This page intentionally left blank FREEDOM OF RELIGION The scale and variety of acts of religious intolerance evident in so many countries today are of enormous contemporary concern This timely study attempts a thorough and systematic treatment of both Universal and European practice side by side The standards applicable to freedom of religion are subjected to a detailed critique, and their development and implementation within the UN is distinguished from that within Strasbourg, in order to discern trends and obstacles to their advancement and to highlight the rationale for any apparent departures between the two systems This dual focus also demonstrates the acute need for the European Court to heed the warnings from various patterns of violation throughout the world illustrated by the Human Rights Committee and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief PAUL M TAYLOR is a Barrister (Lincoln’s Inn) FREEDOM OF RELIGION UN and European Human Rights Law and Practice PAUL M TAYLOR camʙʀɪdɢe uɴɪveʀsɪtʏ pʀess Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cʙ2 2ʀu, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521856492 © Paul M Taylor 2005 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2005 ɪsʙɴ-13 ɪsʙɴ-10 978-0-511-13549-1 eBook (EBL) 0-511-13549-1 eBook (EBL) ɪsʙɴ-13 ɪsʙɴ-10 978-0-521-85649-2 hardback 0-521-85649-3 hardback ɪsʙɴ-13 ɪsʙɴ-10 978-0-521-67246-7 paperback 0-521-67246-5 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of uʀʟs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate CONTENTS Foreword by David Harris Preface page ix xi Table of cases, applications, and communications xiii Table of treaties, declarations, and other international instruments xxiv List of abbreviations Introduction Overview xxvii 1 Interrelation between the UN and European systems The institutions and their contribution to standard-setting The Human Rights Committee The Role of the Special Rapporteur 15 The European Convention treaty organs Chapter structure 16 19 Freedom of religious choice Introduction 24 24 Freedom to change or maintain religion 27 Pressure to maintain a religion or belief 43 Origin of the freedom from coercion 43 Interpretation of the freedom from coercion Apostasy Summary 45 50 53 Pressure to change religion Introduction 10 54 54 Missionary activity, imperialist ambitions, colonialism and war v 55 vi CONTENTS Social concern and inducements Proselytism 57 64 Grounds of opposition to proselytism Rights and freedoms of others Coercion 64 70 73 Hate speech 77 Blasphemy, disparagement and gratuitous offence Conclusion 84 111 The scope of the forum internum beyond religious choice 115 Introduction 115 ‘Direct’ protection for the forum internum 120 Decisions based on justified limitation on manifestation Decisions based on available alternatives Exemption ruling out coercion Employment 121 136 136 138 Decisions based on provision for interference in the relevant Convention 147 Military service 148 Taxation and social security 153 Recognition that coercion does not constitute manifestation 156 Summary 159 ‘Indirect’ protection for the forum internum 160 The rights and freedoms of others as a ground of limitation Education ‘Respect’ for parental convictions based on indoctrination Alternative approaches: manifestation and coercion to act contrary to one’s beliefs Summary 175 182 The use of anti-discrimination measures to protect the forum internum 182 Differential treatment 187 ‘Reasonable’ and ‘objective’ criteria Summary Conclusion 161 165 198 198 192 166 vii CONTENTS The right to manifest religious belief and applicable limitations 203 Introduction 203 Beliefs and their manifestation Protected beliefs 203 204 Nexus between religion or belief and its manifestation 210 Determination of whether there has been an interference 222 The scope of recognised manifestations of religion or belief 235 ‘To worship or assemble in connection with a religion or belief, and to establish and maintain places for these purposes’ 237 Worship or assemble 237 Establish and maintain places of worship and assembly 242 ‘To establish and maintain appropriate charitable or humanitarian institutions’ 246 ‘To make, acquire and use to an adequate extent the necessary articles and materials related to the rites or customs of a religion or belief’ 250 ‘To write, issue and disseminate relevant publications in these areas’ 259 ‘To teach a religion or belief in places suitable for these purposes’ 263 ‘To solicit and receive voluntary financial and other contributions from individuals and institutions’ 271 ‘To train, appoint, elect or designate by succession appropriate leaders called for by the requirements and standards of any religion or belief ’ 272 ‘To observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays and ceremonies in accordance with the precepts of one’s religion or belief ’ 278 ‘To establish and maintain communications with individuals and communities in matters of religion or belief at the national and international levels’ 287 Summary 290 Permissible limitations on the right to manifestation Introduction Prescribed by law Legitimate aim 292 293 301 292 viii CONTENTS Necessary (in a democratic society) Grounds of limitation 305 321 Public interest grounds of limitation Public health and safety Order 321 321 323 National security 325 Protection of morals 327 Fundamental rights and freedoms of others Conclusion 328 333 Conclusion 339 The myth surrounding the nature of coercion to change religion or belief 339 Developing recognition of issues of conscience 342 The widening of State discretion in European jurisprudence The range of manifestations of religion or belief Meeting future challenges Overview 350 Annexes 352 347 348 Annex 1: Universal Declaration of Human Rights 352 Annex 2: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Annex 3: Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief Annex 4: Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 372 Annex 5: Text of General Comment No 22 Bibliography Index 398 383 343 378 358 368 BIBLIOGRAPHY 391 Klebes, H., ‘Draft Protocol on Minority Rights to the ECHR’, 14 HRLJ (1992) 140 Klebes, H., ‘The Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities’ 16 HRLJ (1995) 92 Krassimir, K., Religious Freedom in Southeastern and Central Europe, Vienna/ Sofia: 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S., ‘The United Nations Commission on Human Rights Confirms Conscientious Objection to Military Service as a Human Right’, 35 Neth Int’l L Rev (1988) 53 Witte, J., ‘Religious Dimensions of Law, Human Rights and Democracy’, 26 Isr YB Hum Rts (1996) 87 Wood, J E., ‘Church Lobbying and Public Policy’, 28 J Church & St (1986) 183 Yourow, H C., The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine in the Dynamic of European Human Rights Jurisprudence, The Hague/London: Kluwer Law International (1996) INDEX abortion, 100, 160 About-Picard law (France), 296 Afghanistan, 30, 44, 45, 58–9, 196, 258, 261, 280 Africa, 11, 57 Albania, 18, 252, 276, 277, 278, 283 Algeria, 37, 57, 62, 66, 78, 257, 260 Ando, 108, 134, 194 Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, 104 apostasy, 33, 50, 52, 64 Argentina, 197, 230, 234, 280 Armenia, 65, 197, 230, 242, 249, 252, 280 Australia, 44, 103, 104 Austria, 102, 297, 328 Asia, 11 assembly, right of, 66, 227, 239–46, 296, 323 Assyrian Christians, 52 Australia, 3, 73, 280 Azerbaijan, 37, 38, 109, 110, 230, 256, 261, 262, 327 Baha’is, 182 Balfour, 144 Bangladesh, 62, 282 Barbados, 34 Baroody, 29 Barreto, Cabral, 81 beards, wearing and shaving of, 135, 257, 259, 290, 337 Belarus, 62, 232, 262, 284, 288 Belgium, 56, 72–3, 232, 262, 297 Benito, 32, 61 Bhutan, 38, 62, 232, 243 blasphemy, 84–111 UK, 87 Boerefijn, 11, 12, 15 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 283, 284 Boyle, K., 84 Brunei, 181, 260 Bulgaria, 65, 110, 134, 181, 230, 242, 249, 260, 261, 263, 266, 273, 276, 279, 282, 283, 284, 288, 289 Burundi, 242, 246, 289 Byelorus, 36, 62, 288 Byelorussian SSR, 263 Cameroon, 233, 234 Canada, 18, 82, 104, 192, 263, 280 Capotori, 45 Catholism, 56 Central African Republic, 239 ceremonial items, 251–3 Ceylon, 56 charitable or humanitarian institutions, 232, 246–50, 271, 291, 337, 371 Chile, 305, 306 China, 56, 110, 242, 243, 246, 249, 253, 261, 265, 266, 271, 273, 277, 282–3, 287, 288, 289, 303, 320, 326 Christian Orthodox Church, 50 Christianity, 59, 105 church contributions/taxes, 40, 41, 137, 156, 200 avoiding church tax and compulsory revelation of one’s beliefs, 40 change of religion, 40 obligation to pay, 137 398 INDEX rules of law imposed by religion, 158, 315 See employment/employee’s convictions and military service Church of Scientology, 190, 252 Clapham, A., 239 coercion, 20, 25, 73–7, 134, 285 anti-coercion provision, 45, 64 building control, 126 to change or to maintain religion, 27–54 coercive measures compulsion, physical or moral, 48, 49 compulsion to reveal one’s beliefs, 4, 41–2, 202, 345 compulsory membership of the Health Service, 122 compulsory motor insurance, 122 compulsory professional pension scheme, 126, 155, 215 denying facilities of a public nature, 47 express right to change religion, 29–58 freedom from, 43–5 interpretation of, 45 improper inducements, 48–9, 60, 62, 74 humanitarian activities, 248 material assistance, 60, 63, 66 military parades, 117 oath taking, 32, 42, 129–31, 195, 302, 345 origin of the freedom from coercion, 43–5 physical force or penal sanctions, 73, 380 private sources of, 47 prohibition of, 25 in religious choice, 4, 77 state-sponsored, 46 taxation, 116, 126 vs propagation, 57 coercion to perform christenings, 138 Colombia, 181, 328 Commission on Human Rights, 3, 15, 18 399 Committee against Torture, 51–2 Communist countries, 2–3 communities, 287 Comoros, 109 conscientious objectors, 4, 121, 189, 191, 192–4, 198 Convention on Racial Discrimination 1965, Costa Rica, 56, 131, 192, 234 Cuba, 251 Cullen, 171 Cyprus, 48, 49, 284 Czechoslovakia, 260, 261, 273, 282, 288 De Meyer, Judge, 67 Dembinska, 31 Denmark, 192, 232 Dickson, 25 dietary regulations/observance, 258, 281, 285, 379 Dignan, J., 125, 153 Dimitrijevic, 195 Dinstein, 231 discrimination, xi, xii, 2, 3, 9, 16, 30, 35, 37, 42, 47, 49, 56, 69, 78, 80, 84, 85, 112–13, 119, 131, 133, 158, 160–1, 172, 180, 229–37, 255, 262, 267, 269, 272, 281, 336, 345, 348, 353, 354, 356, 360, 366–70, 377, 380–2 private sources, 120 Djibouti, 109 doctrine, 25, 29, 57, 65, 87, 90, 91, 93, 98–9, 109, 319 Dominican Republic, 323 dress, see also headscarves, 22, 172, 215, 235, 253, 256 requirement that a hard hat be worn, 132, 147, 240 Dubai, 273 Ecuador, 42 Edge, P W., 206, 328 education, 165, 171, 346 corporal punishment, 167, 208, 268 400 INDEX education (cont.) denominational school, 61, 146 missionary-funded education, 61–3 parents rights in relation to the State education of their children religious, 263 Religious dress, schools/school, 3, 47, 61–3, 146, 166, 178–81, 248, 254, 255, 258, 264, 266–7, 268, 270, 299, 334, 380 State funding, 179 stigmatisation, 175–6 Egypt, 30, 31, 35, 43, 51, 52, 54, 55, 58, 77, 104, 110, 196, 198, 242, 244, 262, 266, 284, 320 El Salvador, 250 employment/employee’s convictions, 20, 133, 138–47, 188, 189, 240, 338 days of rest Friday prayer, 144, 211 Seventh Day Adventist, 188 Sunday shift, 144 coercion to perform christenings, 138 protested at newly enacted abortion law, 100, 129, 139 Estonia, 131 Ethiopia, 284 European Commission on Human Rights, 5, 10, 16–18, 40, 71, 99, 100, 324, 333, 351 blasphemy, 87 children, 169 differential treatment, 187 headscarf, 215 protected ‘religion or belief’, 210 state compulsion, 342 taxation, 40, 41, 137, 153, 156, 200 European Court on Human Rights, 5, 10, 16–17, 20, 21, 26, 39, 49–50, 64, 112, 166, 171, 207, 222, 264, 273, 290, 302 Arrowsmith, 334 headscarf, 172 manifestation, 199, 203, 307 State compulsion, 117, 342 State discretion, 200 State interference, 344, 351 Eusthadiades, 149 Evans, Carolyn, 6, 46, 48, 116–18, 125, 205, 219, 220, 235, 302 Evans, Malcolm, 6, 116, 118, 148, 169, 204–5, 207, 209, 219 Evatt, 83, 109 Falun Gong, 326 Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 166 Ferrari, 50, 315 financial contributions, 271 Finland, 34, 102, 103, 232 forum internum, 20, 135, 185, 198–202, 344 absolute nature of that part of the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion which may not be subject to limitation, 75, 96 anti-discrimination measures, 182–98 definition, 115 national service, 194 protection against the imposition of penalties for holding particular beliefs, 24, 177 protection for, 21, 118 direct, 120–59 indirect, 198–9 France, 3, 31, 43, 55, 56, 82, 166, 256, 293, 305, 306 freedom of religious choice, 24–114 Gayssot Act, 82, 300 gender, 76, 172, 255, 277, 316 General Comments, 13–14, 22, 25 No 10, 82 No 18, 191, 193 No 22, 10, 22, 25–6, 32, 33, 34, 42, 46, 48, 54, 61, 73, 78, 133, 151, 177, 180, 189, 195, 202, 220, 282, 290, 293, 347, 350 INDEX paragraph 2, 209 paragraph 3, 195, 202, 346 paragraph 4, 133, 220, 237, 242, 246, 253, 264, 272, 278–9, 286, 339 paragraph 5, 33, 46, 48, 54, 61, 73, 188 paragraph 6, 177–8 paragraph 7, 78 paragraph 8, 239, 300, 307–8, 327 paragraph 11, 152, 193 Georgia, 65, 78, 243, 260, 262 Germany, 103, 320, 321 graveyards, desecration of, 244, 284 Greece, 39, 46, 56, 65–6, 67–70, 110, 131, 182, 195–6, 230, 273, 277, 288, 302, 320 Greenjackets, 80 Grubb, A., 138 Guatemala, 61 Hall, Sir Basil, 127 Hammer, L., 118, 138 Harris, 241 O’Boyle and Warbrick, 17, 116, 186, 196 hate speech, 77 headscarves, 215, 253–4, 256, 290, 304, 331 Henkin, 76 Higgins, 195, 242 holidays, 278 Holocaust denial, 81 Human Rights Committee, 5, 10, 21, 22, 82, 131, 177, 209, 222, 231, 266, 272, 290, 322, 325, 339–40, 350 on coercion, 46 composition of, 11 differential treatment, 190 limitations of manifestation, 300, 304, 307 proselytism, 64 publications, 262 state interference, 340–1, 345 Western European bias, 11 401 Hungary, 158, 181, 232 Hussain, Abid, 110 Iba´n, 297 Iceland, 181 Incitement to Disaffection Act 1934, 123 India, 38, 62, 110, 242, 285, 322 Indian Code, 108 Indonesia, 37, 232, 245 inducements, improper, 48–9, 60, 62, 74 Iran, 33, 37, 51–2, 78, 110, 196, 233, 234, 246, 249, 256, 276, 278, 287, 288, 303 Iraq, 30, 31, 52, 104, 109, 131, 181, 197, 232, 239, 246, 251, 261, 262, 266, 276, 284 Ireland, 89, 131, 166, 249 Islam, 48, 51, 55, 57, 103 Islamic countries explicit right to change religion, 27 freedom of choice, 36, 43 Islamic law, 33 Israel, 60, 110, 197, 283 Italy, 31, 45, 263 Jamaica, 34 Japan, 263 Jehovah’s Witness, 173, 182, 189, 193, 233, 243, 261, 262, 269, 289, 299, 302, 311, 332 Jordan, 33, 34, 197, 328 Juss, S S., 68 Kazakstan, 37, 230, 320 Khan, Sir Muhammed Zafrullah, 59 Klein, 194 Kokkinakis v Greece, 26, 101 Koranic law, 30 Korea, 32, 195, 239, 303 Kretzmer, 83, 109, 194 Krishnaswami (Special Rapporteur), 24, 41, 48, 53, 61, 62, 192, 221, 234, 248, 264, 272, 289 Kyrgystan, 193, 245 402 INDEX Lallah, 83, 109, 195 language, the use of a particular language spoken by a group or used in liturgy, 167, 180, 183, 260, 278, 286, 290, 379 Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 38, 110, 271, 303 Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, 84 Lebanon, 44, 323 Lerner, 57 Liberia, 45, 242 Libya, 48, 102 Liddy, 150 Lillich, 206 limitations, rights and freedoms of others, 26, 46, 50, 64, 69–74, 76–9, 83–4, 89, 93–6, 101, 108, 113, 119, 123, 142, 146, 158, 160–5, 173, 183–4, 204, 206, 224, 244, 255, 262, 292, 304, 315, 317–18, 326, 329–33, 340, 343 State discretion, 200 Liskofsky, S., 205 Lithuania, 198, 233 Lohmus, Judge, 97 Loveland, I., 252 Luxembourg, 232, 273 Macedonia, 243, 278 McGoldrick, 190 Malawi, 110 Malaysia, 37, 109, 110, 245, 261, 327 manifestation, right of, 121, 132, 159, 175, 176, 199, 220, 342, 347 beliefs and, 203 collective dimension of, 291–2 hierarchy of, 203 limitations on, 292 legitimate aims, 301 necessary to a democratic society, 305, 349 prescribed by law, 293, 348 public interest grounds, 321–7 scope of, 235 worship, places of, 66, 232, 237–46, 263, 302, 379 restrictions on worship resulting from employment obligations, 310 Marcus, E., 149 margin of appreciation, 88, 97–8, 150, 185, 186–7, 200, 255, 307–10, 328, 333, 344 Martens, Judge, 39, 69, 74, 76, 324 Mateljak, 281 material assistance, 60, 63, 66 Mauritania, 37, 52, 285 Mauritius, 37, 47, 61 Meron, 76 Mexico, 37, 239, 245, 252, 266, 272 military service alternative service, 147–50, 152, 193–4, 198, 200 conscientious objectors and compulsory military service, 4, 118, 121, 147, 148–52, 155, 192–4, 198, 220, 342, 343, 362, 382 context of, 70–1, 141, 143–4, 212 discipline, 21, 142, 143, 201 minorities, 194 minors, 175, 200 see also education missionary work associations with coercion, 63 objections to, 63 Moldova, 230, 245, 277, 287, 288 Mongolia, 61, 262, 263, 287 Montenegro, 282 morals, 72, 83, 88, 97, 122, 204, 292, 301, 327–8, 344, 363, 370, 380 Morocco, 48, 57, 181, 198, 232, 260, 288 Muslim minorities, 103 Myanmar, 110, 244, 246, 285 names, 133–4, 279, 290 national security, 61, 196, 264, 288, 302, 304, 325, 333, 363–4, 366, 381 Nauru, 230 INDEX Nepal, 33, 60, 62, 110, 232, 285, 303 Netherlands, 36, 58, 80 New Zealand, 52, 102 Nicaragua, 266 Niger, 62 Nigeria, 244, 272 non-governmental organisation (NGO), 16 non-State entities, private sources, 4, 35, 45–8, 120, 165, 190, 226, 249, 261, 296 Norway, 34, 181, 192, 197, 232 Nowak, 118, 225, 226 oath taking, 32, 42, 129–31, 195, 302 O’Malley v Simpson’s Sears Ltd., S.C.R., 281 Orthodox church, 65, 182 OSCE, 18, 38, 231, 242 Pacifism, 210 Pakistan, 30, 37, 59–60, 103–4, 109, 131, 181, 196, 242, 252, 279, 284, 288, 289 Panama, 197, 232, 328 Papua New Guinea, 320 parents and guardians freedom of religious choice, 34–5 religious education, 62, 165, 166–9, 366 Partsch, 25, 32, 118 Peru, 158, 197 Pettiti, Judge, 67, 74, 88 Pfeffer, 24 Phillippines, 56, 60, 73, 112 pluralism, 16, 94, 98, 99, 102, 129, 162, 164, 165, 171–2, 227–8, 255, 273–6, 308, 310–13, 318–19, 327–8, 335, 349 Pocar, F., 165 Poland, 31, 181 political parties, xi, xii, 4, 227, 304, 314, 327 Portugal, 181 Portuguese, 56 practice, right to permissible limitations, 380–1 403 prison/prisoners, 21, 32, 134–5, 212, 219, 224, 239–40, 256, 257, 290, 324, 337 proselytism, 25–7, 39, 42, 44, 45, 48–50, 54, 56–8, 60, 102, 114, 168, 171, 264, 309, 340 acceptable and ‘improper’ proselytism, 67–70, 74–6, 94, 112, 163, 168, 265, 340–1 bearing witness, 67–70 coercion/coercive measures, 25–7, 73–7 culture, 65 ideological proselytising, 45 limitations on, 70–3 and missionary work, 20, 54–7 national identity, 65 opposition to, 64–70 private sources of, 48 propaganda, 55, 61, 65, 66, 80, 102, 141, 263, 380 proselytising State religion, 45 true evangelism, 68 western imperialism, 54–7, 369 Public Order Act, 106 publications, 259–63 Quaker, 214 religion, the right to maintain a, 54–111 administrative requirements, 42 persuasion or appeals to conscience, 44 See also coercion and Church contributions/taxes religious buildings, 246 religious choice, freedom of, 4, 19, 20, 24–54 an absolute right/absolute character, 39, 42, 206 argument and discussion, 44 maintain, 27–54 minors, 35 proselytise, 25, 52, 65, 67, 69, 71–2, 76, 94, 112, 171, 269 404 INDEX religious choice, freedom of (cont.) right to change, 339 religious movements, new, 3, 297, 350 religious offences, 3, 104, 105, 106, 108 Religious Offences Bill, 106 religious practice articles necessary for, 250 religious symbols, 238, 279, 286, 290, 379 respect for the religious feelings of others, 87, 88, 89, 160, 343 right of community to live free from religious hatred, 82–4 Ress, Judge, 81 right to solicit and receive voluntary financial and other contributions, 271, 337 rights and freedoms of others, see limitations, rights and freedoms of others attempting to make converts, 72 blasphemy, disparagement and gratuitous offence, 84–111 coercion that impairs religious choice, 4, 73–7 ‘conflict’ between proselytiser and proselytised, 76–7 duties and responsibilities, 86–96 hate speech, 77 offensive speech, 83–4 ‘respect’ for religious beliefs or feelings, 26–7, 75, 85–7, 113, 330 ritual articles and materials, see ceremonial items rituals associated with certain stages of life, 278, 282, 379 baptisms, 138, 282 ceremonies, 229, 240, 251, 274, 278, 282, 285, 291, 338, 372 circumcision, 282, 283 female, 286 funerals, 282 marriage, 30, 213, 283, 284, 355, 377 pilgrimages, 282 weddings, 282 Robillard, 239 Romania, 65, 78, 182, 230, 232, 243, 244, 245, 249, 272, 287, 288 Russian Federation, 65, 110, 230, 232, 245, 284, 297 Rwanda, 276 Sadi, 195, 242 Saudi, 29–31, 43, 45, 55–6, 64, 110, 239, 244, 252, 276, 285, 288 1981 Declaration, 56 ICCPR, 30, 43, 45, 55, 59 Scarman, Lord, 99 Scheinin, 180 Schermers, 127 Schwelb, 15 sects, 297–8, 319 secularity, 3, 142, 254, 257, 315, 318, 335 sharia, 315 Sikh, 320 Slovakia, 230 Sorabjee, Soli, 108 Spain, 181, 310 Special Rapporteur, 5, 7, 10, 15–16, 22, 37, 52–3, 64, 66, 103, 109–11, 231, 263, 271 legal recognition of religious groups, 336 missionary work, 56, 62 publications, 260 right to maintain communication with communities and individuals, 287 sects, 319 Sri Lanka, 62, 197 State discretion, 343 State religion, xi, 3, 41, 45, 65, 197, 289, 381 State Reports, 10, 12–15, 102 Steiner, 253 succession of appropriate leaders, 272–8 INDEX 405 Sudan, 33, 37, 50, 51, 53, 62, 110, 230, 258 Sullivan, 26, 63 Svensson-McCarthy, 305, 306 Sweden, 29, 41, 72, 181 Switzerland, symbols, the display of, 238, 279, 286, 290, 379 Syria, 196, 197, 289, 320 United Kingdom, 3, 31–42, 44, 65, 78, 99, 102, 104, 105–7, 277, 323 United States, 18, 47, 103, 166, 280 United States Constitution, 115 Universal standards, gap with European, 27 Uruguay, 15 Uzbekistan, 110, 230, 261, 265 Tahzib, Tajikistan, 243 Tatars, 81 taxation, 40, 41, 137, 153, 156, 200 the Maldives, 110, 181 Tibet, 271, 273 tolerance, 25, 72, 94, 98, 104, 164, 172, 297, 303, 312, 315, 335 travaux pre´paratoires, ICCPR, 10 Trinidad and Tobago, 173, 233 Tunisia, 33, 198, 232, 273 Turkey, 3, 66, 104, 230, 243, 244, 246, 261, 265, 303, 327 Turkmenistan, 230, 244, 261 Vallejo, Prado, 195 Valticos, 267 van Boven, 16 van Dijk and van Hoof, 117, 121 Venezuela, 232, 293 Viet Nam, 38, 242, 243, 249, 265, 298, 303, 327 Visions of Ecstasy, 90 Ukraine, 230, 327 Ukrainian S.S.R., 181 Union of Soviet Socialist Republic, 77, 181, 232, 263, 271, 272, 305, 306 United Arab Emirates, 109, 110, 273, 284 Walkate, 36–7 wearing of religious apparel, see dress and headscarves Wennergren, Bertil, 188, 194, 269 Witte, J., 276 World Council of Churches, 68 worship, 237–46 Yemen, 30, 33, 52, 109 Yugoslavia, 197, 263, 281, 326, 327 Zaire, 233, 273 Zambia, 192 Zimbabwe, 285, 287, 322 ... European Court of Human Rights Judgments and Decisions Education and the Law European Human Rights Law Review European Human Rights Reports Emory International Law Review Employment Lawyer United Nations... FREEDOM OF RELIGION UN and European Human Rights Law and Practice PAUL M TAYLOR camʙʀɪdɢe uɴɪveʀsɪtʏ pʀess Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University. .. fundamental rights and freedoms of others INTRODUCTION Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (‘the European Convention’), adopted under the auspices of the Council