This page intentionally left blank The Demise of the American Convention System, 1880–1911 During the nineteenth century American political parties selected their candidates for elective offices in conventions Around 1910 most states established a system of direct primaries whereby the voters selected their parties’ nominees for public office The current study examines the transition from the indirect to the direct primary, as well as its implication for American politics The book offers a systematic analysis of the convention system in four states (New Jersey, Michigan, Colorado, and California) and the legislative history of the regulation of political parties during the Progressive Era It holds the major political parties responsible for doing away with the nominating convention As candidates became more open and aggressive in pursuit of their parties’ nominations, they played a pivotal role in inaugurating the new nominating system The convention system was never designed to withstand the pressures exerted on it by a more competitive nominating process John F Reynolds is an associate professor of history at the University of Texas at San Antonio He received his B.A and M.A from Michigan State University and his Ph.D from Rutgers University He is the author of Testing Democracy: Electoral Behavior and Progressive Reform in New Jersey, 1880–1920, and he has published articles in the Journal of American History, Social Science History, Historical Methods, and The Historian The Demise of the American Convention System, 1880–1911 JOHN F REYNOLDS University of Texas at San Antonio cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521859639 © John F Reynolds 2006 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2006 isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-511-24951-8 eBook (EBL) 0-511-24951-9 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-85963-9 hardback 0-521-85963-8 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To My Teachers: Bill and Peter and David O and Richard M and Richard L and especially for Rudy, who insisted on a second book Contents Acknowledgments Abbreviations Introduction The Search for Harmony: The Convention System in the Party Period The Emergence of the Hustling Candidate Coping with Competition: The Limitations of Party Self-Regulation “The Pivot of Reform”: Debating the Direct Primary The Direct Primary in the Reform Tradition page ix xi 18 62 105 158 201 Appendixes Bibliography 237 251 Index 261 vii 256 Bibliography Formisano, Ronald P “The Concept of Political Culture.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 31 (Winter 2001): 393–426 Geiser, Karl F “Defects in the Direct Primary.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 106 (Mar 1923): 31–39 Godkin, E L “The Nominating System.” Atlantic Monthly 79 (Apr 1897): 450– 67 Green, George Walton “Facts About the Caucus and the Primary.” North American Review 137 (Sept 1883): 257–69 Haigh, Henry A “The Alger Movement of 1888.” Michigan History Magazine (1925): 173–214 Hand, Samuel B., Jeffrey D Marshall, and D Gregory Sanford “‘Little Republics’: The Structure of State Politics in Vermont, 1854–1920.” Vermont History 53 (Summer 1985): 141–66 Hays, Samuel P “The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era.” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (Oct 1964): 157–69 Hein, Clarence J “The Adoption of Minnesota’s Direct Primary Law.” Minnesota History 35 (Dec 1957): 341–51 Hemstreet, William “Theory and Practice of the New Primary Law.” The Arena 28 (Dec 1902): 585–95 Holli, Melvin G “Mayor Pingree Campaigns for the Governorship.” Michigan History 57 (Summer 1973): 151–73 Hopkins, John S “Direct Nomination of Candidates by the People.” The Arena 19 (June 1898): 729–39 Horack, Frank Edward “The Operation of the Primary Election Law in Iowa.” Iowa Journal of History and Politics 19 (Jan 1921): 94–124 Horack, Frank Edward “Primary Elections in Iowa.” Proceedings of the American Political Science Association (1910): 175–86 Hotchkiss, William H “The Movement for Better Primaries.” Review of Reviews 17 (May 1898): 583–89 Insley, Edward “How to Reform the Primary Election System.” The Arena 17 (June 1897): 1013–23 Insley, Edward “Needed Political Reforms.” The Arena 29 (Jan 1903): 71–75 Kernell, Samuel “Toward Understanding Nineteenth Century Congressional Careers: Ambition, Competition, and Rotation.” American Journal of Political Science 21 (Nov 1977): 669–93 Key, V O., Jr “The Direct Primary and Party Structure: A Study of State Legislative Nominations.” American Political Science Review 58 (Mar 1954): 1–26 Kleppner, Paul “Voters and Parties in the Western States, 1876–1900.” Western Historical Quarterly 14 (Jan 1983): 49–68 Lederle, John W., and Rita Feiler Aid “Michigan State Party Chairmen, 1882– 1956.” Michigan History 41 (Sept 1957): 257–68 Ludington, Arthur “Election Laws: The New Geran Law in New Jersey.” American Political Science Review (Nov 1911): 579–85 Lukes, Timothy J “Progressivism Off-Broadway: Reform Politics in San Jose, California, 1880–1920.” Southern California Quarterly 76 (Winter 1994): 377– 400 Bibliography 257 Mann, Ralph “National Party Fortunes and Local Political Structure: The Case of Two California Mining Towns, 1850–1870.” Southern California Quarterly 57 (Fall 1975): 271–96 McClosky, Herbert “Are Political Conventions Undemocratic?” New York Times Magazine, Aug 4, 1968, p 10 McCormick, Richard L “The Party Period and Public Policy: An Exploratory Hypothesis,” Journal of American History 66 (Sept 1970): 279–98 Merriam, Charles Edward “Some Disputed Points in Primary Election Legislation.” Proceedings of the American Political Science Association (1907): 179–88 Milholland, John E “The Danger Point in American Politics.” North American Review 164 (Jan 1897): 97–105 Millspaugh, Arthur C “The Operation of the Direct Primary in Michigan.” American Political Science Review 10 (Nov 1916): 710–26 Noble, David W “Progressivism.” In Encyclopedia of American Political History, ed Jack P Greene Vol 992–1004 New York, 1984 Petersen, Eric Falk “The Adoption of the Direct Primary in California.” Southern California Quarterly 54 (Winter 1972): 363–78 Petersen, Eric Falk “The Struggle for the Australian Ballot in California.” California Historical Quarterly 51 (Fall 1972): 227–43 Reynolds, John F., and Richard L McCormick “Outlawing ‘Treachery’: Split Tickets and Ballot Laws in New York and New Jersey, 1880–1914.” Journal of American History 72 (Mar 1986): 835–58 Rodgers, Daniel T “In Search of Progressivism.” Reviews in American History 10 (Dec 1982): 113–32 Roosevelt, Theodore “Machine Politics in New York City.” The Century 33 (Nov 1886): 74–82 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr “Faded Glory.” New York Times Magazine, July 12, 1992, p 14 Shaw, William B “The Direct Primary on Trial.” The Outlook, Oct 24, 1908, pp 383–89 Shefter, Martin “Regional Receptivity to Reform: The Legacy of the Progressive Era.” Political Science Quarterly 98 (Autumn 1983): 459–83 Starring, Charles R “Hazen S Pingree: Another Forgotten Eagle.” Michigan History 32 (June 1948): 129–49 Taylor, William B., and Elliott West “Patron Leadership at the Crossroads: Southern Colorado in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Pacific Historical Review 17 (Aug 1973): 335–57 Throne, Mildred “Electing an Iowa Governor, 1871: Cyrus Clay Carpenter.” Iowa Journal of History 48 (Oct 1950): 335–70 Truman, David B “Party Reform, Party Atrophy, and Constitutional Change: Some Reflections.” Political Science Quarterly 99 (Winter 1984–85): 637–55 Wallace, Schuyler C “Pre-Primary Conventions.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 106 (Mar 1923): 97–104 Warden, G B “The Caucus and Democracy in Colonial Boston.” New England Quarterly 43 (Mar 1970): 19–45 Bibliography 258 Weeks, O Douglas “The White Primary, 1944–1948.” American Political Science Review 42 (June 1948): 500–510 West, Victor J “Round Table on Nominating Methods: The Development of a Technique for Testing the Usefulness of a Nominating Method.” American Political Science Review 20 (Feb 1926): 139–43 Westbrook, Robert B “Politics as Consumption: Managing the Modern American Election.” In The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880–1980, eds Richard Wrightman Fox and T J Jackson Lears 145–73 New York, 1983 Wicker, Tom “Let Some Smoke In.” New York Times Magazine, June 14, 1992, p 34 Unpublished Theses and Dissertations Sarasohn, Stephen B “The Regulation of Parties and Nominations in Michigan: The Politics of Election Reform.” Ph.D diss., Columbia University, 1953 Warner, Robert Mark “Chase S Osborn and the Progressive Movement.” Ph.D diss., University of Michigan, 1957 Wolfe, Arthur Coffman “The Direct Primary in American Politics.” Ph.D diss., University of Michigan, 1966 Newspapers California Los Angeles Times Mail (Stockton) Marin County Journal Mountain Democrat (Placerville) Mountain Messenger Placer Herald Redwood City Times and Gazette San Francisco Chronicle San Francisco Examiner Sutter County Farmer Tulare County Times Colorado Aspen Democrat Chaffee County Republican Courier (Georgetown) Denver Post Denver Republican Denver Times Greeley Tribune Gunnison News Rocky Mountain News Trinidad Weekly News Michigan Adrian Daily Big Rapids Current Big Rapids Pioneer Buchanan Record Detroit Evening News Detroit Free Press Detroit Post and Tribune Evening Press (Grand Rapids) Genesee Democrat Mining Gazette (Houghton) Niles Daily Star Niles Democrat Ontonagon Herald Portage Lake Gazette State Republican (Lansing) Bibliography 259 New Jersey Burlington Gazette Cape May County Gazette Daily State Gazette (Trenton) Gloucester County Democrat Hunterdon County Democrat Jersey Journal (Jersey City) Newark Advertiser Newark Evening News Newark Sunday Call Penns Grove Record Red Bank Register Trenton True American New York New York Times Manuscript Collections The Archives at the University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries William Penn Collins Collection Colorado Federation of Women’s Clubs Collection Edward P Costigan Papers Edward Keating Papers George J Kindel Papers National Republican League “Souvenir of the Seventh Annual Convention of the National Republican League Meeting in Denver, June 26, 1894.” T J O’Donnell Papers Harper M Orahood Papers Thomas M Patterson Papers Jose Urbano Vigil Papers Bancroft Library – University of California at Berkeley Daniel M Burns Papers Committee of Fifty “Address of the Committee of Fifty to the People [1882].” League of Republican Clubs “Plans for Effective County Organization.” George Cooper Pardee Papers Pillsbury, Arthur Judson “Plans for Effective County Organization of the Republican Party in California.” Tulare, Calif., 1898 Republican Party of California “Proceedings of the Republican State Convention, Sacramento, June 18th to June 19th, 1861.” Republican Party of California “Proceedings of the Union State Convention Held at Sacramento on the 17th and 18th Days of June, 1862.” San Francisco, 1862 Republican Party of California “Roll Call of the Republican State Convention, 1882.” Republican Party of San Francisco, California “By-laws and Rules of the Republican County Committee for 1873–74.” Republican Party of San Francisco, California “Proceedings of a Meeting Held at Platt’s Hall, San Francisco, June 11th, 1872 to Ratify the Nominations of U S Grant and Henry Wilson.” 260 Bibliography Republican Party of San Francisco, California “Rules and Regulations of the Republican Party of San Francisco.” 1881 Bentley Historical Library – University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Rice Aner Beal Papers Ferry Family Papers Harrison Greer Papers Chase S Osborn Papers California State Library, Sacramento California League of Republican Clubs “Second Biennial Convention of the California League of Republican Clubs, Held at Los Angeles, Apr 27–28, 1900.” California Republican Club “Proceedings of the Republican League of 1900.” James N Gillett Papers Warren T Sexton Papers Colorado Historical Society – Denver Colorado Federation of Jane Jefferson Clubs Collection Job Adams Cooper Papers John Franklin Shaforth Papers Denver Public Library William A Hamill Papers Henry Moore Teller Collection Joel F Vaille Papers Department of Special Collections at the Stanford University Library Stephen Mallory White Papers Index Abbett, Leon, 51, 77 Adams, Charles Frederick, 166 advertising, 64, 73, 80, 103, 104, 191, 192, 227, 229, 233 African-Americans, 12, 35–39, 127, 188 agriculture, 12, 14, 15, 16 Aichele, Julius, 118 Aldrich, John H., 235 Alger, Russell A., 68 Allied Political Clubs of New York, 159 Alpena County, MI, 216 ambition, 21, 61, 62, 79, 103 analysis of variance explained, 178 with competition, 179 with urbanization, 178 Arapahoe County See Denver Asian-Americans, 16, 37 Atlanta, GA, 159 attorneys general See minor state offices auditor See local offices Australian Ballot See Ballots, official automobiles, 102, 201 balanced tickets, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 224, 230 and direct primary, 187 ballot boxes, 146, 169, 216 ballots, 77, 113, 126, 142, 146, 169, 211, 216 “mixed” tickets, 127 official, 6, 8, 124, 130, 132, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 173, 185, 189, 198, 233 pasters, 127, 131 Baltimore, MD, 113 Barela, Casimero, 38 Barker, Ren, 75 Barnes, William, Jr., 159 Barry County, MI, 190 bartenders See semi-skilled workers Beal, Rice Aner, 68, 69 Beard, Charles A., Becker, Carl, Berrien County, MI, 138 best citizens, 35, 160 Big Rapids, MI, 111 binary logistic regression, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250 Black, Winifred Sweet See Laurie, Annie Blair, James, 42 Bliss, Aaron T., 75, 152 Bonaparte, Charles J., 227 bossism, 70, 71, 92, 109, 125, 168, 180, 182, 183, 194, 207, 209, 227, 233 and ballot reform, 165 Boston, MA, 159 Bradford, Mary C C., 136 Bridgford, E A., 135 Bryan, William Jennings, 15 Bryce, James, 71 Buckley, Christopher, 168 Buffalo, NY, 159, 161, 184 261 262 Burlington County, NJ, 67 Burlington, NJ, 26 Burns, Daniel M., 167 business elite, 39, 76, 93, 94, 241 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 159 California, 6, 72, 73, 78, 82, 87, 89, 97, 135, 143, 146, 149, 159, 182, 226, 231 Asian-Americans, 37 candidates speak, 55 Chinese-Americans, 16 closed primaries, 179 competition for governor, 54, 55, 77, 83 competition for minor state offices, 57, 84 contesting delegations, 154 delegate apportionment, 23 Democratic state convention, 18, 51, 56, 70, 152, 168 Direct Primary League, 204 direct primary legislation, 203, 204, 205, 244 direct primary referendum, 195 Japanese-Americans, 16 Mexican-Americans, 37 Nonpartisan Party, 196 outlawing vote fraud, 163 Populist Party, 96 profile, 16 regulating convention system, 167, 168, 169, 177, 178 Republican state convention, 38, 51, 62, 72, 121, 123, 148 rules and traditions, 70, 116, 121, 134 rural, 225 state constitution, 37 temporary officers, 46 urban, 225 women nominees, 137 Workingmen’s Party, 16 Camden, NJ, 207 campaign costs, campaign finance laws, 6, campaign managers,99, 107, 120, 191, 203 Campbell, Ernest L., 125 Canada, 14 candidate-centered campaigns, 7, 9, 10, 56, 73, 74, 81, 85, 90, 102, 181, 198 and direct primary, 228, 229, 230, 231 Index candidates, 34 assessments, 189, 216 at conventions, 69, 72, 81, 82, 83, 86, 90, 229 bolting, 9, 124, 131, 140, 143, 145, 165, 226, 230 booming, 65, 76 defeated, 55, 58, 124 electing delegates, 77, 78, 88, 91, 101, 229 favorite sons, 65, 101 for local offices, 64 fusion, 131 hospitality suites, 44, 82 noncampaigning, 62, 64, 68, 73, 76, 79, 101 personal canvassing, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 87, 88, 89, 102, 103 surrogates, 66, 68, 69, 74, 75, 80, 89, 101, 191, 201, 229 writing letters, 66, 74, 87, 201, 229 Carpenter, Cyrus Clay, 67 carpenters See skilled workers Carr, J D., 51 Cass County, MI, 138 Catholics, 66 caucuses, 26, 27, 67, 74, 75, 101, 104, 110, 160 call for, 111, 140 contested, 78 rural, 146 sites, 31 snap, 111 census takers, 97, 201 Chattanooga, TN, 159 Chicago Civic Federation, 158, 159, 186 Chicago, IL, 146, 186 cigars, 40, 44, 70, 73 Cincinnati, OH, 184 cities See urban civil service reform, 161, 188 class legislation, 234 clergy, 32, 46 clerks See white collar workers Cleveland, Grover, 83 Cleveland, OH, 192 closed primary See primaries: closed Colorado, 39, 67, 69, 71, 76, 81, 84, 90, 118, 122, 132, 149, 227, 231 closed primaries, 179 competition for governor, 54, 77, 83 Index competition for minor state offices, 57, 84 contesting delegations, 154, 157 delegate apportionment, 23 Democratic state convention, 35, 39, 49, 96, 140, 150, 152 direct primary legislation, 5, 220, 221, 223, 224, 248 Mexican Americans, 15 minor state offices, 57 outlawing vote fraud, 163 Populist Party, 15, 96 profile, 15 regulating convention system, 175, 177, 179 Republican state convention, 45, 51, 55, 56, 80, 86, 97, 151 rules and traditions, 121, 148, 149, 156 women in politics, 92, 136 Colusa County, CA, 135 Committee of Fifty, 141 Committee of Ten, 112 committee on organization county, 33 state, 46 Committee on Political Parties (APSA), Commons, John R., 5, 159 competition, 11, 72, 144, 225 and direct primary legislation, 224, 247, 249 and regulatory legislation, 179, 245 and rules changes, 153 for governor, 53, 83, 229 for minor state offices, 56, 84 in general election, 141 in primaries, 28, 78, 101, 102, 140, 142, 199 comptrollers See minor state offices Conkling, Roscoe, 14 contesting delegations See delegates contractors See small retailers Convention Parliament, convention system, 16, 21, 29, 32, 34, 38, 39, 43, 56, 58, 61, 81, 104, 163, 187, 203, 220, 225, 226, 228, 229, 231, 232 advantages of, and candidates, and party period, 59, 60, 61 candidates’ roles in, 64, 87 263 defenders, 230 demise of, 5, 11, 100, 143, 158, 160, 180 expensive, 189 minority representation in, 138 origins, outcome-oriented approach, 138, 188, 229 pressures on, 140 regulating, 167, 168, 169, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 230 rules of, 123, 183 voter participation in, 184, 185 winning threshold, 192 Cooper, Job Adams, 66 Cornell University, 228 corrupt practices acts, 189, 201 corruption, 180, 191, 194, 226 Costigan, Edward P., 221 county committees, 25, 161 administering primaries, 107 appointing delegates, 149, 168, 232 call for caucuses and primaries, 175 chair, 32, 110, 118, 209 delegate selection, 123 duties, 140, 142 issue call, 110, 111, 141 rules and traditions, 147 rural, 146 selected, 33 county conventions, 32, 65, 72, 74, 75, 91, 92, 95, 101, 110, 135, 141 delegate selection, 25 demise, 143 endorse direct primary, 191, 217, 232 endorse regulating convention system, 167 proceedings, 118 selecting state delegates, 26, 33, 34 temporary officers, 32, 119, 120 walk outs, 119, 120 courts See judiciary Crane, Elvin W., 105 Crawford County Plan, 143, 162, 191, 192, 199 credentials committee, 33, 112 county, 33 state, 46, 118, 148, 150 criminals, 100 Croly, Herbert, 234, 235 264 Cromwell, Thomas, 67 Crossley, James Judson, 144 custom house officials, 125 Dana, Richard H., 159 deference, 21, 43, 61, 103, 199 decline of, 122 delegates, 18, 29, 231 absentee, 30, 57, 121 African-American, 35, 38, 39, 92 apportionment, 22, 23, 25, 169 best representative men, 35, 61, 90, 97, 103, 122, 181, 199 bribery of, 99 contesting, 33, 43, 46, 47, 109, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 175 in caucuses and primaries, 67 instructed, 90 Mexican-American, 37, 39, 92 negative views of, 92, 97, 99, 100 occupational profile, 39, 40, 41, 42, 92, 94, 95, 96 pledged, 77, 91, 101, 199 political class, 94, 97 proxies, 25, 31, 58, 69, 97, 98, 121, 122, 123 uncommitted, 42, 107 Democratic Party, 60, 234 and African-Americans, 35 and direct primary, 100, 203, 210, 211, 218, 221, 223, 225, 246, 248 and Mexican Americans, 37 and regulating convention system, 177, 245 apportionment, 23, 59 competition for governor, 54, 83 competition for minor state offices, 57, 84 contesting delegations, 154, 225 defining party affiliation, 116 delegate profile, 42, 95 on vote fraud, 163 party administered direct primary, 145 rules and traditions, 86, 120, 121, 122, 141, 147 Democratic Republican Party, 60 Denver, CO, 15, 28, 29, 31, 36, 39, 48, 78, 82, 95, 99, 111, 113, 117, 119, 120, 125, 127, 128, 142, 150, 152, 175, 197, 221, 224, 229 Index county convention, 118 delegates, 92 primaries, 136 ticket-splitting, 128, 129 Des Moines, IA, 159 Detroit, MI, 14, 39, 48, 58, 76, 79, 89, 117, 141, 142, 173, 196, 212, 220, 229 delegates, 92 Dimond, William H., 51 direct election of U.S senators, 6, 203, 229, 245 direct primary, 16, 93, 100, 102, 184 administrative costs, 145 and campaign expenses, 189, 191, 201 and competition, 143, 144, 145 and official ballot, 166 and U.S senate, 205 backlash, 6, 228 campaigning under, 87 effects of, 3, 6, 227, 228, 234, 235 for local offices, 195, 210, 216 partisans rationale for, 226 party administered, 26, 143, 161, 225 preferential voting, 193, 234 public opinion about, 6, 195, 197, 233 reformers rationale for, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190, 191 run off, 11, 193 winning threshold, 192, 205, 217 distributive mode of governance, 133 Dooley, Mr., 233 Douglas, Stephen, 189 Dunne, Peter Finley, 233 Dutton, A C., 69 Easley, Ralph M., 186 Eaton, Benjamin H., 152 editors, 65, 76, 135, 189, 212 El Dorado County, CA, 30 election officials, 112, 113, 114, 116, 169, 173, 185, 216 electoral college, 235 Elizabeth, NJ, 128 Essex County, NJ, 77, 91, 105, 121, 143, 169, 207 Estee, Morris M., 29, 39, 72, 82 Eta2 See analysis of variance Index factions, 29, 34, 51, 59, 60, 71, 91, 105, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 126, 132, 134, 139, 141, 148 Long Hairs, Short Hairs, fair play, 46, 119 farmers, 135, 220 favorite sons, 111 Federalist Party, 60 Ferry, Dexter M., 76 Fifteenth Amendment, 39 fire departments, 96 Fitz-Mac, 66 foremen See skilled workers Fourteenth Amendment, 39 fusion, 53, 124, 177, 178 and ballot reform, 165 265 Hughes, Charles Evans, 199, 221 Hull, Tyler, 69 Idaho, 228 Illinois, 231 immigrants, 12, 14, 15, 135, 160, 211 incumbents, 133, 134, 139, 217, 231 independent voters, 126, 195, 209, 223, 227 Index of Likeness and regulatory legislation, 177 defined, 177 Indiana, Indianapolis, IN, 37 Ingham County, MI, 91 insurance companies, 182 Iowa, 6, 66, 144, 179, 227 Iroquois Club, 112 Gage, Henry T., 78 Geran Act, 211 Gillett, James N., 87, 88, 89 Gloucester County, NJ, 26 Godkin, E L., 159 Goudy, Frank, 80 government officials, 39, 93, 95, 96, 101, 241 government workers, 41 Grand Army of the Republic, 75 Grand Rapids, MI, 14, 78, 212, 220 Grass Valley, CA, 42 Greenback Party, 14, 133 grocery owners See small retailers Grogan, John A., 99 Grubb, E Burd, 86 Gunnison County, CO, 28 Jackson County, KS, 143 Jackson, Andrew, 60 Jacksonian Era, 4, 60 James M Seymour Association, 91 janitors See skilled workers Jefferson, Thomas, 189 Jersey City, NJ, 12, 211 Johnson, Grove L., 204 Johnson, Hiram, 204 judges, 164 judiciary, 112, 163, 164, 165 Hale, O A., 97 Hamill, William A., 65 Hamilton, Alexander, 189 Harrett, Edward, 69 Hatton, George F., 87 Hearst, George, 70 heelers, 114, 117 Herrin, William F., 89, 204 Hill, Nathaniel P., 175 Hillsdale County, MI, 34 Hinsdale County, CO, 43 Holt, Ira G., 83 Howey, Benjamin F., 56 Hudson County, NJ, 135, 143 La Follette, Robert M., 6, 159, 180, 183, 184, 185, 188, 194, 195, 230 labor issues, 49, 221 Lake County, Co, 121 Lansing, MI, 91, 196, 219 Las Animas County, CO, 38, 122, 129 Laurie, Annie, 18, 21, 61 lawyers, 40, 42, 93, 94, 95, 101, 164, 192 Leadville, CO, 49 Lenawee County, MI, 49 Lentz, Carl, 209 lieutenant governors See minor state offices Lincoln, Abraham, 189 Lippmann, Walter, 233 Keating, Edward, 118, 119 Keller, Morton, 30 Kelly, Martin, 117 Kent County, MI, 78, 216 Key, V O., Jr., 8, 143, 144 266 liquor, 44, 70, 114, 197 literary bureau, 74 local autonomy, 26, 123, 140, 142, 146, 149, 216 local offices, 32, 73, 74, 80, 103, 134, 199, 225, 226, 229 and ticket-splitting, 130 Los Angeles, CA, 21, 29, 42, 88, 97, 112, 114, 122, 142, 169 Luce, Cyrus G., 55, 82 lumber industry, 14 lumbermen, 220 machine politics, 96, 101 machinists See skilled workers Maine, Manhattan, 166 Manhattan Club, 141 Markham, Henry H., 168 Marquette County, MI, 118 Massachusetts, 230 maverick candidates See candidates, bolting McDonald, J R., 79 McKay, Capt J A., 35 McLeod Plan, 216 McMillan, James, 212 Merriam, Charles Edward, 5, 195 Methodists, 66, 68 Mexican Americans, 15, 37, 39 and direct primary, 224 Michigan, 68, 69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 81, 89, 91, 100, 120, 125, 134, 143, 191, 195, 201, 226, 227, 228, 231 balanced tickets, 138 competition for governor, 55, 77, 83 competition for minor state offices, 57, 84 contesting delegations, 154 defining party affiliation, 116 delegate apportionment, 23 Democratic state convention, 42 Democratic Party, 177, 218 direct primary legislation, 100, 188, 196, 211, 212, 216, 217, 218, 220, 247 direct primary referendum, 195 Grange, 196 Greenback Party, 14, 53 hospitality suites, 44 mine owners, 182 Index minor state offices, 57 outlawing vote fraud, 163, 164 profile, 14, 15 public opinion, 197 regulating convention system, 167, 173, 178, 180 Republican State Convention, 49, 51, 55, 68, 86, 90, 97, 99, 100, 118, 126, 148, 152, 190, 212, 216 rules and traditions, 46, 120 state convention, 43, 55 temporary officers, 32 two term rule, 134 urban, 225 Michigan Club, 75 Milholland, John E., 160 Milwaukee, WI, 159 miners, 220 mining, 14, 15, 16, 218 Minneapolis, MN, 194 Minnesota, 207, 220 minor state offices, 79, 80, 83, 135, 136, 217, 218 competition for, 56, 84 term limits, 134 mobilization campaign, 103 money, 72, 114, 180, 189, 190, 191, 229 Monmouth County, NJ, 134 Morrow, William M., 83 Mosher, C., 68, 69 Moynahan, James A., 152 Mugwumps, 114 and ballot reform, 165 Murphy, Franklin, 207, 209 Muskegon County, MI, 216 Napa County, CA, 87 National Conference on Practical Reform of Primary Elections, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 185, 192, 194 National Municipal League, 180, 181, 184, 194, 196 National Primary Election League, 162 Neadeau House, 72 Nevada City, CA, 42, 51 New Deal, New Idea movement, 207 New Institutionalism, 8, New Jersey, 49, 67, 69, 70, 81, 86, 105, 110, 134, 143, 182, 186, 226, 227, 231 Index African-Americans, 12 apportionment, 59 bolting candidates, 124 Colored Republican State Committee, 38 competition for governor, 55, 77, 83 competition for minor state offices, 57 contesting delegations, 154, 156 delegate apportionment, 23 Democratic State Convention, 51, 86, 109 direct primary legislation, 110, 156, 158, 169, 205, 207, 209, 210, 211, 246 gubernatorial competition, 54 outlawing vote fraud, 163 People’s Lobby, 197 Primary Reform Commission, 207, 209 profile, 12, 14 regulating convention system, 169, 173, 180 Republican State Convention, 46, 47, 48, 86 rules and traditions, 120 rural, 225 selecting state delegates, 26 state convention, 43, 55 urban, 225 New Jersey state fair, 75 New Mexico, 224 New Orleans, LA, 159 New York, 6, 85, 161, 185, 199 New York Board of Trade and Transportation, 158 New York City, 159 Newark, NJ, 12, 39, 48, 92, 105, 107, 108, 146, 211, 229 newspapers, 11, 30, 31, 60, 65, 66, 73, 76, 79, 91, 99, 100, 102, 111, 112, 125, 129, 134, 146, 167, 181, 191, 195, 197, 199, 209, 212, 226, 230 Niles, MI, 47 nonpartisan elections, 233 O’Donnell, T J., 67 Oakland, CA, 89, 164 office caucus, 225 office seeks the man, 54, 63, 65, 73, 103 Ontonagon County, MI, 35 open primary See primaries: open Orange County, CA, 73 267 Orman, James B., 220 Osborn, Chase S., 77, 201 Osceola County, MI, 75 Pacific Grove, CA, 88 parades, 146 Pardee, George C., 87, 88, 89, 91 parlor caucuses, 28 party affiliation, 116, 209 defining, 193 Party period, patronage, 38, 97, 99, 105 Peavey, Angenette J., 136 Perkins, George C., 29 personal liberty, 41 Philipp, Emanuel L., 230 Pingree, Hazen S., 74, 79, 89, 91, 152, 164, 194, 212, 229 Placerville, CA, 47 platforms, 33, 44, 47, 49, 50, 55, 58, 59, 60, 63, 85, 168, 218, 230, 231 and direct primary, 100, 210, 211, 216, 221, 223 committee, 46, 48 policemen, 118 political clubs, 27, 28, 60, 103, 104, 141 African-American, 37 Pingree, 74, 75 political machines, 109, 112, 182, 184, 203, 233 political parties and democracy, as public entities, 166, 198, 234 attitudes toward, 60 U.S contrasted with Europe, Politicians Hill, 75 Populist Party, 12, 15, 96, 196 and regulating convention system, 177 Port Huron, MI, 32 Porter Law, 3, 25, 163, 180 postal primary plan, 168 pre-primary assemblies, 8, 221, 224 primaries, 26, 67, 72, 74, 101, 104, 105, 110, 146, 158, 160 administrative costs, 175 and ticket-splitting, 124 arranging a slate, 29 call for, 111, 116, 140 campaign expenses, 191 closed, 178, 179, 194, 198, 205, 209, 226 268 primaries (cont.) contested, 78 crossover voting, 108, 116, 117, 118, 123, 179 hours, 111, 142, 173, 232 open, 194, 216, 218 polling places, 28 turnout, 6, 30, 31, 32, 60, 101, 102, 108, 117, 147, 168, 180, 184, 185, 225, 227, 232 urban, 28 vote buying, 116 voting procedures, 29, 30, 108, 232 Princeton, NJ, 87 professionals, 40, 42, 93, 94 programme, 71, 91, 101, 199 progressive movement, 6, 16, 181, 234 progressive reforms, prohibition, 48, 49, 68 Prohibition Party, 196 protection See tariff Providence, RI, 159 proxies See delegates Public Service Corporation, 182 public utilities, 182 Pueblo, CO, 35 railroads, 102, 182 Ranney, Austin, 3, 193 ratification meetings, 58 Record, George L., 70, 158, 183, 185, 186, 207, 209, 211 Red Bluff, CA, 89 reformers, 159 on political machines, 182 on political parties, 182, 197 rationale for direct primary, 160, 233, 234 Republican League, 159, 161, 197, 217 Republican Party, 234 and African-Americans, 36, 37, 38 and direct primary, 161, 190, 207, 209, 210, 211, 217, 218, 220, 223 and party run direct primary, 216 and regulating convention system, 177, 178, 245 apportionment, 22 competition for governor, 54, 83 competition for minor state offices, 57, 84 contesting delegations, 154 Index delegate profile, 39, 42, 94, 95 on vote fraud, 163 party administered direct primary, 144, 145, 146 rules and traditions, 116, 122, 134, 147, 148, 218 temperance, 48, 49 republicanism, 21, 60, 61, 62, 103, 234 respectable citizens, 49, 99, 112, 160, 175, 184, 233 revenue agents, 125 Rich, John T., 75, 79 Roosevelt, Theodore, 15, 113, 160 rotation in office See term limits rules and traditions, 59, 61, 132, 139 county conventions, 119 inadequacy of, 120, 123 primaries, 26 primaries and caucuses, 110 state conventions, 46, 55, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 157 undermined, 148 rural, 23, 139, 143, 146, 173, 210, 212, 220, 225 opposition to direct primary, 230 Sacramento, CA, 1, 3, 10, 21 salesmen See white collar workers saloon keepers See small retailers saloons, 40, 113 San Francisco, CA, 16, 23, 29, 30, 39, 58, 83, 88, 96, 112, 113, 114, 117, 141, 145, 149, 159, 205 delegates, 92 primaries, 167, 169 San Joaquin Valley, CA, 79 San Jose, CA, 18, 44, 56, 97 Schattschneider, E E., Schurman, Jacob Gould, 228 Schurz, Carl, 159 Scofield, Edward, 159 semi-skilled workers, 40, 94, 241 Sewell, William, 70 Seymour, James M., 91, 105, 107, 109, 229 Shafroth, John F., 152, 223, 229 Shelden, Carlos Douglas, 118 Shiawassee County, MI, 69 silver issue, 15, 48 Silver Republicans, 177 skilled workers, 40, 41, 93, 95, 100, 241 small retailers, 41, 93, 94, 100 Index Smith, James Jr., 70, 105 smoke filled rooms, 70 Socialist parties, 16, 196 Sopris, E B., 82 South Dakota, South Orange, NJ, 27 Southern Pacific Railroad, 89, 182, 204 Southern states, 8, 11, 159, 193, 228 Spahr, Charles B., 184 spectators, 18 speeches, 20, 33, 46, 60 acceptance, 55, 56, 57, 86 campaign, 75, 77, 80, 201 nominating, 50, 51, 56, 134, 135 Speer, Robert W., 223 St Clair County, MI, 152 stalwarts, 180, 186, 188, 191, 203 Stanford, Leland, 62, 64 state committees, 21, 25, 44, 141, 148 chair, 45, 127 rules and traditions, 147 selected, 58 women representatives, 149 state conventions, 11, 74, 81, 92, 95, 101, 110, 135 apportionment, 225, 230 as deliberative bodies, 67, 199, 229, 232 call for, 21, 25, 46 chair, 42, 51, 121 date, 21 decor, 44 endorse direct primary, 203, 216, 221, 232 preparations, 43 proceedings, 18 shortened, 86 site, 21 temporary officers, 46, 120 state treasurers See minor state offices Stearns, Justus S., 91 Stoneman, George, 56, 70 Straits of Mackinac, 14, 218 Straus, Oscar L., 162 Summers, Mark, 166 superintendent of public instruction See minor state offices system of 1896, 15, 84, 144, 179, 225 Tabor, Horace A W., 152 tariff, 47, 48, 49, 182 269 teamsters See semi-skilled workers telegraph, 102 telephones, 102 Teller, Henry M., 140 temperance See prohibition term limits, 54, 132, 133, 139, 217, 231 third parties, 9, 11, 131, 132, 162 and ballot reform, 165 and direct primary, 196, 217, 227, 230 Thomas, Charles S., 150 ticket peddlers, 114, 126, 127, 131, 132, 231 tickets See ballots ticket-splitting, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 226 Toledo, OH, 159 town committees, 103, 140 trades, 20, 65, 71, 89, 91, 101, 188 treachery, 126, 131, 139, 145 Trenton House, 70 Trenton, NJ, 28, 86, 127 Trinidad, CO, 129 Tulare County, CA, 92 Turner, James M., 126 turnout See primaries Union Party, unit rule, 25, 90, 97, 109, 120, 123 University of Chicago, 180 University of Michigan, 180 unskilled workers, 40, 94, 241 Upper Peninsula, MI, 14, 49, 77, 138, 218 urban, 23, 49, 74, 77, 78, 92, 94, 95, 99, 101, 110, 141, 159, 169, 178, 203, 212, 216 county committees, 140 urbanization, 11, 145 and direct primary legislation, 205, 210, 212, 216, 217, 220, 224, 225, 245, 246, 247, 248 and regulatory legislation, 178 veterans, 135 violence, 3, 107, 108, 184 vote buying, 114 vote fraud, 107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 160, 161, 167, 230 general election, 165 laws outlawing, 163, 234 laws unenforced, 164 Index 270 vote swapping, 128 voter registration, 6, 211, 233 voting booths, 146, 165, 216 Waldby, William H., 65 Walken, Geo B, 69 ward committees, 103, 140, 141 Ware, Alan, 5, 9, 144 Warner, Fred M., 97, 111, 217 Wayne County, MI, 73, 76, 79, 91, 141, 212, 216, 248 Webster, Daniel, 189 Werts, George T., 52, 207 Whig Party, 60, 234 white collar workers, 40, 94, 95, 100, 241 white primary, 11, 228 White, Stephen M., 51, 132 Wight, Frederick D., 82 Wilson, Woodrow, 86, 211 Wisconsin, 6, 159, 180, 195, 230 Wolcott, Edward O., 97 Wolsey, Thomas, 67 women as delegates, 90, 92, 95, 96, 99, 136, 138 as spectators, 20, 44 as ticket peddlers, 127 on state committees, 149 voters, 11 women’s suffrage, 6, 15, 92 Woodbury, NJ, 26 Workingmen’s Party, 16, 25, 63, 141 worst citizens, 160 Wright–Stanton bill, 204 Yosemite Club, 141 ... Calif., 1975), p 18 4 Demise of the American Convention System, 1880 1911 spanning the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century.5 The caucus and the convention predated the U.S Constitution,6... Papers, The Archives at the University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries 6 Demise of the American Convention System, 1880 1911 interests.10 The expos´es of muckraking journalists combined with the. .. intentionally left blank The Demise of the American Convention System, 1880 1911 During the nineteenth century American political parties selected their candidates for elective offices in conventions Around