i Tribology and dynamics of engine and powertrain © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 ii Related titles: Vehicle noise and vibration refinement (ISBN 978-1-84569-497-5) High standards of noise, vibration and harshness performance are expected in vehicle design Refinement is therefore one of the main engineering/design attributes to be addressed when developing new vehicle models and components This book provides a review of noise and vibration refinement principles and methods, advanced experimental and modelling techniques, and palliative treatments necessary in the process of vehicle design, development and integration in order to meet noise and vibration standards Case studies from the collective experience of specialists working for major automotive companies are included to form an important reference for engineers in the motor industry who seek to overcome the technological challenges faced in developing quieter, more comfortable cars Materials, design and manufacturing for lightweight vehicles (ISBN 978-1-84569-463-0) Research into the manufacture of lightweight automobiles has led to the consideration of a variety of materials, such as high-strength steels, aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys, plastics and composites This research is driven by a need to reduce fuel consumption to preserve dwindling hydrocarbon resources without compromising other attributes such as safety, performance, recyclability and cost This important book will make it easier for engineers not only to learn about the materials being considered for lightweight automobiles, but also to compare their characteristics and properties It also covers issues such as crashworthiness and recycling Diesel engine system design (ISBN 978-1-84569-715-0) Diesel engine design is highly complex, involving many individuals and companies from original equipment manufacturers to suppliers A system design approach for setting up the right engine performance specifications is essential to streamline the processes This important book links everything a diesel engineer needs to know about engine performance and system design in order to master all the essential topics quickly; the focus is on how to use advanced analysis methods to solve practical design problems Numerous case studies and examples illustrate advanced design approaches using engine cycle simulation tools The central theme is how to design a good engine system performance specification at an early stage of the product development cycle Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing books can be obtained by: ∑ visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com ∑ contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francis dodds@woodheadpublishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 iii Tribology and dynamics of engine and powertrain Fundamentals, applications and future trends Edited by Homer Rahnejat Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 iv Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com Woodhead Publishing, 525 South 4th Street #241, Philadelphia, PA 19147, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84569-361-9 (print) ISBN 978-1-84569-993-2 (online) The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, India Printed by TJI Digital, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 v Contents Contributor contact details xix Preface xxv Foreword D Dowson Introduction R Parry Jones xxvii xxix Part I Introduction to dynamics and tribology within the multi-physics environment An introduction to multi-physics multi-scale approach H Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Introduction Newtonian mechanics Lagrange’s equation and reduced configuration space Multi-body mechanical systems Engine as a multi-body system Elasto-multi-body dynamics analysis References and further reading Nomenclature Appendix: multi-physics analysis for investigation of manual transmission gear rattle – drive/creep rattle 3 12 20 22 26 28 29 Section I.I Fundamentals of tribology and dynamics Mechanisms and laws of friction and wear 41 D Arnell, University of Central Lancashire, UK 2.1 Introduction 41 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 vi Contents 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 The nature of engineering surfaces Surface topography and contact The contact of rough surfaces Friction Wear Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 41 42 48 50 60 71 71 72 Surface phenomena in thin-film tribology 73 P Prokopovich and H Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK and M Teodorescu, Cranfield University, UK 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction A question of wetness Meniscus action: surface tension Contact angle of liquids Estimation of interfacial tension between a liquid and a solid Adhesion of rough surfaces Intermolecular interactions and near-surface effects van der Waals forces Other near-surface effects Conclusion References Nomenclature 81 84 92 93 99 100 100 103 Fundamentals of impact dynamics of semi-infinite and layered solids 105 M Teodorescu, Cranfield University, UK; V Votsios, Atos, Spain; P M Johns-Rahnejat, (formerly) Imperial College London, UK and H Rahnejat, Loughborough University, UK 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Introduction Basic aspects of contact mechanics for elastic solids Hertzian theory Analytical treatment of contact mechanics of layered solids Impact dynamics Contact mechanics based on action of deformation potential References Nomenclature 105 107 111 114 116 123 129 130 Fluid film lubrication 132 R Gohar, Imperial College London, UK and M M A Safa, Kingston University, UK 5.1 Lubricant properties 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 73 75 77 79 132 Contents 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 vii Reynolds equation The energy equation The Navier–Stokes equations Free surface behaviour of lubricant films Externally pressurised (EP) gas journal bearings Approximate design of oil thrust bearings Thermal design of finite length bearings Review of some unusual and recent applications of fluid film lubrication References Appendix: Design coefficients for plane thrust bearing pairs 167 168 170 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication 171 F Sadeghi, Purdue University, USA 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Introduction Conformal and non-conformal contacts Regimes of lubrication Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) minimum film thickness equations Experimental film thickness and corroboration with analytical results Thermal effects in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) contacts Non-Newtonian fluid model Boundary lubrication Mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) Surface roughness Contact and internal stress Application of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) theory to machine components References and further reading Nomenclature 5.10 5.11 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Measurement of contact pressure under elastohydrodynamic lubrication conditions 137 148 151 153 154 157 162 171 175 176 177 182 183 184 185 185 191 192 201 213 220 222 R Gohar, Imperial College London, UK and M M A Safa, Kingston University, UK Introduction Gauge manufacturing process Applications using pressure gauges Alternative methods of measuring contact pressure Conclusions References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 222 223 227 241 244 245 viii Contents Part II Engine and powertrain technologies and applications Section II.I Overview Tribological considerations in internal combustion engines D R Adams, Ford Dagenham Development Centre, UK 8.1 8.2 Introduction Issues of cost, competition, and reliability in internal combustion (IC) engine tribology Drivers for tribological design and innovation A systems view of the piston/ring/cylinder bore interface The development process in internal combustion (IC) engines The piston in internal combustion (IC) engines Piston rings in internal combustion (IC) engines The cylinder bore surface Design validation of internal combustion (IC) engines Future trends References 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 Predictive methods for tribological performance in internal combustion engines I McLuckie, AIES Ltd, UK 9.1 9.2 9.3 Introduction Integrated knowledge-based tribology systems Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS) and elastohydrodynamics (EHD) to a race engine crank pin Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS) and right-hand drive (RHD) to piston and liner Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS) and right-hand drive (RHD) to turbocharger bearings Engine friction: building a better understanding Conclusions Acknowledgements References 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 251 251 253 254 255 258 264 270 274 279 281 282 284 284 285 289 302 313 331 337 339 339 Section II.II Tribology of piston systems 10 Fundamentals of lubrication and friction of piston ring contact V D’Agostino and A Senatore, University of Salerno, Italy 10.1 Introduction 343 343 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Contents 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 ix Piston ring: history and basics Piston rings classification Lubrication models A brief analysis of the main assumptions on the boundary conditions Simplified two-dimensional Reynolds equation for oil ring The contact between the asperities: mixed-lubrication regime The multi-physics approach to ring friction Ring flutter and collapse Bore distortion in lubrication models Laser-textured surfaces Warm-up effect Future trends References and further reading Notation 361 371 378 380 380 381 381 382 385 11 Measurement techniques for piston-ring tribology 387 I Sherrington, University of Central Lancashire, UK 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Introduction Measurement of lubricating film thickness Measurement of piston-ring friction Measurement of piston-ring movement Measurement of piston-ring wear Measurement of ring zone temperature Observation and measurement of lubricant movement and consumption 11.8 Future trends 11.9 Sources of further information 11.10 References 12 An ultrasonic approach for the measurement of oil films in the piston zone R S Dwyer-Joyce, University of Sheffield, UK 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 Introduction Ultrasonic measurement of oil film thickness Ultrasonic measurement equipment Case study: measurement from a piston skirt Case study: piston rings in a test bench Overview Conclusions Acknowledgements References and further reading © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 344 347 350 356 359 387 392 401 407 409 411 413 417 421 422 426 426 429 433 437 445 452 454 455 455 1004 Index laser-induced fluorescence, 399–401, 427 applications, 400–1 limitations, 400 laser surface texturing, 459, 467, 475–6 friction reduction in engines, 461–7 engine specific fuel consumption vs engine speed, 466 laser-etched cylinder liner, 466 partial LST Cr coated cylindrical face piston ring, Plate VII partial LST cylindrical face piston ring, 465 piston rings, 464 piston rings segments, 461 test schematic, 462 time average friction force vs crank angular velocity, 463 laser-textured surfaces, 380 laser texturing, 464, 475 lash, 561, 858, 869, 918–19 lateral/longitudinal slip, 716 law of universal gravitation, laws of adhesive wear, 61–2 laws of friction, 50–1 layered bonded elastic solids, 114, 123 LDV see laser Doppler vibrometers lead, 605 lemon shape bearings, 638, 639 Lennard-Jones 6-12 potential, 966–7 Lewis-acid base interactions, 82 life of an asperity junction, 60 LIF see laser-induced fluorescence Lifshitz theory, 96, 97 LIGA process see lithography, electroplating, moulding process limiting elastic strain, 46 line contact, 177–8 line EHL contact, 178 liner profile, 310 liquid impact erosion, 68 liquid lubricants, 471 lithography, 459 lithography, electroplating, moulding process, 475 load angle, 636 load balance, 646 load-bearing capacity, 65 load parameter, 581 load shift knock, 795 local part frame of reference, 13 local position vector, 16 localised contact deformation, 107 localised deformation, 116 localised slip, 725 long bearings, 144, 593 approximations for rigid cylinders, 144–5 effective temperature, 161 shape, 144 long pad bearing, 162 longitudinal relaxation length, 724 defined, 725 longitudinal roughness, 651 longitudinal slip, 715, 718, 720 longitudinal slip ratio, 718 longitudinal tyre force, 721, 724 loose gears, 878 low shear strength film, 69 low shear strength oxide films, 76 LST see laser surface texturing lubricant capacitors, 476 lubricant density, 134, 136–7, 640–1 lubricant effective viscosity, 531 lubricant film, 895 lubricant micro-pockets, 476 lubricant reaction, 647 lubricant stiffness, 895 lubricant thixotropy, 638 lubricant viscosity, 641–2, 880 lubricants, 176, 471 movement and consumption, 413–17 properties, 132–7 density, 136–7 dynamic viscosity, 132–4 effect of pressure on viscosity, 135–6 effect of shear rate on viscosity, 137 effect of temperature on viscosity, 134–5 lubrication, 332 boundary regime, 75 fundamentals of piston ring contact, 343–82 mixed, 75 models, 350–6 bore distortion, 380 regimes, 176–7 viscous regime, 75 lubrication equation, 353–6 LuGre friction model, 728 lumped parameter approach, 707 LZ127 Graf Zeppelin Air Balloon, 840 machine gun-type noise, 843 Mach’s principle, Macroscopic fatigue wear, 63 Macroscopic oil consumption, 413-14 magic formula tyre model, 715–16 Magna Powertrain ATC, 747 magneto-rheological fluid coupling, 752 manganin pressure transducer, 223, 233 Manley-Balzer five-cylinder radial engine, 839 manometry, 222 manual transmission fluid, 806 mass continuity, 141–3 material point, materials parameter, 581 Mathcad, 166 Maugis model, 91, 92 Maugis transition parameter, 91 maximum shear stress, 53, 64, 198 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index Mazda-MPV, 753 MBD see multi-body dynamics mean asperity height, 89 mechanical power, 626 mechanical torsional damper, 829 MEMS see microelectromechanical systems MEMS gears, 950–6 Meniscus, 964 meniscus action, 77–9, 952 meniscus force, 90, 92–3 meshing frequency, 783 mesophase, 807 metal-to-metal contact, 554 metal–lubricant–metal layered system, 429 micro-blasting, 475 micro-dimples, 459 micro-dimpling, 474, 477 micro-hydrodynamics, 478 micro-plasto-hydrostatic lubrication effects, 478 micro-pools, 478 microelectromechanical systems, 458, 949–56, 960, 962 frictional impact conditions, 951 impact characteristics at small scale, 955 impact dynamics in MEMS gears, 950–6 nomenclature, 958–9 microengines, 947–56, 985 microgears, 947–56 microphones, 920 microscale gyroscopes, 949 microscopic fatigue wear, 63 microscopic slip model, 766 microslip, 67 Microsystems Technology Laboratory, 949 microwelding, 270 miniaturised piezo-accelerometers, 949 minimum film thickness, 620 minimum oil film thickness, 293 MIRA see Motor Industry Research Association mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication, 173, 185–91 overall film thickness propagation for the start up process, Plate VI pressure and film thickness distribution, Plate V mixed lubrication regime, 75, 177, 255, 361, 559, 667, 936 piston rings, 361–71 mobility method, 620, 624, 628, 630, 636, 637 modal superposition, 25 modal truncation method, 931 mode shape, 24 modified cycloidal cam, 547, 553, 559 modified photolithography process, 474 MOFT see minimum oil film thickness molar absorptivity, 399 1005 monolayer crosslinking, 982 Morse test, 406 motocross motorsport, 520 Motor Industry Research Association, 696 MTD see mechanical torsional damper MTF see manual transmission fluid multi-body dynamics, 22, 285, 290, 664, 684 compliances and forces, 687–9 clutch characteristics, 688 torsional clutch springs characteristics, 689 constraints, 685–7 clutch judder model, 686 joints used to assemble the clutch judder multi-body model, 687 judder phenomenon, 684–92 clutch linings frictional behaviour, 690–2 clutch main parts, 684 inertial elements, 684–5 vehicle studies and DOEs, 696–7 numerical findings, 692–6 driveline angular velocity variation, 693 hotspot localised contact, 695 reduced oscillations, 696 multi-body dynamics model, 684 single cylinder engine, Plate X multi-lobe effect, 639 multi-physics, 568, 915 multi-physics multi-scale approach, 3–26 elasto-multi-body dynamics analysis, 22–6 engine as a multi-body system, 20–2 Langrange’s equation and reduced configuration space, 9–11 manual transmission gear rattle-drive/ creep rattle investigation, 29–38 front wheel drive, 31 impulsion ration time histories and fast Fourier transform spectra, 37 lubricated conjunctions, 30 mathematical formulation, 30–4 nomenclature, 29–30 second gear plots, 36 multi-body mechanical systems, 12–19 constraint functions, 16–19 equations of motion, 12–15 Eulerian beam, 18 kinematic model for single cylinder engine, 15 Newtonian mechanics, 6–9 nomenclature, 27–8 multi-scale, multi-scale multi-physics analysis, multiphase flow, 153 nano-biotribology, 73 nano-tribology, 73 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1006 Index nanoelectromechanical systems, 969 Navier-Stokes equations, 138, 151–3, 482 NEDC see New European Driving Cycle negative textures, 473 NEMS see nanoelectromechanical systems Neumann-Young equation, 80 neutral rattle, 674, 879 New European Driving Cycle, 874 New Venture Gear, 758 Newmark’s linear acceleration method, 886 Newton-Euler method, 18, 19, 33, 574–5 Newton-Raphson method, 172, 556 Newton trolley, 917 Newtonian fluid, 133 Newtonian fluid model, 172, 184 Newtonian mechanics, 6–9 Newton’s first axiom, Newton’s rings, 234 Newton’s second axiom, 8, 10 Newton’s second law, 5, 484 Newton’s third axiom, Nissan, 758 nitriding, 71 noise, 117, 258 see also specific noise noise emission, 795 noise, vibration and harshness, 105, 258, 663, 665, 667, 678, 793, 840, 841, 916 noise factors, 853 noise level, 805 non-circular bearing, 298 non-conformal contacts, 176 non-holomic constraints, 12 non-Newtonian fluid behaviour, 137, 183, 184 non-Newtonian lubricant models, 172 non-Newtonian shear stress, 582 non-polar lubricants, 605 non-rotating sleeve, 157 normalized cylinder pressure history curve, 619 NVH see noise, vibration and harshness NVH transmission test, 852 Nyquist criterion, 922 octadecyltrichlorosilane, 951, 980, 982 OFT see oil film thickness oil consumption, 257, 344, 413–15 oil control rings, 272, 347, 349, 389 see also oil rings oil film thickness, 354, 377, 391, 394, 400, 428, 432 sensors, 419 ultrasonic measurement, 429–33 from ultrasonic reflection, 432–3 interface response to an ultrasonic wave, 432 oil film layer stiffness, 431–2 reflection of ultrasound from a boundary, 429–30 reflection of ultrasound from a thin oil film, 430–1 ultrasonic beam incident, 429 oil films, 397, 452–3 formation, 454 parameter, 75, 201 pressure, 368 stiffness, 431–2 temperature, 371–2, 375 ultrasonic approach for measurement in piston zone, 426–55 oil pressure, 352, 360 oil rings, 347, 349 oil sampling, 415–16 oil scraping efficiency, 273 oil supply hole, 296 oil thrust load, 364 oil void volume, 277 oil whip, 655 oil whirl, 653–4 instability, 654–5 onset of rattle, 889 on-demand AWD systems, 745 open cavitation condition, 358 open-end assumption, 358 operating point, 688 operational parameters, 495–6 optical interferometry, 173, 182, 186, 239 optimised textured surfaces, 493–508 application in piston ring/cylinder liner contact, 504–8 minimum clearance at each solution stage, 506 minimum clearances values in optimum cases, 507 slider bearing, 505 squeeze velocity variations, 508 Stribeck diagram, 504 parameters, 493–7 3D flat and parabolic bearing textured surface, 493 textured bearing, 496 textured bearing with finite and infinite width, 494 various texture profiles, 496 various texturing patterns, 495 results, 497–503 infinite vs finite width textures, 502 maximum dimensionless load capacities comparison, 503 obtained optimum configuration, 500–1 process results for textured infinite width bearing, 498 orbiting frequency, 96 orientational polarisability, 94 OTS see octadecyltrichlorosilane Overlay bearing, 610 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index overlay material, 607 overrun clonk, 670 overrun rattle, 847, 915 over-steer, 743 oxidative wear, 66 panel vibration, 669 parasitic frictional losses, 635 parasitic losses, 518 part-time systems see four wheel drive system partial EHL see mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication partial lubrication regime, 177 passive thermal protection systems, 747 PCS see power conversion system PCV see positive crankcase ventilation Peclet number, 151, 531, 536, 644 pendulum absorber, 876 perfluorodecyldimethylchlorosilane, 980 perfluorodecyltrichlorosilane, 980 periodic journal orbit, 628 permittivity, 967 Petrov friction, 881, 882, 890, 935 Petrov multiplier, 935 PFI see port fuelled injection pharmaceutical tribology, 73 phosphating, 71 phosphorus-doped polysilicon, 977 photo-bleaching, 400 photo-etching, 475 photoelasticity, 243–4 physical chemistry, 75 physical tyre models, 716 physical vapour deposition, 71, 475 piezo-resistive properties, 224 piezoelectric accelerometers, 886 piezoelectric sensor, 439–40 piezoviscous properties, 135, 153 pilot clutch, 754 pin tick, 258 piston, 264–70, 302 piston boss, 262 piston lateral dynamics, 376–8 piston pin, 303 piston rattle, 258 piston ring assembly, 270 piston ring/cylinder liner contact optimum results application, 504–8 minimum clearance at each solution stage, 506 minimum clearances values in optimum cases, 507 slider bearing, 505 squeeze velocity variations, 508 Stribeck diagram, 504 surface texturing, 470–509 and IC engines, 481–2 application in tribology, 473–4 debates surrounding surface texturing, 478–81 1007 mechanisms behind tribological improvements, 476–8 methods, 474–6 nomenclature, 514–17 solution methods, 490–3 surface texturing, 472–3 textured surfaces modelling, 485–90 textured surfaces optimisation, 493–503 tribology basic equations, 482–5 piston ring pack, 426 piston ring tribology floating liner arrangement use, 406 with force balancing seal, 405 with hydrostatic bearings, 404 friction measurement, 401–7 examples of IMEP method, 406 floating liner method, 402–5 IMEP method, 405–6 instantaneous piston assembly friction, 403 other methods, 406–7 piston-ring and skirt losses, 401 future trends, 417–21 piston assembly performance, 418 ring pack lubrication, 420 lubricant movement and consumption, 413–17 oil consumption measurement, 413–14 oil movement and condition studies by optical access, 417 ring pack lubricant flow studies, 416–17 ring zone sampling examples, 416 techniques for oil consumption measurement, 415 top ring zone oil sampling, 415–16 lubricating film thickness measurement, 392–401 capacitance methods, 392–4 capacitance sensors in engines, 395 inductance methods, 394–7 inductive sensors in engines, 397 laser-induced fluorescence, 399–401 laser-induced fluorescence techniques in engines, 401 resistance methods in engines, 398 resistive methods, 397–8 ultrasound methods, 398–9 measurement techniques, 387–421 hydrodynamic lubrication, 390 influences on ring pack design, 389–90 oil film thickness variations, 391 piston rings function, 388–9 predictive software verification, 392 ring pack for passenger or commercial vehicle, 388 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1008 Index movement measurement, 407–9 electrical measurements, 408 electrical methods, 407–8 other methods, 409 radioactive measurements, 409 radioactive tracers, 408–9 ring-zone temperature measurement, 411–12 techniques, 413 wear measurement, 409–11 laboratory methods, 409–10 on-line methods, 410–11 piston-ring profiles laboratory measurements, 410 thin layer activation, 411 piston-ring wear, 409–10 piston rings, 270–4, 461 boundary conditions analysis, 356–9 assumption for piston compression rings, 358 oil flow pattern during upstroke piston motion, 357 ring HDL effective length, 359 classification, 347–50 compression rings, 348–9 oil rings, 349 piston and ring geometrical features, 350 ring pack composed by four rings, 348 friction measurement, 401–7 functions, 388–9 fundamentals of lubrication and friction, 343–82 bore distortion in lubrication models, 380 future trends, 381–2 laser-textured surfaces, 380 notation, 385–6 warm-up effect, 381 history and basics, 344–7 FMEP from different rings and lubrication mechanisms, 347 friction loss distribution in a lightduty vehicle, 346 piston and ring names and positions, 345 piston ring pack, 347 hydrodynamic lubrication, 390 in a test bench, 445–52 lubrication, 392 lubrication models, 350–6 balancing of back force with fluid film force, 355 friction analysis and simulation, 353 lubrication equation, 353–6 piston top displacement, 352 mixed-lubrication regime, 361–71 film thickness function, 363 forces acting on ring in radial direction, 364 HDL thrust load, 369 input parameters, 371 minimum film thickness, 367 oil film pressure, 368 radial asperities ring force vs minimum ring/liner distance, 369 total radial ring load, 369 total top ring friction force, 370 movement measurement, 407–9 multi-physics approach to ring friction, 371–8 mean oil film temperature and viscosity vs crankshaft angle, 375 oil film temperature effect, 371–2 oil film thickness, 377 piston/cylinder system and circumferential co-ordinate, 375 piston lateral dynamics and ring flexibility, 373–8 rigid piston lateral motion, 376 temperature distribution in oil film, 373 velocity distribution in oil film, 374 Reynolds equation for oil ring, 359–60 2D solution for oil film pressure, 361 ring flutter and collapse, 378–9 ring stability, 379 viscous and asperities friction forces oil ring 3-piece type, 366 top ring friction forces, 365 see also piston ring tribology piston scuffing, 267 piston secondary motion, 258, 359, 376, 933 piston skirt, 310, 437–45 piston skirt profile, 313 piston slap, 258, 265, 940 piston slapping action, 648 piston test bench, 446 piston zone, 426–55 pitch, 739 planar constraint, 21 planar joint, 929 Planck constant, 95, 98 planetary gear differential, 746 illustration, 747 plasma spraying, 71 plastic properties, 45 plasticity index, 48–9 plateau profile, 266 ploughing, 56–7 ploughing friction, 691, 694 pneumatic tyre, 703 Poincaré, 783 point coincident constraint, 16 point contact, 178 point EHL (elliptical and circular) contact, 179 point Gauss-Seidel iteration method, 492 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index point successive over-relaxation, 492 Poiseuille flow, 141, 142, 358, 609–10 Poisson’s ration, 549 polar molecules, 93 polarisability, 94 polycrystalline silicon, 960, 962 polymers, 70 polynomial cam, 578 polysilicon see polycrystalline silicon Porsche-Cayenne, 755, 758 port fuelled injection, 254 positive crankcase ventilation, 257 positive textures, 473 potential energy, power conversion system, 251, 255, 256, 259 power law model, 638, 643 power loss, 569 power spectral density analysis, 922 power takeoff unit, 736 powertrains rattle and clatter noise, 793–835 see also automotive powertrains, 793–835 practical slip-ratio, 722 pressure convergence, 646, 647 pressure distribution, 124, 240–1 crank angle, 304 effect of oil hole at 10° shaft angle, 309 indirect methods for determination, 243–4 experimental film thickness contour map, 244 photoelasticity, 243–4 oil hole positions, 301 pressure gauges, 227–41 pressure pip, 109 pressure spike, 109, 179, 182, 228, 298 pressure viscosity coefficient, 135, 136 pretension radial forces, 776 primary flywheel, 864 primary inertia, 926 primitive constraints, 16 principal stresses, 200 principle of conservation of momentum, 119 principle of superposition, 124 profilometer, 42 profilometry, 191 propeller shaft, 736 PSD see power spectral density PSOR see point successive over-relaxation pull-off action, 85 pull-off force, 84, 85, 87 pulse conditioning, 665 pulse-echo arrangement, 433 pulsing rate, 437 pure iron, 605 pushrod gear driven valve train, 571 PVD see physical vapour deposition quasi-static, 1009 quasi-static analysis, 19 quasi-static cavitation model, 620 radio frequency (RF) sputtering, 226 radioactive tracers, 408, 410 Raleigh scattering, 243 Raman lines, 243 Raman microspectroscopy, 240 Raman scattering, 243 Raman spectroscopy, 241–3 rapid design charts, 628 rattle, 29–38, 793–835, 857, 878, 915–16 see also specific type of rattle creep rattle, 915 idle rattle, 915 over run rattle, 915 rattle ratio, 879, 887 rattle sensitivity, 853 rattling curve, 822 rattling limit, 800, 814 RBC see JTEKT’s rotary blade coupling Re see Reynolds number reactive ion etching, 459 real area of contact, 51, 110, 977 real slip, 742 rear axle whine, 671 rear wheel drive, 737 reduced configuration space, 9–12 reduced order model, 25 reduced radius, 145 reduced Young’s modulus of elasticity, 580 Ree-Eyring fluid model, 183, 184 reflection coefficient, 429, 432, 443, 449 regime of lubrication, 332 relative humidity, 965 relaxation length, 723, 729 release-induced adhesion, 971 repeat constraints, 18 resistance of an oil film, 397 resistance transducers, 398 resistive methods, 397–8 applications, 398 limitations, 398 resistive transducer, 229 restraint, 13 retardation length, 966 retarded van der Waals see Casimir force revolute joint, 16, 929 Reynolds cavitation condition, 358 Reynolds condition, 647 Reynolds equation, 137, 138, 289, 523, 528, 556, 642 arbitrary bearing geometry, 482 cam and tappet conjunction lubrication analysis, 556 cyclic minimum film thickness, 621 2D solution for oil film pressure, 361 derivation in three dimensions, 138–9 EHL minimum film thickness equations, 179 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1010 Index equilibrium of forces on lubricant element, 139–40 film function interpretation, 643 fluid film lubrication, 137–48 isotropic roughness, 652 journal bearings analytical solutions, 593–4 lubrication models, 353–4 mass continuity, 141–3 mixed-lubrication regime, 362 non-dimensionalising time-dependent, 487–8 non-dimensionalising time-independent, 488–90 oil flow in big-end bearings, 624–5 physics, 137–8 pistons interactions with cylinder wall, 933 pressure distribution, 642–3 simplification, 143–8 line contact load, 147–8 line contact pressure distribution, 145–7 long bearing, 144 long bearing approximations for rigid cylinders, 144–5 squeeze film bearings, 148 simplified 2D for oil ring, 359–60 thermal effects, 644 tribology basic equations, 482–4, 611 valve train systems analysis, 568, 574, 578–9, 580, 581 velocity distribution, 141 Reynolds exit boundary condition, 147, 528 Reynolds number, 152, 809 Reynolds-Swift-Stieber cavitation, 491 Reynolds viscosity equation, 134 RH see relative humidity RHD see rigid hydrodynamics rheology, 639 RIE see reactive ion etching rigid hydrodynamics, 289, 333, 334 ring collapse, 379 ring conformability, 275 ring flexibility, 374 ring flutter, 272, 378–9, 520 ring gear, 746 ring-liner gap, 351 ring motion, 407 ring pack, 259, 272, 347, 351, 388 influences on design, 389–90 lubricant flow studies, 416–17 system for feedback regulation of lubrication, 420 ring stability, 379 ring twist, 407 ring zone sampling, 415–16 ring zone temperature, 411–12 ringing noise, 117, 917, 918 rocker arm, 575 rocker arm bearing, 571 Rockwell indenter, 474 Roelands equation, 531, 580, 642 Roll, 739 roll-over prevention systems, 743 roller bearings, 231–2 rolling contact noise, 794 rolling element bearing, 176 rolling viscosity parameter, 581 root mean square deviation, 43 roughness, 192 rotary viscous couplings, 748 rotational imbalance, 646 roughness, 42–3, 191 average, 43 rubber friction, 721 SAD see speed-adaptive damper SAE frame of reference, 716 SAE J670, 742 SAE J670e, 738 SAF see synthetic axle fluid SALBA see short and long bearing approximation SAM see self-assembled monolayer Sandia National Laboratories, 972 saturation pressure, 358 Saturn-VUE, 747 SBA see short bearing approximation Scanning electron microscope, 969 scraper ring, 348, 389 scraping noise, 841 screeching bearing noise, 840 scuffing, 70, 265, 339 second compression ring, 272 second order engine excitation, 668, 918 secondary transverse motion, 265 self-assembled monolayer, 950, 951, 954, 980 self-induced torque phenomenon, 748 SEM see scanning electron microscope semi-empirical tyre model see magic formula tyre model semi-infinite elastic half-space, 107 semi-infinite solid, 548 setae, 85 seven-speed transaxle transmission, 882 SFFT see short fast Fourier transformation shaft elasticity, 885 shear modulus, 133 shear strain rate, 133 shear strength, 55, 606 shear thinning, 137, 353, 643 sheet rolling, 474 shift clonk, 670, 795 short and long bearing approximation, 289, 331, 333, 334 short bearing, 593 short bearing approximation, 289, 331, 333, 334, 594, 621 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index short bearing mobility formulation, 630 short bearing theory, 624, 627 short fast Fourier transformation, 923 Short-Wavelength-Intermediate Frequency Tyre model, 726–7 shuffle, 670, 676, 681, 683, 703, 704, 712, 714, 917, 920 brush-type model for analysis, 716–21 drivetrain error state, 704 influence of transient tyre behaviour, 728–31 role of tyre–road interactions contact mechanics, 703–31 tyre modelling for analysis, 714 shunt, 683, 917, 920 side exit constriction, 560 side leakage, 143, 161, 642 sidewall adhesion, 972, 974–5 adhesion force, 975 contacting shuttles, 976 test structure schematic representation and SEM image, 975 signal monitoring, 234–5 silicon, 985 silicon carbide, 977 silicone fluid, 748–9 Simulink models, 766 single cylinder engine, 630 crankshaft offset, 940–1 friction at piston skirt, 941 major thrust side force variation, 942 piston orientation, 940 engine model conjunctional friction, 934–7 bearing friction torque variation, 936 piston skirt, 937 viscous and boundary friction forces, 938 temperature effects in lubricated contacts, 938–9 heat dissipation, 939 tribological conjunctions in the model, 931–4 bearing reaction forces vs crankshaft rotation, 932 forces on the piston ring, 935 main bearing reactions, 931–2 piston interactions with the cylinder wall, 933 piston ring interaction with cylinder wall, 934 piston skirt and cylinder liner conjunction, 933 tribo-elasto-multi-body dynamics under fired condition, 928–42 combustion gas force variation, 930 constraints, 929 engine model with flexible components, 930–1 1011 multi-body dynamic model of single cylinder engine, Plate X nomenclature, 943–4 resistive forces on engine components, 930 single degree of freedom model, 880 sigma, 279 skewness, 192 Skyline, 758 sliding friction, 59–60 slip control device, 747–57 magneto-rheological fluid devices, 752 torsen differential, 756–7 viscous couplings, 748–52 wet clutch couplings, 752–6 slip controlled clutch, 828-9 slip-ratio, 719, 723 small-end bearing, 262 small piezo-resistive thin-film sensors, 631 small-scale surface engineering problems, 960–85 chemical modification of surfaces, 979–84 DSB precursor molecule ball and stick model, 983 reaction sequence in ALD process, 984 silicon carbide film, 983 various surface treatments physical property data, 981 experimental methods, 968–75 in-plane adhesion, 969–72 sidewall adhesion, 972, 974–5 future trends, 984–5 interfacial forces between two flat plates, 964–8 capillary, van der Waals and electrostatic forces, 968 capillary meniscus forces, 964–6 comparison, 967–8 electrostatic forces, 967 Van der Waals dispersion forces, 966–7 physical modification of surfaces, 975, 977–9 polysilicon surface AFM images, 978 silicon carbide nanoparticles on polysilicon surface, 979 SMF see solid mass flywheel Snell’s law of refraction, 434 soft bearing overlay, 604 soft coatings, 116 soft elastohydrodynamic lubrication, 637 soft elastohydrodynamics see iso-viscous elastic solid erosion, 68 solid lubricants, 116 solid mass flywheel, 848, 921 solidification pressure, 640 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1012 Index solvation, 93, 99 solvation effect, 953 Sommerfeld condition, 356 Sommerfeld number, 595–6, 609, 610, 636 Sommerfeld short-width bearing, 610, 612 SOR technique see successive overrelaxation technique sound-absorbing media, 925 sound pressure level, 806, 920 spatulae, 85 special theory of relativity, 116 specific heat capacity, 607 specific power, 255 specific wear rate, 62 spectrogram, 923 speed of entraining motion, 573, 642 speed-adaptive damper, 829 spherical joint, 16 spring interface model, 430 spring model of reflection, 430 sprung hub clutch, 848–9 spur gear pair, 775 sputter overlays, 260 sputtering, 224, 225–6 apparatus, 226 square pad, 161 squealing noise, 655 squeeze bearing actions, 626 squeeze cavity, 583 squeeze film action, 528, 533, 561, 787, 879 squeeze film bearings, 148, 167 squeeze film behaviour, 236 squeeze film effect, 148 squeeze film gas bearing, 167 squeeze film term, 483 squeeze film velocity, 32 squeeze-roll ratio, 581 squeeze velocity, 121 squeeze velocity vector, 626 St Venant-type deformation, 917 starvation, 357, 647 state-space form, 711 state-space representation, 710 static, static analysis, 19 static friction, 51 static transmission error, 776, 777, 779 steady state brush model, 722 steady state tyre models, 715 stick–slip, 706 stick and slip zones, 67 stiction, 949–50, 962 stiffness, 113 stratified charge combustion see direct injection gasoline engines Stribeck approximation, 203 Stribeck curve, 75, 256 Stribeck diagram, 504 Stribeck oil film parameter, 597 structural layer, 972 structural modes, 921 structure-borne noise, 667, 800 structure-borne path, 844 structure-borne vibration, 117 sub-harmonic vibrations, 869 sub-synchronous whirl, 318 sub-surface stress field, 126 sub-surface stresses, 64 sub-surface yield, 59, 60 subsurface stress field, 126 successive over-relaxation technique, 492 sulphur, 414 sun gear, 746 superbikes, 520 supercharged gasoline engines, 872 supersonic, 915 surface asperity contact, 187 surface deflection, 127 surface energy, 605, 967 surface engineering, 71 surface micromachining basic steps, 961 commercially available surface micromachined devices, 963 definition, 960–1 surface modification methods, 472 surface phenomena thin-film tribology, 73–100 adhesion of rough surfaces, 84–92 contact angle of liquids, 79–81 interfacial tension estimation between a liquid and a solid, 81–4 intermolecular interactions and nearsurface effects, 92–3 meniscus action, 77–9 other near-surface effects, 99–100 van der Waals forces, 93–8 wetness, 75–7 surface roughness, 191–2 surface tension, 77–9, 81–2, 154 surface texturing, 42, 458, 472–3 application in piston ring/cylinder liner contact, 470–509 application in tribology, 473–4 in-cylinder friction reduction, 458–67 LST regular micro-surface structure, 460 techniques, 460 in IC engines, 481–2 LST for friction reduction in engines, 461–7 engine specific fuel consumption vs engine speed, 466 laser-etched cylinder liner, 466 partial LST cylindrical face piston ring, 465 piston rings, 464 piston rings segments, 461 test schematic, 462 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index time average friction force vs crank angular velocity, 463 mechanisms behind tribological improvements, 476–8 methods, 474–6 modelling, 485–90 optimisation, 493–503 optimisation results, 497–503 infinite vs finite width textures, 502 maximum dimensionless load capacities comparison, 503 obtained optimum configuration, 500–1 process results for textured infinite width bearing, 498 parameters, 493–7 3D flat and parabolic bearing textured surface, 493 textured bearing, 496 textured bearing with finite and infinite width, 494 various texture profiles, 496 various texturing patterns, 495 piston ring/cylinder liner contact optimum results application, 504–8 minimum clearance at each solution stage, 506 minimum clearances values in optimum cases, 507 slider bearing, 505 squeeze velocity variations, 508 Stribeck diagram, 504 Reynolds equation non-dimensionalising time-dependent, 487–8 non-dimensionalising timeindependent, 488–90 piston-cylinder mechanism, 489 solution methods, 490–3 analytical approach, 490–1 numerical approach, 491–3 terminology, 485–7 equations dimensionless groups and forms, 487–90 illustration, 486 tribological performance debates surrounding surface texturing, 478–81 tribology basic equations, 482–5 arbitrary bearing geometry, 482 bearing dynamic equations, 484–5 piston ring forces diagram, 485 Reynold’s hydrodynamic lubrication equation, 482–4 surface topography and contact, 42–8 all-ordinate distributions for two surfaces with opposite skew, 45 measurement and description, 42–4 1013 method for deriving all-ordinate distribution, 44 normal pressure distribution for Hertzian contact, 47 profile distortion, 43 shear stress distribution beneath Hertzian contact, 47 stresses at surface contacts, 45–8 surface profile digitisation, 44 SWIFT model see Short-WavelengthIntermediate Frequency Tyre model Swift-Steiber boundary condition, 647 symmetric partially textured pattern, 494 synchronisation drag torque, 808, 809 synchroniser, 795 synchroniser ring, 804 synchronous whirl, 318 synthetic axle fluid, 806 Tabor parameter, 91 Taguchi array, 677 Taguchi design of experiments, 696 take-up judder, 681 taper roller bearings, 883 tapered face profile, 356 tappet, 332, 546, 569 TDC see top dead centre TEHD see thermoelastohydrodynamics temperature transducer, 229 tetraethylorthosilicate, 977 Texas Instruments, 962 texture height ratio, 487 textured bearings, 168 theoretical longitudinal slip-ratio, 718 thermal contact analysis, 643 thermal diffusivity, 151 thermal elastic bearing, 611 thermal expansion, 264 thermal mixing, 161 thermal rigid bearing, 610 thermistor, 412 thermo-hydrodynamics, 608–10 thermocouple, 887 thermoelastohydrodynamics, 33, 289 compression ring conjunction, 518–39 thermographic phosphor doped optical fibres, 412 thermographic phosphors, 412 thin-film tribology adhesion of rough surfaces, 84–92 asperity pair adhesive contact, 88 DMT, JKR and Maugis models quantitative comparison, 92 force vs penetration depth, 90 rough adhesive contacts, 87 wet adhesive contact, 86 contact angle of liquids, 79–81 non-wetting case, 80 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1014 Index receding and advance contact angles, 80 sessile drop, 79 interfacial tension estimation between a liquid and a solid, 81–4 contact angle in liquids, 83 direct force measurements, 83–4 free surface energy parameters determination, 82–3 surface energy parameters for synthetic polysaccharide-based films, 83 surface free energy parameters of liquids, 83 meniscus action, 77–9 meniscus action: surface tension meniscus geometry, 78 surface phenomena, 73–100 intermolecular interactions and nearsurface effects, 92–3 nomenclature, 103–4 other near-surface effects, 99–100 van der Waals forces, 93–8 electric dipole, 93 Hamaker constant calculation, 97–8 intermolecular interactions, 94–7 polarisability, 94 wetness, 75–7 Stribeck curve, 75 thin shell bearings, 597 thinner transmission housings, 875 third bodies, 111 thixotropic behaviour, 137, 643 three-body abrasion, 63 throttle back-out, 916 throttle-induced clonk, 916 throttle tip-in, 683, 704, 916 throttle tip-out, 683, 704 thrust bearings, 152, 157 thrust side, 351 thrust side–anti-thrust side, 378 thud noise, 670 time-of-flight, 430 timing belt, 569 tip-in clonk, 669 tip-in shuffle, 683 tip-out clonk, 670 TMA see trimethylaluminium tooth gap bearing, 830 top dead centre, 258, 368, 372, 428, 520, 940 pulse, 441 top compression ring, 272 torque control, 762–4 limited system, 746–7 limiting clutches, 746–7 reversal, 916 sensing device, 756 torsen differential, 756–7 illustration, 757 torsional backlash, 820 total power loss, 626 total valve train energy loss, 571, 572–3 traction, 716 traction clutch, 763 traction control systems, 735, 743, 764 advantages of electronically controllable devices, 758–9 direct electric motor actuated clutch, 758 enlarged operating regime, 759 basics of vehicle propulsion and dynamics, 738–43 brake-based traction and stability control, 743 dynamic performance, 740 powertrain function, 739–40 reference axes, 739 turning radius, 739 tyre forces, 741 tyre patch dynamics, 740–2 vehicle motion, 739 vehicle reference axis system, 738 yaw dynamics, 742–3 differentials tribology, 735–67 future trends, 767 modelling and simulation, 764–7 need for differentials and slip control devices, 744–7 bevel gear differential with slip limiting clutch, 744 on-demand AWD architecture, 745 torque limiting clutches, 746–7 tribological considerations in the design and development, 759–64 clutch engagement cycle, 760 clutch plate, 761 friction clutches, 761–2 notation, 772 torque control, 762–4 torque control accuracy, 764 traction clutch, 763 transmission clutch vs traction control clutch operation, 759–61 types of slip control device, 747–57 magneto-rheological fluid devices, 752 torsen differential, 756–7 viscous coupling, 748–52 wet clutch couplings, 752–6 vehicle drivetrain architecture, 736–7 front wheel drive, 736 front wheel drive based all-wheel drive, 736 real wheel drive, 737 real wheel drive based all-wheel drive, 737 traction stiffness, 720, 722 traction torque, 717 transaxle transmission, 882 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index transducer, 448 transfer box, 737 transfer case, 737 transfer matrix method, 23, 24 transient bearing number, 489 transient elastohydrodynamic model, 558 transient slip-ratio see localised slip transition parameter, 91 translational imbalance, 646 transmission gear rattle, 841 transmission idle rattle, 674 transmission rattle, 842–3 complete transmission model, 892–906 engine order harmonics, 905–6 FFT spectra of idle gear wheels, 904 loose gears FFT spectra, 894 meshing and rolling frequencies, 895 meshing frequencies, 900–1 rattle ratios, 902, 907 squeeze to rolling force ratios, 903, 908 system natural frequencies and normal modes, 898–9 experimental set-up, 886–7 accelerometers on the gearbox surface, 887 gear pair model, 887–92 FFT spectra, 891–2 FFT spectra for bearing clearance, 893 rattle ratio and pinion acceleration time history, 889 rattle ratio at backlash, 890 temperature rise in rattle ratio, 888 multi-physics approach, 878–908 nomenclature, 910–13 parametric studies, 887–907 phenomenon definition, 841–5 casual factors, 845 engine, clutch and transmission layout, 842 engine and transmission speed variation, 844 excitation sources, 844 front wheel drive transmission, 842 gear rattle, 843 impacting gears characteristics, 842–3 structure-borne/airborne characteristics, 844 phenomenon simulation dual mass flywheel principle and effect, 854 rattle sensitivity map, 846 sensitivity experimentation and evaluation method, 852–3 NVH transmission test, 852 simulation, 853 theoretical formulation, 880–6 gear pair model, 881 idle gear pairs, 882 lateral degrees of freedom, 884 1015 traditional palliations, 848–52 clutch dampers and dual mass flywheel effect, 848 clutch disc characteristics modification, 848–50 damped clutch disc, 849 dual mass flywheel components, 851 palliation by DMF, 850–2 torsional vibration damper characteristic, 849 transmission isolation with a DMF, 851 types and their causes, 846–7 creep rattle, 847 drive rattle, 847 idle rattle, 847 overrun rattle, 847 various forms in automotive powertrains, 839–55 eClutch, 855 future trends, 853, 855 noises in powertrain, 840–1 powertrain noises illustration, 841 powertrain torsional vibration issues history, 839–40 system dynamics, 845–6 transverse roughness, 651 Tresca yield criterion, 127 tribo-chemical action, 398 tribo-dynamics, 284 trigger facility, 234–5 trimethylaluminium, 982 tribo-elasto-multi-body dynamics single cylinder engine under fired condition, 928–42 conjunctional friction in the engine model, 934–7 crankshaft offset, 940–1 engine model with flexible components, 930–1 temperature effects in lubricated contacts, 938–9 tribological conjunctions in the model, 931–4 troughs, 473 turbo engines, 872 turbocharger bearings, 313, 317–31 two-beam interferometry, 234 two-body abrasion, 63 two-stroke engine, 569 tyre contact mechanics basic model of vehicular driveline, 706–11 driveline layout, 706 driveline reduced dynamic model, 707 brush-type model free rolling and deformed brush model, 717 shuffle analysis, 716–21 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1016 Index traction force curve, 720 driveline simulation results, 711–14 broadband random-torque input, 714 driveline parameter values, 712 eigen-frequency analysis, 712 fore-aft vehicle acceleration, 713 pinion-gear acceleration response, 715 shuffle response frequency content, 713 low-frequency driveline dynamics, 703–31 notation, 733–4 shuffle error state, 704 frequency content, 705 measured oscillation in time domain, 705 transient tyre behaviour influence on shuffle, 728–31 eigen-frequency analysis results, 730 two systems response at a higher speed, 731 vehicle fore-aft acceleration, 730 transient tyre response, 722–6 wheel operating in traction, 724 tyre modelling further possibilities, 726–8 hysteretic friction loop, 727 relationship with magic formula, 721–2 shuffle analysis, 714 steady state, 715–16 tyre contact patches, 740 tyre force, 715 tyre–road interactions contact mechanics and its role in vehicle shuffle, 703–31 brush-type model for shuffle analysis, 716–21 driveline simulation results, 711–14 further tyre modelling possibilities, 726–8 influence of transient tyre behaviour on shuffle, 728–31 notation, 733–4 shuffle as drivetrain error state, 704 steady state tyre modelling, 715–16 transient tyre response, 722–6 tyre modelling and magic formula relationship, 721–2 tyre modelling for shuffle analysis, 714 vehicular driveline basic model, 706–11 Ubbelohde method DIN 51562, 814 ultra-thin film tribology, ultrasonic measurement equipment, 433–7 focusing ultrasonic transducer, 436 generating, capturing and storing ultrasonic signals, 433 generation and capture of signals, 433–4 pulse repetition rate, piston speed and piston ring sweep, 439 pulsing rate and data capture, 437 signal processing, 436–7 signal processing flowchart, 438 ultrasonic transducers, 434–6 ultrasonic transducers in oil film, 435 oil film thickness, 429–33 from ultrasonic reflection, 432–3 interface response to an ultrasonic wave, 432 oil film layer stiffness, 431–2 reflection of ultrasound from a boundary, 429–30 reflection of ultrasound from a thin oil film, 430–1 ultrasonic beam incident, 429 oil films in piston zone, 426–55 piston rings in a test bench, 445–52 determined film thickness, 452 Fourier transform of pulses, 451 hydraulic motor piston ring test bench, 447 oil film thickness between piston ring and cylinder, 453 piston, rings, cylinder, high-pressure oil inlet and transducer position, 447 piston profile, 450 piston ring and cylinder, 447–8 piston test bench, 446 pulses reflected into oil films, 451 recorded reflection coefficient, 449 reflection coefficient spectra, 452 transducer location and focusing system, 448 ultrasonic instrumentation, 448–9 piston skirt, 437–45 amplitude spectra for pulses, 442 axial lubricant film variation, 446 cylinder liner with ultrasonic transducer, 440 engine and dynamometer test bed, 439–43 fired tests, 444–5 measured liner-piston skirt oil film thickness for motored engine tests, 444 measured oil film thickness for fired test, 445 motored tests, 443 piston, 440 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index reflection coefficient as piston passes over sensor location, 444 reflection coefficient spectra, 443 sample pulses, 442 single cylinder test engine, 441 ultrasonic pulser/receiver, 433 ultrasonic sensors, 398, 454 ultrasonic transducers, 434–6, 437 ultrasonic wave frequency, 433 ultrasound technique, 399 ultrasound, 398–9, 428, 429 applications, 399 limitations, 399 under-steer, 742 undercut-and-refill technique, 977 undulated surfaces, 459 ungrooved journal bearings, 620, 624 unified force law, 74 universal gravitational constant, universal joint, 929 unselected gears, 787, 878 UPR see ultrasonic pulser/receiver UV lithography, 475 vacuum evaporation, 224–5 valve flutter, 120 valve lift, 548 valve spring surge, 120, 558 valve timing, 546 valve train, 568, 569 valve train dynamics, 574 valve train losses, 571, 572 valve train systems, 120–3 applications, 583–5 oil film transient behaviour, 584 cam-tappet tribology, 578–81 extrapolated solution, 581 full solution, 579–81 geometry and construction, 569–71 overhead cam operation, 570 valve train structure, 570 multi-scale analysis, 567–85 as an integrated problem, 571–3 cam-tappet contact geometry, 573 dynamic equivalent model, 576 dynamics, 574–5 energy dissipated by friction during exhaust valve operation, 572 kinematics, 573–4 nomenclature, 586–7 rough surfaces tribology, 581–3 statistical functions characteristics, 582 valve lift and cam profile, 576–8 cam lift types, 577 possible cam ramps, 579 van der Waals forces, 93–8, 966–7 Hamaker constant calculation, 97–8 interactions, 74 intermolecular interactions, 94–7 1017 polarisability, 94 variable gear mesh stiffness, 776 VeDYNA, 766 vehicle evaluation rating, 694 vehicle reference axis system, 738 velocity, 918 distribution, 141 VER see vehicle evaluation rating vibration, 4, 117 vibro-impact phenomenon, 773–89 vibro-rolling method, 459, 474 Vickers hardness, 46 virtual work done, 10 viscometer, 134 viscosity, 132, 641 effect of pressure, 135–6 effect of shear rate, 137 effect of temperature, 134–5 power balance, 162–3 viscosity index, 135 viscosity-temperature coefficient, 134 viscous couplings, 748–52 illustration, 749 STA sequence, 751 torque curve, 750 viscous friction, 530, 578, 608 viscous regime of lubrication, 75 viscous lubrication, 936 viscous shear heating, 938 Vogel’s equation, 166, 610, 611, 939 Volvo-XC-90, 756, 758 VW-Touareg, 755, 758 wake recovery, 154 warm-up effect, 381 waterfall plot, 668 wave propagation, 106 wavelet, 923 wavelet analysis, 668 wavelet diagram, 671 waviness, 43, 191 wear definition, 60 depth, 62–3 mechanical wear processes, 61–70 abrasive wear, 63 adhesive wear, 61–3 ceramics and cermets, 70 corrosive wear, 66–7 dissimilar materials fatigued at same stress, 66 erosion, 68 erosion rate dependence on impingement angle, 69 fatigue wear, 63–6 fretting, 67 lubricated surfaces, 69–70 mild-to-severe wear transition, 67 polymers and composites, 70 scuffing, 70 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 1018 Index stick and slip zones at fretting contact, 68 mechanisms and laws, 41–71 contact of rough surfaces, 48–9 friction, 50–60 future trends, 71 nature of engineering surfaces, 41–2 surface topography and contact, 42–8 wear coefficients, 62, 69 wear particle, 62 wear-resistant coatings, 389 wear volume, 61 wedge, 137, 639 wedge effect, 5, 879 wedge inlet, 149 wedge-shaped asperities, 57 Wenzel equation, 81 wet clutch couplings, 752–6 Gerodisc device, 753–4 GKN’s driveline torque management coupling, 755 Haldex coupling, 755–6 Honda’s CRV with twin pump coupling, 754 JTEKT’s intelligent torque controlled couplings, 754 JTEKT’s rotary blade coupling, 753 representation, 752 wetness, 75–7 wettability, 79 wetting, 79 whine, 671 whining noise, 840 whirl, 156 whirl onset speed, 156 whoop, 676–7 Wilans line test, 406 work-hardened layer, 42 work of adhesion, 82–3, 85, 974 wrist pin bearing, 262 yaw, 739 Young–Laplace equation, 78, 964–5 Young’s modulus, 549, 918 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 ... combustion (IC) engines The piston in internal combustion (IC) engines Piston rings in internal combustion (IC) engines The cylinder bore surface Design validation of internal combustion (IC) engines Future. .. knowledge-based tribology systems Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS) and elastohydrodynamics (EHD) to a race engine crank pin Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS) and. .. right-hand drive (RHD) to piston and liner Application of integrated knowledge-based systems (IKBS) and right-hand drive (RHD) to turbocharger bearings Engine friction: building a better understanding