138-140, 142, 162, 167-168, 170-171, 177, 179-180, 185, 195, 198, 204, 218, 241-242, 248, 273, 282, 285-286, 310, 313, 368 Arguments, 21, 56, 86, 96, 153, 188 Arson, 150 ART, 9, 94, 103, 119-120, 178, 229, 371, 384 technology, 119 artifacts, 299-300, 312 Asia, 18 Asian immigrants, 377 Assessment, 11, 20, 28, 31-34, 53-54, 217 Assimilation, 18 Assumptions, 2, 9, 12, 35-36, 57-59, 61-62, 65, 68, 74, 85-87, 89, 92-98, 102, 104, 106, 108, 115, 118-120, 123, 127, 162, 167, 170, 173, 191, 195, 208, 221-223, 227, 269, 385, 390 Asthma, 35, 144 Athens, 197 Athletics, 87 Attachment, 35, 180 Attitude, 14, 16, 106, 123, 149, 180, 203, 208, 210, 214, 226, 230, 234-235, 309 positive, 210, 234 Attraction, 148 Australia, 122, 231, 252, 254, 380, 384-386, 389, 392 Authoritarian personality, 40 authority, 5, 7-9, 30-31, 60, 64, 66-67, 72, 146, 149, 164, 167, 216-217, 376 Automobile accidents, 390 Autonomy, 28, 36-37, 113, 118, 121, 123, 152, 210 Avoidance, 61 Awareness, 11, 28, 30, 32, 93, 116, 121-122, 139, 145, 153, 162, 206, 285, 372 B Baby boom, 45 Background assumptions, 62 Balance, 28, 34-35, 83, 86, 145, 147, 161, 173, 197, 251 Banks, 67, 274 Baptists, 141 base, 106, 191, 197, 229-231 Baseball, 88 Basketball, 12, 69, 173, 207 Battered women, 251 Beauty, 3, 34, 119 Becker, Howard, 246 behavior, 3, 6, 13, 18, 20, 27, 33, 36, 47, 51, 56, 72, 77, 85, 87-88, 93, 95, 97-106, 108-109, 112-115, 117, 125, 128, 133, 141, 143, 145-146, 148, 150-151, 153-154, 157-159, 166-167, 178-181, 188, 190-191, 206, 216-217, 219, 237, 247, 251, 276, 285-286, 302-305, 308-309, 312, 368-370, 383, 385 Behaviorism, 97, 286 Belgium, 228 beliefs, 2-3, 7-8, 10-12, 19-20, 40-41, 48-49, 56-57, 69-70, 77, 83-85, 94, 101-102, 104, 106-107, 111-115, 118-119, 121, 129, 149, 154, 173, 180, 182, 186, 189, 195-196, 206, 215-216, 225-226, 233, 284, 291, 378 Bell curve, 10 Berger, Peter, bias, 5, 99, 101, 190, 198, 233, 264, 300, 304, 310-312, 383, 388 Bible, 236 Bicyclists, bilingual, 386 Binge drinking, 251 Biological factors, 119 Biology, 8, 13, 15, 92, 96, 229 Birth, 45-46, 48, 111, 119, 205, 224, 369, 383-385, 387 Birth rates, 384 Black, 3, 9, 19, 45, 48, 72, 76, 80, 101, 142, 161, 168, 174-175, 196, 215, 246, 262, 271, 281, 296-297, 387 Black students, Blacks, 39, 80-81, 168, 196, 262, 297 Blue, 19, 44, 375, 380 Boards of directors, 274 Body, 10, 22, 49, 65, 83, 88, 94, 111, 126-127, 129, 166, 203-204, 249, 371 Bogardus, Emory, 235 Bogardus scale, 237 Bogardus social distance scale, 235, 237-238, 241 Bolivia, 52 borders, 142 Boundaries, 12, 29, 42, 64, 85, 113, 118, 158, 168, 197, 206-207, 217, 251-252, 285 Bourdieu, 57, 110, 124 Bourgeoisie, 67 boys, 88, 383 Brain, 222, 305 Brazil, 39 Brazilians, 39 Breast cancer, 32, 144 Britain, 97, 122, 231, 240, 380, 389 Bulgaria, 231 Bureau of Justice Statistics, 161 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 13, 227, 387, 389 Bureaucracies, 102, 387 bureaucracy, 65-66, 101, 180 Burglary, 176, 180, 226 Business, 1, 11, 13, 28, 31, 33-35, 39, 56, 72, 101, 108, 164, 185, 207, 210, 213, 234-235, 246, 252, 256, 305, 379, 384, 392 C California, 6, 32, 42, 100, 143, 168, 197, 253, 274, 382, 392 camps, 147 Cancer, 32, 144, 183, 205 capital, 40, 64, 66, 127, 164, 173, 175, 225 Capital punishment, 40, 173, 175 Capitalism, 66 Capitalist class, 67 capitalists, 67 care for, 112 Career, 11-13, 26, 31, 143, 145, 147, 255, 290, 384 careers, 12, 107, 150, 385 Caregiver, 166 Caring, Case studies, 42, 51, 119 casino gambling, 33 Casinos, 33 Category, 41, 44, 46, 137, 168, 174-175, 180, 196, 215, 225, 232, 243, 249-250, 262, 277-278, 387 Catholics, 189 Caucasian, 223 causality, 74-76, 78, 89, 99, 106, 113, 120, 181-182, 188, 191, 282, 292, 312-313, 389 Cause and effect, 78 Cell phones, 11 Censorship, 14, 161 census data, 45, 168, 246, 380-381 Change, 5, 8, 30-32, 44, 58-60, 67, 83, 85, 87, 98, 106, 108, 110-116, 118-119, 121-122, 125, 132, 142, 158, 172-173, 177, 180, 190, 202, 206, 212, 260, 267, 276, 284, 291, 299, 301, 311, 376, 383, 388 Changes, 26, 29-30, 38, 45, 52, 102, 106, 115, 137, 160, 164, 202, 286, 300-301, 370, 380, 388 Cheating, 14 Checks and balances, 101 Chicago, 20, 28, 42, 75, 100, 103, 125, 133, 154, 165, 169, 247, 297, 384, 392 Child abuse, 33, 39-40, 77-78, 100, 106, 175, 382 Child care, 1-2, 167, 390 child sexual abuse, 128 childcare, 203 Children, 1-2, 8, 29, 38-40, 60, 75, 77, 79, 112, 133, 147, 153, 159, 167, 175, 181-182, 192, 250, 259-260, 262, 283, 290, 300, 370, 373-374, 587 378-379, 383, 385, 390 African American, 147 China, 122, 231, 251 Chinese, 62, 71, 120, 197, 251 Christianity, 59 Christians, 19, 162 Chronicle of Higher Education, 163 Cigarette smoking, 133, 183 Cities, 6, 33, 41, 47-48, 74, 82, 197, 229, 251, 271, 277, 300, 369, 380 citizens, 21, 147, 231, 285, 381 Citizenship, 21, 381 Civic engagement, 47 civil rights, 80, 122, 149, 190 Civil Rights Act, 190 Civil Rights Act of 1964, 190 Civil rights movement, 190 class, 19, 37, 41, 51, 55, 63, 66-67, 72, 74, 76-77, 110, 112, 143, 162, 168-169, 173, 175, 188, 196, 205, 209-210, 213, 222, 227, 229-230, 238, 242, 249, 251, 286, 295-297, 304, 371 Class conflict, 209 Class consciousness, 210 Class system, 251 classroom, 16, 207, 222, 227, 238, 249, 254, 307 Clothing, 8, 108, 203, 212, 235, 298, 371, 375 Cocaine, 277 codes of ethics, 145, 147, 157-158, 162 Coercion, 86, 153 Cohabitation, 386 cohort, 26, 44, 46, 48, 50, 53 Cohorts, 46, 48 Cold War, 147 Coleman, 57, 75 collective action, 30, 211 Collective behavior, 383 College, 1, 12, 16, 18, 22, 25, 28, 45-46, 51, 65, 75, 83, 85, 130, 132-133, 135-136, 143, 147, 163, 173, 176, 185, 212-213, 216-217, 221-222, 227-228, 230, 238, 251-252, 262, 264, 266-267, 271, 274, 281, 283, 286-287, 306-309, 312, 368, 370, 381-382, 386 College students, 12, 16, 18, 136, 173, 213, 221, 238, 252, 262, 264, 286, 306, 312 Colleges, 12, 45, 151, 156, 176, 227-228, 256, 264, 266-267 colonialism, 82 Colony, The, 122 Columbine High School, 51 Command economy, 67 Commitment, 16, 100, 180, 216, 223 Commitments, 36, 84, 102, 109 Common sense, 2-3, 6, 8, 22, 96, 99, 106-107, 113-114, 121, 123, 205 Communication, 7, 24, 49, 82, 86, 103-104, 130-131, 150, 152, 274, 283, 302, 371-375, 380 context, 103-104, 372-375 good, 283, 371 communism, 72 Community, 1-2, 5, 7-16, 21, 23-24, 26-28, 31-33, 36-37, 42-43, 47, 58-60, 83, 85, 87-88, 99, 101, 117, 119, 124, 130, 138, 146-147, 157-158, 160, 162, 178, 183, 185, 193, 195, 203, 208, 216, 219, 222, 226, 242, 275, 386 competing interests, Competition, 20, 41, 80, 87, 100, 102, 118, 120, 122, 131, 183, 231, 371 Compromise, 28, 116, 158 Comte, Auguste, 92, 97, 124 Concentration camps, 147 Concept, 40, 43, 60, 62-70, 87-88, 112, 119, 127, 180, 204-206, 213, 220, 234-235, 237, 242, 252, 259 Conceptualization, 205-209, 226, 230, 241-242, 252, 271, 279, 373 Condoms, 3, 24, 128 conflict, 28, 30, 72, 78, 80-81, 85-86, 110-112, 145, 150, 162-163, 167, 178-179, 205, 209-210, 220, 368, 390 Conflict theory, 85-86, 110, 167 conflicts, 14, 111, 145 conformity, 59, 66, 84, 287 Confounding, 283, 286, 291, 299-300, 305, 308, 312 Confounding variables, 283, 286, 299-300, 308, 312 Conscience, 145 consensus, 4-5, 14, 23, 86, 157, 251 consent forms, 149 Consistency, 61, 127, 171, 212, 218, 375 constraints, 28, 43, 111, 197, 207 588 Construct, 14, 17, 42, 72, 104-105, 109, 111-112, 176, 197, 205-220, 222, 224-230, 232, 234-235, 241-242, 271, 369-371, 373, 376-377, 387, 390 Construction of reality, 112 Contact, 2, 36-37, 41, 69-71, 77, 88, 94, 103, 120, 146, 237-238, 252, 287, 298, 302, 309 Contact hypothesis, 41, 69, 287, 309 Contemporary Sociology, 93, 130 Contempt, 150, 156 content analysis, 26, 39, 49, 51, 53, 125, 166, 196, 213, 274, 368-369, 371-375, 377-380, 384, 389, 391 Continuity, 31, 83 continuum, 65, 94, 221-222, 226, 230, 234-235, 237, 308, 374 Control, 15, 30-31, 34, 36-37, 43, 51, 66-67, 72, 77, 83, 87-88, 94, 99, 101, 112-113, 116-117, 120-121, 142, 154, 208, 210, 262, 284, 289-297, 300, 302, 305, 308-313, 376, 387, 390 Control group, 154, 284, 289-296, 300, 302, 305, 310-313 Control groups, 292, 296 control theory, 87-88 controversy, 27-30, 34, 92, 148-149, 372, 376, 380 copyright laws, 140 corporations, 10, 67, 101, 274, 385 Correlation, 75, 138, 192, 216, 242, 390 correlations, 20, 75, 128, 192, 208, 216 Corruption, 178 Costs, 15, 29, 33-35, 43, 132, 137, 145, 150, 156, 158-160, 162, 175, 234, 264, 381, 384 Counseling, 9, 30, 149 countries, 11, 13, 29, 48, 52-53, 69, 82, 120, 122, 176, 188, 202, 229, 231, 238, 383-385, 389-390 couples, 48, 182, 194, 260, 380 Courts, 10, 182, 186 Covert observation, 152 creation of, 95, 118, 220, 292 Creationism, 58 Creativity, 2, 14, 47, 148, 195 Crime, 1, 3, 7, 33-35, 51, 58, 60, 74, 80, 85, 98, 100, 114, 135, 150, 157, 161, 169, 177-178, 180-181, 186-188, 193, 196, 203, 222, 224, 226-228, 274, 284, 296-298, 379-381, 387-389 age and, 274, 296-298 conflict theory, 85 drugs and, 193 media and, 51 poverty and, 186-187 punishment, 3, 181, 186, 284 race and, 161, 196, 380 U.S., 7, 51, 58, 74, 135, 150, 161, 186, 196, 226-227, 380-381, 387-389 victims of hate crimes, 387 Crime rates, 33, 135, 228, 380, 388 Criminal justice, 9, 22, 71, 97, 129, 135, 282 criminal justice system, 71 criminals, 173 criminology, 131-132, 241 Crisis, 41 Critical theory, 110 Criticism, 1, 14, 28, 56, 103, 119, 132, 150, 159, 161-162, 379 criticisms of, 110, 124 Cross-sectional data, 47-48 Cross-sectional research, 44, 53, 74 Crow, Jim, 376 Crying, 300 Cuba, 231 Cultural context, 20-21, 177, 376 Cultural factors, 95, 113 culture, 18, 51-53, 55, 63-64, 94, 104, 113, 119, 180, 190, 210-211, 376-377, 381 cultures, 52, 55, 68, 100, 105, 170, 178, 197, 210 Currency, 227 D Data, 2, 4, 6, 9-11, 16-21, 23-24, 25-26, 29, 31-33, 38-49, 51-52, 55, 58, 64-66, 68-70, 78, 82, 86, 88, 95, 97-98, 102-103, 107-108, 113-114, 120, 125-126, 129, 131, 139, 141-142, 146, 150-152, 155-157, 161, 165, 167-168, 170, 172-177, 179-180, 183, 186, 188-191, 195, 198, 203-205, 208-211, 218, 220, 222, 224-231, 238-241, 243, 246-248, 254-255, 260, 269, 271-272, 279, 281-282, 286, 304-305, 307, 309-310, 368-369, 372-373, 376-378, 380-381, 383-392 Dating, 163 Davis, 199, 251, 261-262, 386, 392 Day care, 25, 370 Death, 3, 13, 40, 43, 68, 81, 111, 115, 147, 155, 160, 164, 168-169, 172, 189, 215, 236, 283-284, 287, 301, 369, 381 context of, 111 Death penalty, 3, 13, 40, 172, 236, 283-284, 287 death rates, 160, 168-169 Decision making, 18, 22, 99, 101, 113, 145 Decline, 27, 55, 80-81, 193, 386, 388 Decoding, 84 Definition of the situation, 77 Definitions, 60, 62-65, 96, 121, 180, 205-206, 208-210, 213, 215, 220-221, 223-224, 241, 251-252, 309, 375, 388, 391 democracy, 24, 65, 376 Democratic party, 20 Demographics, 20, 130 Denial, 61 Denmark, 392 Denominations, 215, 224 density, 65, 82, 268 Department of Health, 156 Dependency, 52 dependent variable, 76, 181-183, 185-186, 190-191, 193, 196-197, 209, 212, 214, 237, 281-282, 284-285, 287, 290-296, 298-303, 305, 310, 312, 386 Dependent variables, 181, 198, 282, 291, 297, 304 Depression, 9, 143-144, 181-182, 206, 253, 390 development, 2, 11, 29, 31, 33, 52, 72, 80-83, 98, 126, 162, 177, 188, 195, 197, 226, 228-229 Developmental stages, 83 Deviance, 66, 87, 204 Diabetes, 247 dialectical materialism, 110 Diet, 5, 34, 203, 287, 310-311 differentiation, 64 diffuse, 63, 205, 212, 373 Diffusion, 144, 302, 304, 310-312 Dignity, 35, 51, 145, 152, 225 Disabilities, 147, 302, 305 Disability, 41, 305, 388 Disabled, 35, 153, 248, 292, 304-305 Disabled people, 304 Discipline, 1, 13, 15, 99, 137-138, 170-171, 173, 210 Discouraged workers, 389 Discrimination, 19, 111, 115, 120, 122, 136, 173, 175, 281 Distress, 3, 29 districts, 159, 189, 265, 380 Diversion, 59 diversity, 31, 80, 109, 120, 162, 168, 172, 218, 249, 263, 271, 273, 276, 278 multiracial, 168 Division of labor, 8, 66, 83, 86, 93 Divorce, 13, 17, 33, 48, 58-60, 74, 78-79, 84-85, 100, 135, 174-175, 182-183, 193-194, 204, 238-239, 250 children and, 60 community, 13, 33, 58-60, 85, 183, 193 emotional, 60, 79, 100, 175, 193 measures of, 100, 204 patterns, 60, 84-85, 239 process of, 13, 85, 174, 204 same-sex, 238 symbolic interactionism, 85 Divorce rate, 100, 182 Divorced families, 175 DNA, 27 Documents, 18, 21, 30-31, 43, 49, 51-52, 107, 125, 127-128, 135, 137, 140, 155, 165, 172, 176-177, 207, 209, 270, 368-369, 371-373, 377-378, 381, 383-384, 387, 389 Domestic abuse, 33 Dominant group, 383 domination, 88, 111, 117, 124, 376 Downward social mobility, 80 Driving, 6-7, 27, 33, 212, 252, 295, 369-370, 390 Dropping out, 47, 193, 227, 276 Drug abuse, 29, 136, 175, 277, 382 addiction, 136 war on drugs, 277 Drug addiction, 136 Drug use, 29, 33, 35, 128, 161, 177, 193 Drugs, 29, 33, 136, 192-193, 277 illicit, 29, 277 types of, 29, 33, 277 Drunk driving, 390 Dying, 252 dysfunction, 86 E Earnings, 83, 85 ecological fallacy, 188-191, 193-194, 197, 199, 387 economic conditions, 52, 77, 80, 122, 196 economic development, 33, 52, 72, 197 Economic forces, 13, 77, 191 Economic inequality, 135, 177 Economic systems, 52 Economics, 8, 15, 21, 77, 83, 96, 124 economy, 33, 67, 117, 172 economy and, 117, 172 Education, 1, 9, 16, 25, 29-31, 34, 41, 45-47, 55, 60, 75, 80, 83, 85, 87, 91, 110, 115, 125, 132-133, 136, 141, 163, 165, 180, 190, 196, 201, 213, 217, 230, 233, 237, 245, 276, 281-285, 367, 371, 380-381, 384-386 adult, 196, 381, 386 elementary, 230 empowerment, 110 family and, 60, 83, 230 learning and, 75 myths, 381 outcomes, 29, 34, 282-283 sex, 136, 141, 380, 386 social class and, 196 society, 1, 60, 83, 85, 115, 125, 217, 230, 233, 283, 371, 380-381 educators, 11 efficiency, 83, 101 Elderly, 35, 237, 248, 271, 373-374, 379, 382, 391 families, 35 love, 35 elections, 23, 65, 178, 253, 283 Elite, 59, 72 Elites, 17, 52, 72, 274 Emancipation, 117 Emotional attachment, 35 Empathy, 41 Empirical evidence, 40, 57, 59-61, 68-70, 95, 101, 128, 172, 182, 184, 188, 190, 213, 287, 306 empiricism, 97 employment, 28, 31, 135, 153, 158, 160, 237, 270, 292-293 Energy, 10, 167, 258, 276 Engagement, 12, 36, 47, 286 England, 385 English language, 32, 392 Enjoyment, 121 enumeration, 373-374 Environment, 31, 34, 51, 84, 101, 109, 115, 118, 169, 210, 276 impact, 31 movement, 84 Epidemic, equal opportunity, 232-233 equality, 30, 36, 121, 173, 216, 226 equilibrium, 83, 86, 277 equity, 136, 305 ethical issues, 102, 125-126, 145-147, 157-158, 163-164, 286, 313 Ethics, 125, 145, 147-148, 150, 152, 157-158, 162-163, 281, 292, 310 Ethics in research, 147 ethnic diversity, 31 Ethnic groups, 64 ethnic identity, 297 ethnic minorities, 249 ethnic relations, 72 ethnicity, 64, 161, 168, 249, 380, 388 Ethnographies, 21 Ethnography, 16, 20, 26, 42, 51, 117, 130 ethnomethodology, 103 Europe, 52, 102, 189, 229, 238, 381 European Union, 231 Evaluation research, 28-29, 53-54, 159, 161 everyday life, 62-63, 68, 99, 104, 107, 109, 162, 173, 203 Evidence, 4, 6, 8-11, 14, 22, 29, 39-42, 52, 57, 59-61, 64, 68-71, 74, 85, 87, 95-96, 100-102, 107-108, 110, 115, 118, 121, 128, 170-173, 176-179, 181-186, 188-190, 194, 197-198, 208, 211, 213, 216, 218, 220, 282, 287, 295, 306, 310, 369-370, 373, 381 evolution, 11-12, 26, 58, 85, 195 Exchange theory, 86 Exercise, 34, 77, 101, 108, 138, 173, 175 Experimental design, 154, 281, 286, 290-294, 296, 298-299, 310-312 Experimental group, 289-294, 296, 300, 302, 310-312 Experimental groups, 292, 296 Experimental research, 47, 53, 123, 151-152, 221, 281-313 Experiments, 19, 40, 47-48, 97, 116, 119, 125, 147, 149, 157, 183, 241, 281-283, 285-288, 290-292, 298, 300, 302-303, 306, 308-313, 369, 380, 384 Exploitation, 66, 86, 122 Eye, 32, 104, 204, 220-221, 302 Eye contact, 302 F Factories, 31, 286 Factory workers, 211 facts, 2-3, 10, 17, 38, 55, 60, 99-101, 105, 107-108, 115, 118, 121, 123, 235, 242 False consciousness, 113, 118, 123 Families, 33, 35, 43-44, 60, 135, 141, 175, 189, 193, 269, 276 nontraditional, 141 single-parent, 276 Family, 1, 8, 16, 29-31, 33, 35, 39, 41, 43-44, 60, 65, 67, 72, 75, 78, 81-85, 87, 118-119, 122, 132, 141, 145, 161, 176, 178, 180-181, 188-189, 202, 208, 214, 216-217, 224-225, 230, 241, 247, 250-251, 264-265, 274, 276, 290, 369, 377, 381 American, 39, 60, 82-83, 141, 217, 230, 377 biological, 8, 119 career, 31, 145, 290 changes, 29-30, 202 child abuse, 33, 39, 78 communication, 82, 274 concept of, 180 contemporary, 377 dates, 369 deterioration of, 369 divorce, 33, 60, 78, 84-85, 250 egalitarian, 30 extended, 41, 60, 381 nuclear, 188 problems, 16, 30, 33, 118 traditional, 33, 78, 83, 85, 118-119, 141, 247, 290 family members, 33, 60, 67, 78, 84, 161 Family values, 377 Fantasy, 10 Fashion, 55, 62, 239, 376 Fatalities, 295, 382 Fate, 77 fear, 3, 33, 43, 56, 60, 64, 77, 128, 148, 177, 218, 236, 312 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 226 federal government, 6-7, 28, 31, 102, 135, 137, 151, 156, 389 Fees, 131-132 femininity, 223 feminism, 116, 216 feminist movement, 383 Field research, 20, 29, 39, 51-53, 103, 109, 117, 123, 125, 129, 150-154, 169, 172, 197, 210, 273, 284, 299 Fieldwork, 246 Finland, 228-229 flag, 250, 376-377, 392 Flexibility, 118, 168, 172, 177 Flextime, 28 Floating, 88 Focus groups, 32 focus of, 18, 20, 40, 87, 173, 203 Food, 33, 59, 71, 77, 113, 197, 202-203, 215, 226, 292-293, 382 Football, 5, 67, 88, 176, 193, 300, 376 Forbes, 130 force, 9, 33, 151, 156, 180, 186, 188, 190, 204, 384 Forcible rape, 226 formal schooling, 6, 74, 223 Formalization, 226 Fossil fuels, 11 Foucault, Michel, 57, 119 Framework, 69-70, 74, 85, 87-89, 96, 115, 127 France, 14, 231, 389, 392 Fraud, 3, 146, 163 Freedom, 34, 36, 56, 65, 109, 116, 118, 121, 141, 152-153, 162, 269, 376, 389 Freud, Sigmund, 110 Friends, 1, 8, 33, 39, 56, 60, 77, 84, 88, 145, 158, 178, 206, 208, 211, 237, 251, 275, 277 Friendship, 31, 85, 104, 173, 275 characteristics, 31, 275 close, 275 life cycle and, 85 Friendships, 173 Fromm, Erich, 110 Frustration, 56, 78 Fun, 3, 23, 132 function, 83, 106 Functionalism, 85-86 education, 85 family, 85 gender, 85 inequality, 86 media, 85 social institutions and, 85 Functions, 55, 83, 86, 202 functions of, 55, 83, 86 Funding, 73, 102, 146, 158-159 G gambling, 11, 33, 35, 73, 107-108, 160 Games, 87, 117, 301 gangs, 20, 40, 42, 125, 150, 172, 175, 274 gathering, 4, 21, 31, 39, 126, 165, 184, 203-205, 210, 247, 308 gay men, 277 Gays, 161, 164 Gender, 19-20, 30, 72, 85, 94, 98, 105, 111, 118-119, 121, 124, 128, 136, 141, 162, 180, 193, 198, 212, 222, 226, 249, 251, 261-262, 270, 290, 297, 299, 369-371, 373, 377-379, 383, 389 construction, 105, 226 defined, 251, 389 differences, 94, 119, 121, 370, 373 discrimination, 19, 111, 136 gap, 30, 94 identity, 72, 118, 141, 297, 377 in nursing homes, 373 inequalities, 72, 371 multiple, 20, 72, 105, 111, 118-119, 121, 136, 162, 180, 212, 226, 373, 377-378 work and, 371 Gender differences, 119, 370, 373 Gender equality, 226 gender equity, 136 gender groups, 373 gender relations, 30, 226, 369 gender roles, 118, 141, 373 communication and, 373 differences in, 373 Gender segregation, 383 Gender stereotypes, 128, 378 General Social Survey, 262, 269-270, 384, 386 Generalizability, 139, 229 Generalization, 4, 69-70, 77, 84-85, 87-88, 304, 306-308, 310, 312 Generalizations, 71, 84-85, 87, 95, 107, 176, 373 Georgia, 197, 376, 382 Germany, 110, 147, 231, 238, 240, 284, 385, 389, 392 Gestures, 6, 104, 177 Giddens, Anthony, 57 girls, 368, 371, 373, 375, 383 Global competition, 80 Global warming, 11 Goffman, Erving, 57 Gold standard, 248, 250 Google, 129, 144 Government, 6-9, 13, 19, 22, 24, 27-29, 31, 33-34, 36-37, 49, 51, 57, 60, 65, 72, 77, 85, 101-102, 111, 120, 127, 135, 137, 145-147, 151, 155-156, 158, 160-161, 164, 178, 186, 202, 207, 215, 247, 295, 369, 376, 379-381, 383-390, 392 Government policy, 60, 77 Grades, 29, 74-76, 141, 153, 181, 185, 207, 223, 300, 386 Granovetter, 280 grants, 6, 153 Great Britain, 240, 380 Great Depression, 253, 390 Group marriage, 48 Groups, 5, 21, 29-30, 32, 34, 38, 41-42, 48, 62, 64-65, 68, 70-72, 84-86, 99, 112, 115, 117, 120, 122, 143, 149, 152, 154, 156, 161, 173, 589 178-179, 182, 202, 206, 212-213, 217, 230, 235, 237, 251, 266, 274, 279, 283-285, 287-294, 296, 298, 300, 302, 310-311, 373, 376-377, 383-384 group(s), 235 Growth, 65, 81, 228, 300, 384 guilt, 149 Gulf War, 160 Guns, 51 H Hair, 39, 94, 193 happiness, 35 Harassment, 30, 136, 143 sexual harassment, 30, 136, 143 harassment, sexual, 136 Hate crimes, 387-388 Hatred, 115 Hawaii, 251, 382 Hawthorne effect, 304, 306, 312-313 Head Start, 52 Health, 1, 5, 8-10, 22, 27, 30-36, 55, 60, 76-77, 97, 115, 128, 141, 144, 147-149, 156, 163, 166, 192, 202-203, 227, 241, 269, 277, 286, 295-298, 372, 379, 381-382, 384, 386 quality of life in, 32 Health care, 1, 22, 27, 30, 33-34, 115, 202-203, 277, 286, 372 Health care professionals, 1, 22 Health care providers, 30 Health insurance, 36, 382 Hearing, 6, 9, 70, 100, 210, 291, 306, 373 Height, 52, 62-64, 254 Heroin, 252 High school, 1, 11, 29, 45, 47, 51, 71, 87-88, 138, 153, 217, 222, 229, 275, 281, 370, 376, 382, 385 High schools, 3, 136 high unemployment, 193 Higher education, 45-46, 163, 386 Hispanics, 48, 269 History, 9, 15, 68, 74, 92, 96-97, 103, 115, 122, 125, 168, 183, 188, 191, 197, 218, 252-253, 274, 281, 284, 300, 304, 310-313, 371 HIV, 128 Holocaust, 149 Homelessness, 17, 65 homeschooling, 84 Homicide, 226, 382 Homosexuality, 48 Homosexuals, 149 Honesty, 14, 100, 146, 152, 160, 170 honor, 16, 51, 157, 375-376 Hormones, 94 Hospitals, 22, 28, 31, 36, 101, 115, 151, 251-252, 390 hostility, 60, 161 Household, 8, 216-217, 230, 251, 255, 264-266, 268-270, 280, 388, 390 households, 75, 82, 175, 189, 230, 246, 251-252, 255, 264-266, 270, 388 Househusbands, 41 housework, 390 Housing, 20-21, 31, 34, 39, 44, 60, 111, 115, 125, 172, 190, 202-203, 214, 230, 246, 251, 268, 270, 379-382 affordable, 382 independent, 111, 190, 214, 380 planned, 31 Housing assistance, 202 Housing projects, 125 Housing units, 268, 270, 381 human agency, 96, 99, 102, 106, 110, 113, 118, 121 Human nature, 97-98, 121, 188 humans, 11, 94, 96, 98, 102, 110, 112-113, 151, 154, 299 Humphreys, Laud, 149 Husbands, 260 Hygiene, 203 Hypotheses testing, 184 hypothesis, 41, 68-70, 80, 88, 139, 141, 168, 174-175, 181-187, 193-199, 203, 208-210, 212, 214-215, 217, 237, 241, 282-284, 287-288, 291-292, 299, 302-303, 309, 372 I id, 379 Ideal type, 65-66, 88, 180 Ideal types, 65, 89, 93, 96 Identity, 15, 72, 84, 118, 141, 154-155, 161, 168, 172, 590 178, 274, 284-285, 287, 291, 296-297, 308, 377 ideographic, 110 ideology, 40-41, 55, 58-61, 88, 114, 125, 190, 204, 225-226, 230 Illegal drugs, 136, 192-193 Illness, 148, 214 Imitation, 303 immigrant, 18, 381 immigrants, 32, 178, 188, 377, 380-381 immigration, 38, 168, 376-377, 381 impact of, 38 impression management, 305 imprisonment, 45, 80, 153, 155, 281, 284 improvisation, 179 Incarceration, 45, 153, 269 Income, 11, 31-32, 35, 43-44, 51, 55, 60, 65-66, 72, 75-76, 80, 87, 122, 147, 150, 169, 172, 176-177, 180-181, 186, 189, 202-203, 222-224, 246, 249-251, 253, 273, 275-276, 283, 380-382 change, 31-32, 44, 60, 87, 122, 172, 177, 180, 202, 276 distribution, 31 Income inequality, 80, 382 independence, 159 independent variable, 76, 181, 185-186, 188, 190, 193, 196-197, 209, 214, 237, 284-285, 287-288, 290-291, 293-294, 296, 298-299, 305, 309 Independent variables, 181, 185, 281, 291, 295-297, 310, 312, 380 in-depth interviews, 43, 276 Index, 132, 135-137, 139, 203, 224-230, 232-234, 238, 241-243, 286, 381-382, 384-385 indicators, 208, 213-218, 225-227, 234, 239, 241-242, 271, 291, 380-382, 392 Individual violence, 88 individualism, 83, 190 Industrial Revolution, Industrial societies, 188 industrialization, 83, 85 Industrialized countries, 13 Industry, 10, 13, 28, 32-33, 197, 385, 389 Inequality, 19-20, 30, 40, 49, 66, 80, 86, 135, 154, 167, 177, 196, 241, 302, 382-383 Infant mortality, 381-382 Infant mortality rate, 381 Infants, 381 Inflation, 202, 226 Information, 2, 4, 6-10, 14, 18, 22, 24, 30, 32-33, 36, 38, 41-46, 48-49, 74-75, 78, 80, 82-83, 96, 100-102, 106, 108, 115, 117, 122, 127-128, 132-133, 135-136, 138-140, 142-145, 147, 150-151, 154-156, 158-160, 170, 176, 179, 189, 192, 197, 204, 208, 213-214, 221-226, 228-229, 234, 243, 251, 254, 258, 262, 268-269, 271, 273, 275-276, 278, 302, 306, 309, 369-370, 372, 374-376, 378, 380, 383-385, 387-390, 392 informed consent, 147-149, 151-153, 156-157, 162-164 in-group, 69, 285, 287 In-groups, 285 Institute for Research on Poverty, 135 Institutional Review Board (IRB), 151, 163 Institutional review boards (IRBs), 156 institutions, 8, 13, 27, 43, 52, 69, 71, 85, 92, 158, 164, 178, 190-191, 252 Insurance, 22, 36, 115, 372, 382 companies, 22, 115 integration, 58, 87, 181, 189, 383 Intel, 24 Intelligence, 9, 18-19, 146, 177, 203, 217, 224, 286, 308, 368 intelligent design, 58 Intensification, 81 Interaction, 2, 41, 60, 71, 105, 115, 117, 121, 143, 166, 186-187, 196-197, 218, 226, 235, 296-298, 309, 312 Interest groups, intergroup, 309, 386 Intermarriage, 85 international agencies, 135, 383-384 Internet, 5-6, 39, 47, 63, 129, 131, 135-137, 142-145, 156, 163, 368, 383 users, 47, 143 Interpretive sociology, 103 interviews, 39, 43, 47-49, 51-52, 122, 152, 161, 165-168, 172, 197, 218, 267-268, 274, 276, 291, 304, 386 Intimacy, 170 Intimidation, 88, 178 Inventions, 220 IPods, 11 IQ tests, 217 Iraq, 6, 160 Ireland, 385-386 Islam, 59, 225 isolation, 65, 169, 206 Israel, 369, 386 Italy, 231, 240, 386 J Japan, 376, 389, 392 Jeffrey, 57 Jews, 43, 147, 385 Jim Crow, 376 Judaism, 225 Justice, 9, 22, 36, 56, 71, 97, 111, 129, 135, 150, 161, 282, 388 Justice system, 71 K Keillor, Garrison, 159 Kinship, 82, 85 kinship groups, 85 knowledge, 1-3, 5-9, 11-16, 18, 22-24, 26-33, 36-37, 41-42, 53, 55-61, 64, 69, 73, 77, 86-87, 89, 92-96, 98-102, 107-110, 112, 114-118, 120-122, 125-127, 129-130, 145, 147-150, 153-154, 156, 160, 162, 169-174, 176-177, 179-183, 192, 210, 213, 217, 222, 227, 240, 258, 273-274, 278, 283-284, 306, 312, 372, 375, 377, 390 Ku Klux Klan, 84, 230, 274 L Labeling, 143 Labor, 8, 11, 13, 20, 22, 41, 52, 66-68, 83, 86, 93, 115, 173, 196, 210-211, 227, 230, 384, 387, 389 Labor force, 384 Labor market, 11, 20, 41 Labor markets, 20 Labor unions, 230 language, 10, 27, 32, 62-63, 74, 82, 99-100, 105, 152, 167-168, 176, 180, 182, 195, 220, 250, 282, 290, 375, 381, 392 Languages, 63, 100, 167, 170, 176 law, 1, 6, 13, 22, 28, 33, 43, 51, 57, 77, 80, 97-102, 106, 122-123, 130, 137, 146-147, 149-152, 154, 156, 161, 171, 178, 182, 186, 207, 234, 376, 388 Laws, 3, 33, 51, 57-58, 75, 80-81, 85, 95, 97-102, 105-107, 109, 114, 121, 123, 136, 140, 156, 158, 186, 190, 226, 271-272, 281, 295, 370 lawyers, 13, 27, 63, 125, 250 Leaders, 2, 11-12, 16, 32, 51, 56-57, 101, 178, 240, 385 Leadership, 283 Learning, 10, 16, 23, 25, 28-29, 32, 35, 40, 42, 62, 75, 87-88, 92-93, 99, 111, 114, 129, 131, 158, 168, 175, 182, 203, 227, 282, 286, 295-296, 302, 306 conditions for, 40, 282 Learning theory, 87 Legal divorce, 78 Legislation, 51, 388 Leisure, 77, 83, 85, 177, 381 liberty, 376-377 Lichtblau, Eric, 164 Life course, 82 Life expectancy, 78, 228 Lifestyles, 55, 369 Liking, 148 Listening, 370 Literacy, 6, 10-11, 23, 30, 228-229, 381, 384 Literature review, 125-127, 129-131, 135-136, 138-139, 142, 162-163 Living together, 380 Longitudinal research, 44-46, 53 Looks, 7, 40, 63, 94-95, 99, 121-122, 169, 171, 256, 375 Louisiana, 382 Love, 2, 35, 128 low self-esteem, 233 Loyalty, 66, 88, 158, 164, 211 Lung cancer, 183 M machines, 10 Macro level, 42, 71, 85, 87 Magazines, 1, 6-7, 10, 15, 21, 51, 129-130, 132, 274, 373, 377 Maine, 382 Malnourishment, 202 Malnutrition, 203 Management, 9, 28-30, 41, 173, 210-211, 286, 305 Manifest, 188, 374-375, 378, 391 Maps, 43, 51-52, 80, 165, 172, 179, 197, 204, 209, 211, 268, 295 Marital status, 180-181, 222-223 Marriage, 46, 48, 57, 78, 83, 85, 141, 174, 180, 193-195, 226, 239, 370, 387 age at, 174, 193-194 interracial, 48 long-term, 83 of marriage, 46, 57, 85, 141, 174, 193-194, 239, 387 quality of, 226 religion and, 83 second, 141, 174, 180 studying, 46 total, 141 Marx, Karl, 92, 110, 112 Marxism, 116 mascots, 175 masculinity, 88, 180, 223 mass media, 5-7, 30, 36, 58, 60, 178, 196, 207, 235 Mass society, 155 Materialism, 110 Maturation, 300, 304, 310-312 Mean, 6-7, 11, 18, 22, 24, 62, 64, 74-75, 99, 103, 105, 108, 122-123, 131, 147, 170, 177, 179, 185-187, 198, 205, 207, 215, 226, 254-256, 259-260, 262, 269, 275, 288, 301, 312, 368, 371, 373, 375-378, 390 Meaning, 17, 33, 42, 56, 62-63, 65, 75, 82, 84, 92, 96, 103-110, 112-115, 121, 123, 166-167, 170, 176-180, 186, 203, 205, 216, 220, 237, 242, 254, 299, 371-372, 375-377, 383 Measurements, 98, 102, 214, 223 Media, 2-8, 17, 24, 30, 32, 36, 49, 51, 57-58, 60, 85, 158, 165, 172-173, 178, 192, 196, 207, 235, 284, 368, 372 advertisements, 49 advertising, 3, 178 categories of, 196 influence, 7, 30, 51, 57, 85 magazines, 6-7, 51 newspapers, 6, 51, 165, 178, 372 television, 5-8, 32, 49, 51, 57, 173, 178, 192, 372 Median, 203 Medical experiments, 147, 157 Medical research, 302-303 Medical treatments, 154 Medicine, 8, 282, 290 members, 12, 15-16, 21, 32-33, 41, 60, 67, 78, 82, 84, 122, 135, 143, 157-158, 161, 195-196, 202, 210, 217, 227, 232, 235, 274, 276-277, 285, 292-293, 299-300, 302, 380, 385, 388 Memory, 149, 301, 305 Mental exercise, 108 Mental health, 32, 148, 227, 296 disorders, 148 Mental illness, 148 merit, 14 Merton, Robert, 66 methodologies, 127, 164 Mexico, 146, 382 Miami, 284 Middle Ages, 100 Middle class, 371 Middle East, Middle-aged, 41, 167, 386 Milgram Obedience Study, 148 Milgram, Stanley, 149 Military, 43, 129, 147, 153, 157, 161, 186, 251, 376, 388 Minimum wage, 34 minorities, 65, 111, 115, 249, 276, 285, 380 Minority group, 122 Minority groups, 120, 122 Miscarriage, 387 mobility, 20, 80, 381 Mobilization, 190, 381 Mode, 66 modern, 11, 78, 83, 85, 92, 98, 146, 237, 239 Modernity, 120 modernization, 83, 85 Modernization theory, 83 Modes, 66 Money, 11, 16, 26, 32-34, 73, 75, 77, 142, 145, 160, 173, 176, 193, 207, 223, 247 monopoly, 295 Moral development, 81 moral order, 100 morality, 117, 119 Mortality, 295, 301, 304, 310-312, 381-382 mortality rates, 295 Mortality rates, 295 Mothers, 8, 60, 246 employed, 60 motivation, 19, 104, 188, 249, 387 Movies, 8, 49, 368, 378 Multiracial, 168 Multiracial people, 168 Murder, 180, 229, 236, 284 Music, 55, 119-120, 133, 143 Myths, 6, 10, 86, 111, 114, 121, 381 N Naming, 383 narrative, 179 Nation, 38, 41, 64, 69, 71, 80, 115, 122, 129-130, 176, 188, 190, 226, 229, 231, 250, 254, 285, 376-377, 388-389 National Crime Victimization Survey, 388 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), 388 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 31 national identity, 285 natural attitude, 106, 123 natural laws, 121 natural resources, 52, 113 Natural sciences, 8, 77, 92, 96-97, 100, 170, 203, 284 naturalization, 380-381 Nazis, 43, 149 NCVS, 388 Needs, 9, 27-28, 31, 33-34, 40, 53, 60, 74, 83, 85-86, 101-102, 109, 120, 158, 173, 183, 188, 213, 277, 387 Needs assessment, 33-34, 53 Neglect, 218 Neighborhoods, 39, 169, 173, 246, 251, 274, 297, 304, 379, 383, 387 NEPA, 31 Netherlands, 231, 240, 386 Networks, 22, 31, 82-83, 251-252, 275, 309 Nevada, 252, 382 Never married, 180, 222 New England, 385 New technology, New York City, 51, 277 New York Times, 12, 24, 159, 163-164, 192 New Zealand, 384 Newspapers, 1, 6, 10, 21-22, 39, 43, 51-52, 111, 122, 129-130, 165, 178, 226, 371-372, 383 Newsweek, 6, 130, 173 Nicotine, 303 Nigeria, 238 nomothetic, 99, 102, 110, 123 noncitizens, 381 Nonmarital sex, 386 Nonprobability sample, 273 Nonprobability samples, 273, 278 Nontraditional families, 141 Nonverbal behavior, 302 Nonverbal communication, 103, 302 nonviolent, 174 Norm, 13-15, 24, 141-142, 195 norms, 12-14, 23-24, 57, 99, 101, 107, 113, 141, 146, 182 Norway, 231 nursing, 173, 251, 263, 282, 373 Nursing homes, 173, 251, 373 Nutrition, 310-311, 381 O Obesity, 144 Objective conditions, 106, 116, 121 Objectivity, 59, 116, 124, 170-171, 195 Observations, 4, 9-10, 14, 32, 43, 51-52, 63, 69-73, 84, 95, 97, 100, 112, 114, 116, 121-122, 152, 158, 166, 176-177, 193, 204, 206, 210, 213, 218, 224, 226, 276, 291, 294, 370, 374 Occupation, 251, 385 occupations, 12, 20, 51, 226, 251, 385 official records, 43, 215, 249, 253, 387 Oil, 197 Old age, 371 Operational definitions, 208, 215, 221, 252 opinion, 4, 6, 9-11, 13, 40, 58, 102, 129-130, 170, 172, 223-224, 232-236, 242, 249, 284, 384, 386, 392 Opportunities, 31, 43, 77, 84-86, 141, 145, 170, 181, 190, 227, 233, 285 Opportunity, 43, 77, 152, 173, 232-233 opposition, 43, 57, 64, 109, 158, 210-211, 284 organization, 21, 27, 31-32, 45, 53, 65-66, 69, 83, 135-136, 138-139, 142, 145, 158-159, 161, 178, 190, 230, 250, 260, 274, 284, 380, 384, 387, 389 organizations, 12-13, 21-22, 27-29, 31-32, 36, 42, 47, 49, 51, 57, 60, 65, 68, 71, 80-84, 99, 101, 111-112, 117, 122, 145, 157, 159, 175, 178, 188, 190-191, 196, 226, 267, 274, 277, 283, 288, 380-381, 384-385, 387 organized crime, 274 others, 1-3, 5-6, 8, 10, 13-14, 18-22, 27, 29, 34, 36-37, 39-42, 47, 51, 57-60, 63, 67-69, 74-75, 78, 80, 82, 84-87, 94, 100-105, 107, 109, 112, 115, 117, 120-122, 126, 130, 132-133, 137, 139, 142, 144-148, 154-156, 162, 168-169, 172-175, 189-194, 196, 203, 205-209, 214-216, 227, 234-236, 248-249, 251, 253, 270, 276, 283-285, 290, 292, 294-295, 303, 305, 308-309, 368, 376-377, 383, 385-386, 390 out-group, 41, 69, 309 Out-groups, 41, 70, 285 overgeneralization, 4, 23 Overgeneralizing, 191 overlaps, 125 Overt observation, 152 Overweight, P Pain, 35, 64, 86-87, 98, 149, 166 Panic, 64 Paradigm, 20, 96, 123 paradigms, 85, 96, 124 Parenting, 82 Parents, 1-2, 4-5, 39-40, 47, 63, 75, 141, 159, 175, 192, 206, 210, 276, 383 Parole, 153, 274, 284 participant observation, 26, 51, 103, 123, 150 parties, 22, 27, 84, 158, 178, 294 Partner selection, 85 Partners, 48, 83, 85, 194, 371 Part-time workers, 389 party, 20, 155, 178 Patience, 75 Patriotism, 64, 376 peace, 178 peasants, 30 Peer group, 63 Peer pressure, 51 Peers, 15-16, 28, 88, 133, 277, 368 Pentagon, 164 perception, 86, 114 Perceptions, 3, 6, 31, 86, 95, 109, 111, 115, 168, 251, 309, 378 Personal property, 66 personality, 40, 148-149, 214, 305, 373 perspectives of, 124 Pharmacology, Phenotype, 39, 64 Philip Morris, 24 Philippines, 389 Physical abuse, 149 Physical appearance, 8, 39, 62, 281 Physical attractiveness, 305 Physical contact, 69 Physical disabilities, 147 Physical exercise, 77 Physicians, 63, 144, 157, 159, 230, 252, 263 Placebo, 154, 302-304, 312 Planning, 9, 29-30, 32, 142, 148, 174, 195, 204, 207, 292, 308, 390, 392 Play, 35, 87, 117, 202, 207, 270, 300-301 Pluralism, 92 Poland, 43, 386 Police, 27, 29, 31, 33, 36, 125, 149-150, 155, 161, 591 175, 177-178, 215, 226, 274, 376, 379, 387-389 Police officers, 27, 29, 215 Political activism, 390 political activity, 116 political parties, 22, 178 Political pressures, 389 Political science, 8, 15, 96, 124, 131, 133, 157, 282, 371 Politicians, 3, 29, 56, 58, 75, 130, 186, 376, 380, 384 politics, 102, 116, 129-132, 190, 216-217, 384-385, 392 funding, 102 Pollution, 35 Poor, 7, 11, 21, 34-35, 51-52, 58, 60, 115, 143, 147, 150, 158, 181-182, 188-189, 202-203, 212, 232, 235, 267, 269, 298, 385, 387 Poor people, 7, 21, 51, 158, 189, 202 Poor, the, 267 Population, 6-7, 24, 31-33, 40-41, 45-46, 52, 65, 80, 153, 163, 190, 202, 221, 228-229, 231, 246-256, 258-260, 262-264, 267-274, 276-279, 289, 304, 306-307, 369, 377-378, 380-381, 386, 388 Population growth, 228 positivism, 96-97, 100, 102, 108-109, 115, 117, 121, 123-124, 156 positivists, 98-101, 106, 109-110, 119, 372 postmodernism, 119 Posttest, 290-296, 298-299, 301, 309, 311-312 Poverty, 7, 20-21, 24, 57, 74, 110, 135, 169, 172, 175, 186-187, 189-190, 193, 202-203, 246, 382 poverty line, 189, 202, 246 Power, 2, 5, 9, 12, 30-31, 43, 52, 56, 64, 66, 72-73, 82, 84, 86, 102, 112-113, 117-118, 120-121, 146, 161-163, 167, 178, 188, 203, 205, 225, 274, 287, 371, 374, 376 nature of, 112, 120-121, 167 powerlessness, 205 Prayer, 190 Pregnancy, 30, 87, 141, 241, 387 prejudice, 41, 62, 64, 74, 78, 203, 309, 388 Prejudiced attitudes, 74 Premarital pregnancy, 387 Presidential elections, 253 Prestige, 88, 102, 131, 145, 226, 254 Print media, Prison, 122, 149, 153, 161, 174, 251-252, 281, 298, 301 Prisoners, 149 Prisons, 24, 31, 80, 251 Privacy, 125, 145, 147, 152, 154, 156-157, 162, 164, 267, 269, 390 Private hospitals, 252 privatization, 295 probabilities, 3, 247 Probability sample, 247-248, 252, 270, 273-274 Probability samples, 247-248, 255, 271, 278 Probation, 174 problem solving, 42 production, 12, 66-67, 112, 170 Professions, 164 Profit, 14, 66, 115, 207 Progress, 9, 21-22, 87, 102, 119, 214, 390 Prohibition, 153, 158, 189 Propaganda, 3, 7, 373 Property, 14, 66-67, 153, 156, 186-187, 205, 297, 387 Property crimes, 387 Property destruction, 67 Proposition, 68-69, 85, 87-88, 182, 190, 194-195, 211 Prostitution, 33, 177 protection and, 144, 172 Protestants, 189 Protests, 383 Proximity, 33 Psychological abuse, 147-148 Psychology, 8, 13, 15, 19, 96, 124, 130-132, 135, 146, 282, 284-286, 371 Psychotherapy, 110 public administration, Public assistance, 150 Public defenders, 158 Public health, 9, 34, 97, 147, 156, 379 Public Health Service, 147, 156 Public housing, 246 public issues, 57-58, 285 public opinion, 40, 172, 284 Public policy, 1-2, 5, 285, 380, 390 public relations, 7, 10 592 Puerto Ricans, 246 Punishment, 3, 40, 173, 175, 181, 186, 236, 284 Q Qualitative data, 10, 16, 26, 32, 39, 51-52, 103, 177, 204, 209 qualitative methods, 17 Qualitative research, 16-17, 20-21, 39, 42, 51-52, 70-71, 103, 119, 131, 139, 167-173, 176-177, 198-199, 204, 209-211, 218, 220, 247-248, 273 Qualitative research methods, 20 Quality of life, 32, 150, 379, 381 Quantitative approach, 16-18, 218 Quantitative data, 16-17, 26, 47, 49, 52, 97, 102, 167-168, 172, 186, 230, 282, 310, 373, 377, 384, 390 quantitative methods, 17 Quantitative research, 18, 20, 43, 49, 53, 102, 139, 167-171, 176, 179-180, 204, 212, 246-247, 251, 255, 373 questionnaires, 48, 141, 160, 208 quotas, 270 R race, 19-20, 39, 41, 44, 48, 64, 72, 74-76, 94, 98, 105, 115, 161-162, 168, 174, 190, 196, 204, 241, 249, 270, 277, 281-282, 285, 287, 291, 296-297, 305, 309, 371, 377, 380, 386, 388 ethnicity and, 64 race and ethnicity, 161, 168, 380 race relations, 190, 241 racial attitudes, 19, 309 racial background, 282 Racial classification, 39 Racial differences, 120, 285 racial discrimination, 19, 111, 173, 175 racial groups, 62, 161, 383 Racial inequality, 19, 40, 49 Racial prejudice, 62, 64, 203, 309 racial profiling, 161 Racial segregation, 203, 376, 383 Racism, 3, 40, 274, 371 random sample, 41, 169, 253, 255-256, 258-266, 268, 271, 277-280, 285, 306, 378, 386 Random samples, 255-259, 262, 277 Random sampling, 49, 254-256, 258, 260, 262, 264, 267, 269, 288-289 Random-digit dialing, 267, 269, 276-277, 279-280, 285 Rape, 28, 136, 226, 241 rationality, 96, 99, 106, 113, 120 Reality, 7-8, 17, 61, 70-72, 74, 88-89, 94-96, 98-100, 102, 104-105, 107, 110-114, 116, 118-123, 190-191, 208, 212, 241 rebels, 178 Recall, 13, 150, 184, 195, 216, 218, 374, 380 recession, 193 Recognition, 118 Recycling, 370 Red tape, 375 reductionism, 189-191, 193, 198 Reform, 21, 102 regions, 71, 173, 274, 385 regulation, 186 Rehabilitation, 153 Relationships, 1, 8, 42, 58, 61, 66, 68-70, 74-75, 78, 82, 87, 89, 99, 112, 174, 180-181, 183, 185-186, 188-189, 208-209, 223, 228, 247, 271-272, 282, 293, 306, 373 Reliability, 17, 202, 211-216, 218, 220-221, 226, 228, 232, 234-235, 241-242, 301, 309, 374-376, 378, 388-389, 391 Religion, 9, 19, 40, 83, 85, 99, 141, 162, 173, 186, 189, 196, 222-225, 380, 384, 386, 388 religious beliefs, 12, 85, 102, 215 religious groups, 161, 173, 178 replication, 29, 71, 100, 102, 107, 126, 170-171, 176, 183, 215, 218, 287, 373-374, 384 representation, 107, 170-171, 204, 249, 263, 305 Representative samples, 247-249 Reproduction, 247 Republican Party, 20 Research, 1-24, 25-54, 55-89, 91-94, 96-98, 101-104, 107, 109-111, 116-124, 125-127, 129-140, 142-143, 145-164, 165-199, 201-204, 206, 208-212, 215-216, 218, 220-221, 230, 232, 237, 241, 243, 245-248, 251, 255, 267, 269, 273-274, 276, 279, 281-313, 367-392 cross-sectional, 25-26, 44, 47-48, 50, 52-53, 74 longitudinal, 26, 44-47, 53, 386 methods of, 2, 37, 139, 146 Research designs, 126-127, 383 research methods, 1-2, 20, 25, 49, 55, 91, 93, 96, 125, 151, 159, 165, 169, 201, 245, 255, 281, 285, 367 ethics, 125, 281 independent variables, 281 qualitative, 1, 20, 25, 55, 91, 96, 125, 165, 169, 201, 245, 255, 281, 367 quantitative, 1, 20, 25, 49, 55, 91, 125, 165, 169, 201, 245, 255, 281, 367 tables, 49, 255 variables, 165, 281 Research studies, 3, 7, 12, 16, 23, 27-29, 33, 43, 57, 61, 63-65, 68, 93, 127, 129-131, 248, 299 resistance, 29, 61, 285 Resolution, 34, 81 Resources, 31, 44, 52, 55, 60, 66-67, 72, 77, 79, 86, 113, 136, 147, 161, 175-176, 196-197, 276, 283, 381 Respect, 4, 10, 16, 60, 152-153, 181, 210, 229 Respondents, 19, 143, 152, 161, 232, 262-263, 270, 277, 280, 284-285, 297, 386 Response bias, 233 Response rate, 386 Retaliation, 158, 160 Retirement, 112 Retreatism, 66 revenue, 33, 389 Rewards, 86, 145, 305, 368 Ridicule, Rights, 1, 21, 25, 30, 33, 41, 44, 55, 80, 91, 122, 125, 145, 147, 149-151, 156-157, 162, 165, 190, 201, 211, 245, 281, 367 Ritualism, 66 Road rage, 6-7 Robbery, 180, 226 role, 13, 23-24, 31, 37, 51, 56, 80, 83, 86, 89, 100-102, 108, 114, 121, 146, 149, 152, 191, 202, 270, 292, 373 Roles, 12, 37, 39, 82-83, 85, 112, 118, 141, 149, 159, 204, 373 Romance, 193 Romantic love, 128 Rosenbloom, 369 Rules, 2, 5, 9, 12-14, 23, 66, 72, 82, 97-100, 107-108, 112, 114, 120, 137, 145, 156-157, 159, 169, 208, 216, 241-242, 269, 372-375 Ruling class, 112 Rumors, 77 Rural areas, 48, 280, 300 Russia, 231 S sacred, 58, 95 Same-sex marriage, 57 sample, 18, 40-41, 48, 88, 127-128, 131, 140, 143, 165, 169, 214, 216, 246-280, 285, 288-289, 306, 368, 371, 376, 378, 383, 386, 388 nonprobability, 248-249, 273, 276-278 Sample size, 127-128, 249, 253, 256, 258-261, 269-271, 273, 278, 280, 376 Samples, 45, 78, 127, 160, 215, 242, 247-249, 251, 255-264, 267, 269-271, 273, 277-278, 280, 285, 312, 375 Sampling, 49, 123, 139, 145, 245-280, 288-289, 373, 377-378, 380, 384 Sanitation, 31 Satisfaction, 309, 381 scales, 202, 226, 230-232, 238, 241, 243 Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), 217 School, 1, 3, 6, 10-11, 29, 31, 45, 47, 49, 51, 71, 74-75, 82-83, 85, 87-88, 103, 108, 110, 124, 138, 153-154, 159, 167, 181-182, 192-193, 206-207, 209-210, 213-217, 222, 229, 275, 281, 285, 302, 308, 370, 376, 382, 385 Schooling, 1, 6, 13, 36, 57, 60, 74, 78, 138, 190, 202, 222-223 Schools, 3, 11-12, 22, 24, 28-29, 31, 33, 47, 58, 75, 136, 141, 186, 203, 207, 285-286, 376, 379, 386, 390 college, 12, 22, 28, 75, 136, 286, 386 high, 3, 11, 28-29, 47, 58, 75, 136, 186, 376, 386 middle, 12, 386 secondary, 136, 376, 379, 386, 390 science, 1-2, 5-16, 22-24, 25, 31, 33, 47, 54, 57-63, 73, 89, 92-124, 129-133, 136-137, 145-147, 153, 156-158, 162, 167, 171, 182, 195, 230, 248, 256, 270, 282-283, 285-286, 310, 371, 383-384, 386, 392 scientific management, 286 Scientific method, 10, 14, 96 Scientific misconduct, 146, 156, 163 Screening, 138 Secondary analysis, 26, 367-392 Secondary education, 385 Secularization, 83, 85 Security, 51, 58, 72, 128, 152, 227, 253, 301, 381 Segregation, 19-20, 203, 376, 383 housing, 20, 203 self, 19-21, 24, 29, 36, 60, 64, 67, 77, 86, 98, 118, 121-122, 127, 139, 143, 145, 148, 152, 168, 171-173, 181, 203, 220, 232-233, 249, 274, 285, 287, 309 Self-esteem, 29, 64, 143, 145, 148, 181, 203, 232-233 self-fulfilling prophecy, 77 Self-interest, 171 Sentencing, 298 separation, 26, 61, 99, 119 September, 46, 375, 392 SET, 12-13, 20, 28, 34, 37-39, 42-43, 48, 50, 56, 65-66, 71, 80, 82-84, 87, 96-97, 101, 106-109, 113, 115, 122, 127, 135, 142, 158-160, 166-169, 173, 175, 179-180, 186, 190-191, 199, 203, 207-208, 216, 221-222, 225-226, 232-237, 239, 241, 246-247, 249, 251, 256, 261-262, 275, 289, 308-309, 371, 373, 376, 386 Sex, 19-20, 28, 39, 57, 128, 136, 141, 155, 204, 223, 238, 277, 298, 380, 386, 389, 392 adolescent, 386 adulthood, 386 knowledge of, 28 sex discrimination, 136 Sex education, 141 Sex segregation, 20 sex trade, 392 sex trafficking, 39 sexism, 63, 118, 371 Sexual, 3, 30, 128, 136, 141, 143, 149, 175, 177, 225-226, 275-276, 298, 371, 388 sexual abuse, 128 Sexual activity, 3, 141 sexual assault, 136, 226 Sexual behavior, 128 Sexual harassment, 30, 136, 143 Sexual intercourse, 141 Sexual orientation, 371, 388 sexual relations, 128, 225, 275 Sexual violence, 276 Sexuality, 10, 141, 175, 371 research on, 10 Singapore, 100, 138 Single people, 181 single-parent families, 276 sit-ins, 190, 240 situation, 4-5, 27, 32, 34, 38, 42-43, 49, 71, 73, 76-77, 82, 99, 104, 107-108, 121, 126, 143, 147-148, 150, 158-160, 173, 177, 195, 202, 211, 215, 220-221, 225-226, 229, 237, 260, 266, 269, 282, 284, 287, 289-291, 295, 297-298, 301, 304, 306, 308-310, 375, 377, 385, 387 Skin, 3, 94, 105, 204, 250, 275, 289-290 slavery, 122, 376 Small towns, 48 Smoking, 10, 55-56, 87, 133, 153, 156, 183, 303 Snowball sampling, 274-277, 279-280 social action, 71, 103-104, 108, 121-123, 177, 250 Social capital, 64, 127 Social change, 30, 83, 85, 112, 114, 116, 119 social class, 55, 63, 67, 76-77, 168-169, 196, 205, 296-297, 304 neighborhoods, 169, 297, 304 social cohesion, 82 Social conditions, 101, 109, 114, 197, 390 Social construction, 105 Social context, 84, 102, 104, 108-110, 176-178, 372 social control, 51, 77, 87-88 social distance, 230, 235, 237-238, 241, 243, 285 Social distance scale, 235, 237-238, 241, 243 Social diversity, 168 social experiments, 310 social facts, 115 social groups, 212, 230, 235, 274, 283, 376 Social identity, 72, 285 social inequality, 19, 30 Social integration, 87, 181, 189 Social interaction, 60, 71, 105, 143, 235, 309 social interactions, 106-107, 111, 121, 309 Social issues, 6-7, 57, 62, 215, 282 Social justice, 111 Social learning theory, 87 Social location, 59 Social mobility, 80, 381 Social movement, 22, 43 Social movements, 71, 117 Social networks, 82, 251, 309 social order, 111 Social policy, 381-382 Social pressure, 148-149, 177 Social problem, 6-7, 381 social problems, 15, 19, 143 social programs, 7, 28, 203 Social reform, 102 Social research, 1-2, 5, 8, 16-18, 20, 22-24, 25-54, 55, 60, 75, 91-93, 96-97, 101-104, 109-110, 116-118, 120-123, 125, 134, 136, 142, 145-147, 152-153, 156-157, 160, 162-163, 165-166, 170, 179, 192, 198, 201, 204, 208, 221, 243, 245, 255, 279, 281-282, 284, 286, 308, 367, 369, 383-384, 388, 390 social roles, 82, 85, 204 social science, 1-2, 7-8, 10, 15-16, 22-24, 25, 31, 33, 54, 57-63, 89, 92, 94-105, 107-110, 112-124, 129-133, 136-137, 153, 156-158, 162, 167, 195, 230, 248, 256, 270, 283, 285-286, 310, 383-384, 386, 392 Social science research, 1-2, 7-8, 16, 22-23, 25, 31, 33, 57, 94, 96, 122, 386 Social sciences, 9, 17, 92-93, 97, 102, 110, 119, 122, 131, 136, 162, 284, 368 Social setting, 20, 38, 68, 104, 177, 237, 374 Social standing, 87 Social status, 85, 196, 205 social structure, 51 social system, 85-86, 188 Social welfare, 29 Social welfare programs, 29 Socialization, 83, 85 Societies, 52, 64, 71-72, 78, 98-99, 127, 152-153, 188, 383 Society, 1, 5, 11, 15, 18, 35, 52, 59-60, 62, 66-67, 71, 83-86, 94, 101, 105, 111-115, 121, 125, 130-131, 145-147, 153, 155, 159-160, 162, 174, 178, 188, 193, 203, 205, 217, 220, 230, 233, 283, 371, 380-381 Sociological imagination, 23, 92 Sociological research, 132 Sociological theory, 55-56 sociology, 1, 8, 13, 15, 20-21, 66, 77, 83, 85, 92-93, 96-97, 102-103, 110, 124, 130-135, 141, 146, 150, 156, 164, 190-191, 198, 270, 282 Soldiers, 147, 178 solidarity, 210-211 space, 8-9, 34, 41-42, 67, 71, 73, 98, 132, 216, 238-239, 297, 374 Spanish, 47, 52, 62, 71-72, 82, 144, 270 Special-interest groups, specific, 2, 9, 13, 16-21, 25, 27-31, 34, 36-38, 41-44, 46, 48-49, 52, 56-57, 59, 63, 67-75, 77, 81-85, 92-96, 99-100, 102-105, 107-108, 110-111, 117, 122-123, 125-128, 131, 133, 135-140, 144, 147-148, 151, 155, 159, 162, 167, 169, 171-172, 174-177, 179, 185, 188-189, 191, 195, 198, 204-205, 207-211, 213-217, 220-222, 225-227, 230, 237, 241, 248, 252, 254-256, 258, 264, 269, 273-277, 279, 282-283, 286-289, 291, 296, 306, 308, 310, 371, 374-375, 377, 380-381, 383-386 Split labor market, 20, 41 sponsor, 27, 116, 135, 157-161, 379 sports, 12, 35, 69, 87-88, 175-176, 231 stability, 34, 44, 52, 135, 212, 216, 218, 241, 301, 375 Stages, 26, 32, 38, 80-83, 147, 195, 263-264, 270, 273, 295, 301 Starvation, 59 state, 21, 28, 33, 76-77, 80-82, 99, 127, 130, 135, 140, 155-157, 160, 164, 173, 182-183, 186, 195, 205-208, 210, 223, 225-226, 252-253, 274, 376, 381, 383, 385, 387-388 States, 6-7, 11-14, 19, 21, 28-29, 31-33, 39, 41, 44-45, 48, 55, 64, 68, 80, 92, 96-97, 100, 102, 112-113, 115-117, 120, 122, 134-135, 137, 147, 155-156, 159, 168, 188, 194, 196-197, 202, 206, 225, 231, 234, 240, 247, 251-253, 256, 267, 270, 274, 281, 284, 297, 309, 376, 380-385, 388-389 statistical analysis, 17, 40, 49, 102, 128, 165, 167, 269, 368, 378, 381 Statistics, 10, 13, 16, 18-19, 26, 41, 43-44, 49, 52-53, 97, 103, 120, 160-161, 164, 170, 172-173, 176, 196, 198, 208, 227-228, 240, 251, 255-256, 258, 271, 286, 310, 368-369, 372, 378, 380-381, 383-392 statistics on, 385, 387-388, 390 Statue of Liberty, 376-377 status, 30, 85, 87, 100, 102, 110, 160, 180-181, 196, 205, 222-223, 249, 270, 307 Stepchildren, 135 stereotypes, 4, 41, 69, 128, 371, 373, 378 Stigma, 277 Stigmatized, 276 Straight, 78, 98, 139, 169-170 Strain, 158, 211 Stratification, 24, 52 Stress, 34, 60, 77, 79, 148-149, 170, 390 strikes, 211, 240, 389 Structural factors, 196 Structural Functionalism, 85-86 structure, 31, 43, 51, 67, 78, 80-83, 111, 113, 119, 142, 190, 197, 240, 377 Structures, 42, 71-72, 82, 110-117, 119, 121, 123, 190-191 subculture, 19, 55, 172 subgroups, 174, 213, 216, 229-230, 271, 385 subordination, 171 subpopulations, 212-213, 262 Substance abuse, 136, 277 illegal drugs, 136 suburbs, 65 Suicide, 178, 181, 189-190, 192-193, 294-295, 373, 382 suicide rates, 189, 294-295 Superiority, 203 Supreme Court, 21 Surgery, 147 Surveillance, 149, 152 survey research, 40, 49, 53-54, 76, 125, 143, 230, 285, 369, 380, 384, 390, 392 Surveys, 9, 23, 39, 48-49, 97, 122, 150, 157, 215, 232, 241, 269, 280, 369, 384, 386 Sweden, 389 symbol, 62-63, 84, 298, 376 Symbolic Interaction theory, 166 Symbolic interactionism, 85-86 Symbols, 49, 62-63, 167, 204, 259, 298, 311, 370-372, 374-377 Syphilis, 147 T Taken-for-granted assumptions, 108 talk, 10, 24, 33, 39, 113, 172, 174, 177, 185, 190, 216, 221, 248, 254, 272, 373 Taxes, 33-34, 186, 202, 253, 285, 308, 379 Teachers, 1, 5, 25, 27, 71, 153, 159, 206-207, 209-210, 215, 246, 376 technical skills, 16 Technology, 6, 8, 11, 80, 101, 119, 171 Teen pregnancy, 141 Teenagers, 27, 29, 186-187, 275 Terrorism, 205 Testimonials, 159 Thailand, 389 the environment, 118 The Nation, 41, 122, 188, 190, 376-377 the official, 129, 189, 202, 215, 387, 389 The White House, 161 Theft, 180, 226 Theoretical frameworks, 85-86, 89, 205 Theoretical perspectives, 167 Theories, 2, 9, 11, 16, 26, 40, 42, 56-62, 64-66, 68, 71-75, 77-78, 80-81, 83, 85-88, 96-97, 100, 106, 109, 111-112, 115, 118, 121, 127, 140, 173, 177, 181, 183, 188, 192, 195, 204, 206, 242, 282, 284, 390 Theory, 9, 11, 17-23, 27, 38, 40-43, 51, 55-89, 92, 96-100, 102-103, 107-108, 110, 112, 114-115, 117-118, 120-123, 127, 138-139, 166-167, 174, 176-177, 180-183, 186, 188-189, 191, 195, 197-199, 203-204, 208, 211, 221-222, 254, 273, 276, 281, 284-288, 307-308, 368, 378, 389 Theory building, 64 593 thesis, 134-135 Third World, 229 Threats, 155, 300, 303-304, 308, 310-311, 313, 368 time, 2-8, 12-13, 16-17, 21, 25-27, 30, 32, 34-35, 37, 39, 41-42, 44-53, 55-56, 59-60, 62-63, 67-68, 71, 73-74, 76-77, 80, 82-83, 85-87, 89, 95, 98, 100, 105, 107, 111-112, 114, 117, 119-120, 125-127, 130, 132, 134-139, 144, 151, 155-156, 158, 165-169, 173-179, 181, 183-186, 188-189, 191, 193-194, 196, 202, 207, 210-212, 215-216, 218, 220, 226-227, 234-235, 237-238, 240, 247-248, 252, 255, 257-258, 262, 267-268, 276-277, 281, 286-288, 294-300, 305-307, 309, 312-313, 370-371, 374-375, 377-380, 383-384, 387-390 Tobacco, 10, 14, 156 tolerance, 2, 48, 58, 190 Torture, 147 Toys, 72, 370 tracking, 45, 376 tradition, 96, 99, 195, 197, 376-377 Traditional families, 141 Traditional societies, 78 Training, 12, 34, 93, 101-102, 142, 146, 157, 159, 176, 207, 288, 292-293, 296, 372, 375, 381, 388 transcripts, 103, 176 Transitions, 142 Transportation, 6, 31, 203, 252 treaties, 137 treaty rights, 33 Triangulation, 165-167, 198, 214 Trust, 4, 46, 118, 146-147, 149-150, 152, 159, 163, 177, 198 truth, 2, 22, 28, 36, 58, 95, 99-100, 114, 119-120, 125, 151, 160, 185, 218, 220 Turkey, 228 Turner, 24, 54, 89, 97, 124 Turning point, 47, 52, 286 Tuskegee Syphilis study, 147 typology, 66-67, 88, 146 U Underground economy, 172 Understanding, 1-2, 11-12, 16-17, 22, 26-27, 36, 56-57, 63-65, 68, 70, 84, 92, 95, 98, 103-104, 106-109, 111, 114-115, 122, 145, 162, 170, 190, 195, 206, 247, 274, 284, 305, 380, 388 Unemployment, 65, 77-78, 100, 106, 118, 193, 196, 227-230, 251, 380, 382, 387-389 Uniform Crime Report, 226 Unions, 173, 178, 230 United Nations, 69, 135, 157, 228, 381, 384, 389 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 157 universities, 12-13, 22, 135, 145-146, 156, 158 University of Chicago, 20, 154, 384, 392 University of Michigan, 135, 383-384 Unobtrusive measures, 369, 389, 391 Urban areas, 48, 267, 281, 369 Urban sprawl, 63, 379 Urbanization, 65, 83, 85 urban, 65 U.S Census Bureau, 160, 252, 270, 381 U.S Department of, 29, 150, 156 U.S Department of Defense, 29 U.S Department of Health and, 156 U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 156 U.S Department of Justice, 150 USA Today, 11, 24 Utah, 382 V Validity, 42, 190, 202, 211-212, 215-221, 225-229, 234, 241-242, 252, 271, 281, 283, 285, 287, 293, 298-304, 306-308, 310-313, 368, 374-375, 387, 390-391 Value-free research, 97 Values, 2, 7, 11-14, 17, 34-35, 56-58, 63, 65, 83, 85-87, 93, 96, 100-101, 107-109, 113, 115-121, 145, 170, 173, 178, 180, 182, 186, 203, 205, 222, 224, 226-228, 234-235, 258, 291, 301, 376-377, 390 cultural, 11, 14, 17, 56, 85, 101, 113, 118-119, 178, 376-377 variable, 65, 76, 78, 180-183, 185-186, 188, 190-194, 196-198, 205-209, 212-214, 217, 222-227, 230, 236-237, 252, 256, 281-282, 284-285, 594 287-288, 290-296, 298-303, 305, 309-310, 312, 369-370, 375-376, 386-387 Variables, 17, 42, 56, 65, 74-76, 78, 127-128, 138, 165, 167, 174-177, 179-182, 185, 189, 191-193, 195, 198-199, 204, 207-208, 210, 222-224, 228, 241-242, 269, 271, 281-283, 286, 288, 291-292, 295-297, 299-300, 304-306, 308, 310, 312, 375-378, 380, 390 Variety, 133, 142, 179, 204, 218, 273, 275 verstehen, 103, 123 Victims, 30, 60, 143, 147-148, 276, 387-388 Victims of crime, 60 Video games, 301 Vietnam, 32, 190 Vietnam War, 190 Violence, 67, 86, 88, 110, 128, 166, 193, 203, 276 Violent crimes, 3, 105, 236 Virginity, 134, 141 Virginity pledges, 134, 141 Vision, 190, 192, 203, 379 Vitamins, Voluntary associations, 197 Voodoo, 12 voters, 159, 178, 237, 253 Voting, 19-20, 41, 80-81, 99, 137, 156, 178, 190, 253, 380-381, 383-385 participation in, 381 Voting rights, 80, 190 W War, 9, 16, 45, 102, 147, 157, 160, 164, 190-191, 277, 286, 313 military, 147, 157 War on poverty, 190 Water, 34, 43, 106, 147, 191, 223, 370, 379, 390 Wealth, 231 Weber, Max, 65-66, 92, 103, 371 Welfare, 29, 119, 150, 153, 381 Welfare programs, 29 White, 8, 10, 19, 39-40, 45, 48, 51, 65, 68, 72, 80, 84, 101, 111, 142, 161, 167-168, 174-175, 178, 190, 196, 230, 237, 246, 250, 256-257, 273-274, 277, 281, 285, 296-297, 305, 309, 371, 375, 383, 390 Whites, 20, 39-40, 72, 80-81, 169, 173, 196, 237, 246, 285, 297, 376 WHO, 1, 3-5, 7-8, 10-20, 22-23, 26-27, 29-41, 45-53, 55, 57, 59-60, 63, 65-68, 70, 73-75, 79-80, 82-84, 86-88, 99, 101-107, 109-113, 115-121, 128-129, 133-136, 141-142, 144-150, 152-158, 160-162, 167-168, 170-175, 177-179, 182, 185-186, 192-194, 196, 202-203, 205, 207, 212, 214-218, 221, 224, 227-229, 233, 235-238, 240, 243, 248-254, 262-264, 267, 269-270, 274-277, 281, 283-286, 288, 291-292, 294, 297, 300-305, 309, 368, 370-375, 378-379, 381, 383, 385-390 Wilson, 124, 196 Witches, Withdrawal, 143 Women, 3, 6, 8, 19-21, 28, 30, 33, 35, 45, 102, 118, 124, 128, 131, 143, 147-148, 163, 213, 216, 225, 230, 232-233, 251, 254, 262, 270, 274, 298, 370-371, 373, 385-386, 389 of poverty, 21 violence against, 128 workers, 1, 22, 32-33, 35, 67, 117, 210-211, 246, 251, 292, 372, 387, 389 Workforce, 13, 229, 388 Working class, 173 workplace, 32, 72, 210, 308 World Bank, 135 World War I, 191, 286 X xenophobia, 46 ... Review and Conduct Ethical Studies W Lawrence Neuman 125 Strategies of Research Design W Lawrence Neuman 165 Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement W Lawrence Neuman 201 Qualitative and Quantitative. .. Contents Why Do Research? W Lawrence Neuman What Are the Major Types of Social Research? W Lawrence Neuman 25 Theory and Research W Lawrence Neuman 55 The Meanings of Methodology W Lawrence Neuman 91... W Lawrence Neuman 245 Experimental Research W Lawrence Neuman 281 10 Survey Research W Lawrence Neuman 315 11 Nonreactive Research and Secondary Analysis W Lawrence Neuman 367 12 Analysis of Quantitative