0521790247 cambridge university press medieval africa 1250 1800 sep 2001

Medieval Africa, – This is a radically revised and updated edition of The African Middle Ages – (first published in ), a companion volume to the authors’ well-known Africa since  (now in its fourth edition) Although this volume follows the overall plan of the original, the story now begins  years earlier, and takes into account the wealth of supportive literature in African historical studies over the last twenty years The earlier starting date has enabled the authors to look at the entire continent from a more distinctly African viewpoint By about    African societies were greatly expanding their political and economic scope Islam was spreading south across the Sahara from Mediterranean Africa, and down the Indian Ocean coast Medieval Africa continues into the period of European contacts from the fourteenth century onwards, with much, but not exclusive, emphasis on the growth of the trans-Saharan, Atlantic and Indian Ocean slave trade The book stresses the strengths, while not overlooking the weaknesses, of African societies as the eighteenth century drew to a close This volume will be an essential introduction to African history for students, as well as for the general reader It is illustrated with a wealth of maps            is Professor Emeritus of African History at the University of London, and member of the British Academy He has published widely on African history, including A Short History of Africa (, translated into  languages,  revised editions), The African Experience (, revised ) and In the Realms of Gold ()             has taught African history in both the UK and Africa He is the co-author of the companion to this volume, Africa since  (with Roland Oliver,  editions since ) This page intentionally left blank Medieval Africa, – ROLAND OLIVER A N T H O N Y AT M O R E PUBLISHED BY CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS (VIRTUAL PUBLISHING) FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia http://www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press 2001 This edition © Cambridge University Press (Virtual Publishing) 2003 First published in printed format 2001 A catalogue record for the original printed book is available from the British Library and from the Library of Congress Original ISBN 521 79024 hardback Original ISBN 521 79372 paperback ISBN 511 01621 virtual (netLibrary Edition) Contents List of maps Preface  Introduction: the medieval scene page vi vii   Egypt: al-Misr   Ifriqiya and the Regencies   The Islamic Far West: Morocco   The western Sudan and upper Guinea   The central Sudan and lower Guinea   Nubia, Darfur and Wadai   The north-eastern triangle   The upper Nile basin and the East African plateau   The heart of Africa   The land of the blacksmith kings   From the Lualaba to the Zambezi   The approaches to Zimbabwe   The peoples of the South  Epilogue  Further reading Index   v Maps                         vi Africa: geography, rainfall and vegetation page viii Indian Ocean trading activities, –  Muslim and Christian North-East Africa, –  Egypt, the Maghrib and the Saharan trade routes, – ‒ The Maghrib, the Sahara and the Sudan, –  Morocco and the western Sudan, –  West Africa, –  The western Sudan, upper and lower Guinea, – ‒ The central Sudan and lower Guinea, – ‒ Egypt and the Nilotic Sudan, –  From the Niger to the Nile, –  The Horn of Africa in the age of the Solomonids  The Muslim counter-offensive in the Horn  The impact of the Oromo in North-East Africa  The upper Nile basin and the East African plateau: the distribution of language-families, c.  The upper Nile basin and the East African plateau: languages and cultures, c.–  The upper Nile basin and the East African plateau: later Iron Age population movements, c.–  The upper Nile basin and the East African plateau: settlements of the Nilotes, c.–  Northern Central Africa ‒ Western Central Africa  From the Lualaba to the Zambezi ‒ The approaches to Zimbabwe  Between the Zambezi and the Limpopo  Southern Africa ‒ Preface This book has emerged in response to an invitation by Cambridge University Press to prepare a Revised Edition of The African Middle Ages – published by them in  We felt that after so long an interval the degree of revision needed to be radical and that this might be best achieved by setting an earlier starting date for the work as a whole On the one hand this would enable us to look at the entire continent from a more distinctively African viewpoint, free from the bias inevitably imparted by the reliance from the outset on European written sources On the other hand it would ensure that each of our regional chapters, the strongest no less than the weakest, would have to be redesigned to accommodate the new angle of approach For the rest, we have divided our treatment of Mediterranean Africa into three chapters rather than two, and we have added a completely new chapter on the least known region of the continent, which is that lying at its geographical centre to the north of the Congo basin Thus, while we have reused many passages from the earlier work, so much of the writing is new that we feel it right to give it a different title Like its predecessor, Medieval Africa, – should be seen as a companion volume to our earlier book, Africa since , now in its Fourth Revised Edition and still in wide demand We hope that, in its new form, it may serve to encourage more teachers and students to explore the pre-modern history of Africa, which has so much of real interest to teach us about how small societies faced the challenges of very diverse, and often hostile, environments and yet managed to interact sufficiently to create significant areas of common speech and culture, to share ideas and technological innovations, and to meet the outside world with confidence at most times earlier than the mid-nineteenth century vii a r a a L Uban g S u e Chad l d a n i c B e l t e Benu Equator e Nil ue Bl h White Nile Niger a n Sea Se a h nea ed S rra R S A Nile Medite Mts tlas i ngo Co L Victoria L Tanganyika L Malawi 0 1000 2000 km Orange 1000 miles  Africa: geography, rainfall and vegetation mbezi Za al Va rg popo Lim be 16 ins rainfall p.a K a D lah es ar er i t ns Land over 3000 ft Dra ke Mada gasc ar Rainforest  Introduction: the medieval scene If it is universally acknowledged that geography and climate shape and mould the course of history, it is a truism peculiarly self-evident in Africa, where humankind has had to contend with environmental conditions often harsh and always challenging The continent’s broad vegetation zones are best portrayed on a map, which will show at a glance the contrast between the areas lying roughly to the north and south of the equator In the northern sector, the lines demarcating these zones march horizontally across the continent with almost the precision of the lines of latitude, and the determining factor is that of rainfall The Mediterranean zone, with its coastal plains watered by regular winter rains, and at its western end the high pastures of the Atlas ranges, is bordered by the arid and stony Sahara, measuring more than  miles from north to south, and stretching for more than  miles from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea On its southern ‘shore’ (in Arabic, sahel) the desert merges into the open savanna of the Sahel, free from the tsetse-fly and offering pasture for most domestic animals, notably, cattle, sheep and goats, donkeys and the small horses native to the region Southwards, the Sahel merges into the bush and light woodland of the Sudanic belt, offering rainfall enough for cereal agriculture, but where infestation by tsetse-fly poses a mortal danger to the larger domestic animals, especially to cattle and all the regular beasts of burden and traction The hard, sun-baked soil must be tilled with hoes and not with ploughs The bush of the Sudanic belt ends abruptly with the margin of the equatorial forest, where vegetables and root crops, nut and fruit trees can be grown in clearings There is no doubt that during the second millennium a general drying of the climate has caused the zonal boundaries to shift southwards, perhaps by as much as  miles, but the sequence of the vegetation zones has been largely maintained South of the equator, the vegetation map shows a very different picture Here, the vegetation zones criss-cross, with forest or woodland running from the Cameroon highlands in the north-west to coastal Mozambique in the south-east, and dry savanna from Somalia in the north-east to Namibia in the south-west Here, the determinating factor is not so much rainfall as height above sea level  Further reading Kent, R K., ‘Madagascar and the Islands of the Indian Ocean’, in General History V, pp – Matviev, V V., ‘The Development of Swahili Civilisation’, in General History IV, pp – Mudenge, S I G., A Political History of Munhumutapa c.– (Harare, ) Newitt, Malyn, A History of Mocambique (Bloomington, ) Nurse, Derek and Thomas Spear, The Swahili: Reconstructing the History and Language of an African Society – (Philadelphia, ) Sutton, J E G., ‘Kilwa’, Azania  (), pp – Chapter  The peoples of the South Birmingham, David and Shula Marks, ‘Southern Africa’, in CHA III, pp – Duminy, Andrew and Bill Guest (eds.), Natal and Zululand from Earliest Times to  (Pietermaritzburg, ) Elphick, Richard, Kraal and Castle: Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa (New Haven, ) Elphick, Richard and Hermann Giliomee (eds.), The Shaping of South African Society – (Cape Town and London, ) Hall, Martin, The Changing Past: Farmers, Kings and Traders in Southern Africa – (Cape Town, ) Hamilton, Carolyn (ed.), The Mfecane Aftermath (Johannesburg, ) Earlier chapters on pre-Mfecane situation Marks, Shula and Richard Gray, ‘Southern Africa and Madagascar’, in CHA IV, pp – Ross, Robert, Beyond the Pale: Essays in the History of Colonial South Africa (Hanover, NH, ) Shell, Robert, Children of Bondage: A Social History of Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope (Hanover, NH, )  Index  Abd al-Karim, and otherthrow of Tunjur – Abd al-Mumin of Morocco  Abd al-Wadids, dynasty of Tlemcen  Abdallabis, rulers of Nubia ,  Abdallah Jamma of Nubia  Abu Abdullah Muhammad, sharif of Morocco  Abu Amr Uthman, ruler of Kanen  Abu l-Hasan, sultan of Morocco  Abu Yusuf Ya qub of Morocco  Abu Zakariyya, sultan of Tunis ,  Accra ,  Acholi people  Adal, Sultanate of , ,  and destruction of Solomonid empire – overrun by Barentu Oromo  Aden , ,  Adrar ,  Africa and artistic, material and cultural independence before ,  climate zones – geography – historical sources for – independence of –,  interregional trade – languages  oral tradition  political enlargement as motive force – political organisation  political vitality  population growth and political change – slave trade –; traditional nature of  society, expansion of  spiritual vibrancy – transport systems – warfare, nature of –,  Aegean Sea, islands , ,  Africa in the Iron Age ‒ Agades , ,  Agau people, Ethiopia –,  Ahmad, Mawlay, of Morocco, and invasion of Songhay –, – Ahmad b Ibrahim of Adal and destruction of Solomonid empire – defeat of , ,  Ain Jalut, battle of  Aïr , ; see also Agades Aja people ,  and Atlantic slave trade  Akan people and slave trade ,  and gold,  Akinjogbin, I A  Aksum  fall of  pillaged by Imam Ahwad  Akwamu, expansion and Atlantic slave trade – Alawi dynasty of Morocco , –,  Albusaid Imams of Oman,  Algeciras, Moroccan capture of  Algeria  Ottoman government organisation – trade  Algiers growth of – involvement of al-Din brothers  Ottoman control of  Ali Bey al-Kabir of Egypt  seizure of power – Almeida, Francisco de  Almohad empire ,  decline of  Almoravids, conquest of Morocco  Alvarez, Francisco – Alwa capital city  kingdom of ,  Index penetration by Arab pastoralists  political breakdown , ,  trade  see also Nubia Amara Dunkas, Funj conqueror of Nubia  Ambuila Tiongo, battle of  Amda Siyon, emperor of Ethiopia  Amhara , ,  Amharic language –, , – Angola  competing warrior-smiths  early political organisations within – foundation of Portuguese colony  origin of name  as slave-trading enterprise  Anjou, Charles, Count of  Ap-Funy ,  Arabia , ,  Arabic language , , , , , , , , ,  Arabs , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , ,  Aregay, Merid  Arochuku  Aruj al-Din  Asante kingdom expansion and Atlantic slave trade – foundations of  imperial system of  Aswan, Ottoman capture of  Mamluks at  Atlas mountains , , , , , , –, ,  Avungara rulers of Azande  Awjila, oasis of ,  Awlad Mumammad, Fezzan dynasty ,  Aybeg, Sultan of Egypt  Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt –,  Azande assimilation of subjects  origins of hegemony  al-Azhar, university mosque , , ,  Badi II, sultan of Funj  Badi IV, sultan of Funj  Bambuk goldfields , , ,  bananas , ,  Banda people ,  Bantu languages and speakers ,  in rain forest –, – contact with Lwo  household organisation in rainforest  East African Iron Age , ,  occupation of eastern South Africa  South-Eastern complex – South-Western complex  Banu Hassan nomadic people, Morocco  Banu Hilal  Ifriqiya  Morocco – role in Maghribi society  Banu Ma qil, migrations of  Banu Marin, and invasion of Morocco ; see also Morocco, Marinid Banu Wattas, Morocco  Barbarossa, see Khayr al-Din Barentu Oromo people, expansion of ,  Barquq, Sultan ,  Barreto, Francisco  Barros, João de ,  Batavian Republic  Battell, Andrew – Battle of the Three Kings, Morocco  Bayezid II, Sultan  Bemba, kingdoms of – Benguela ,  Benin emergence of – expansion – obas of, –,  slavery and slave trade – trade with Portuguese – Berber language ,  Berbers  in Cyrenaica –; in Morocco  inter-dynastic conflict  unification by Islam – Bidderi, shrine – Bigo earthworks site, Uganda ,  Bijaya (Bougie) , ,  Aruj al-Din’s expedition against   Index  Bijaya (Bougie) (cont.) Spanish garrison at  university mosque of  Bilma salt mines , ,  Birmingham, David  Bisa, kingdoms of ‒ Bito dynasty of Bunyoro ,  Black Death arrival in Alexandria  Ifriqiya  Mamluk Egypt  blacksmiths , , ,  in Kongo  itinerant – organisers of warrior bands  Blue Nile , , ,  Bonaparte, Napoleon ,  Napoleonic wars – Borana Oromo people encroachment into Ethiopia  migrations of –,  Bornu ,  ascendancy of  attacks on Hausa  decline of  Islamic influence  colonisation by Kanem  military strength , – relations with Tunis  slave trade – trans-Saharan slave trade , – Botswana  and Sotho-Tswana ,  Bouré goldfields ,  British expulsion of Xhosa from Zuurveld – rule of Cape  Browne, W G  Bruce, James ,  Buganda, kingdom of  expansion of  government of  trade –,  Bulala, attacks on Kanem ,  Bungu ,  migrations from  Bunyoro, kingdom of  conflict with Buganda  impact of Nilotes, – Burckhardt, J L – Burton, Richard  Burundi, kingdom of , , –,  Bushong people, and Kuba kingdom  Butana ,  Butwa attacks on Portuguese  challenge to Mutapa kingdom – trade relations with Portuguese  Cairo , , ,  Bonaparte’s occupation of  capture by Ottomans  character of  foundation of  growth of under Maluks  importance in Ottoman empire  religious centre  social hierarchy – camels , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  canoes , , , –, , , , , ,  Câo, Diogo  Cape, settlement of Dutch East India Company at , – Dutch gentry class – Dutch moves inland  importation of slaves –; effect of settlement on Khoi  emergence of Cape Coloured people  ethnic composition  growth of  Cape of Good Hope ,  Cape Town – cattle , , , , –, , , , –, , , , , , , –, –, , , , –, –, – cavalry forces , –, , , –, , , , –, , –, , –, , , , ,  Central Sudanic languages , , , , ,  Ceuta ,  Portuguese occupation of  Chad, lake , , –, ,  Index Chadic languages , ,  Changamire, – Charles V, Emperor  Chibinda Ilunga, and Lunda origin traditions – Chibuene  Chittick, Neville  Christianity and Christian missions , , –, , , , , , , , , , , , ,  in Ethiopia – in Kongo –, –,  in Nubia –, –,  Chwezi kingdom  Lwo conquest of – Congo river , , , , –, – estuary (Nzadi) –, , , ,  copper , , , , , , , –, , –, , –, , , –, , , , , ,  Coptic language  Corsairs –, , ,  Cushitic languages –, , ,  Cyrenaica , ,  Dahomey, kingdom – Damascus sacked by Mongols  sacked by Timur  Dar Fertit ,  Darb al- Arba in (Forty Days Road)  Darfur Christian outposts in  defeat of Tanjur dynasty  expansion  Islamisation of – penetration by Arab pastoralists  pilgrimage route through  trade links with Egypt  David, king of Maqurra  Delagoa Bay ,  Denkyira, expansion of and Atlantic slave trade  Dias, Paulo  occupation of Luanda Island  Dols, M W  Dongola , –,  Dragut, Corsair captain, and Ottoman control of Tripoli  Dunama Dibalami of Bornu  Dutch capture of Luanda  occupation of Cape –,  slave trade ,  Dutch East India Company – Dyula ,  activities of  trade with Portuguese  East African coast , , – Indonesian contact with – Muslim settlers  Edo  and emergence of Benin  Efik people, and Atlantic slave trade  Egba people – Egypt , , , , , , ,  agriculture  benefits of Ottoman control  Bonaparte’s conquest of  conquest by Fatimids  effects of Ottoman conquest  Islam, adoption of – language  Mamluk seizure of power  slavery and military recruitment – taxation  see also Mamluks; Ottoman Egypt; Mamluk Egypt Elmina –,  Ethiopia , , , ,  abdication of Susenyos  Christian Church  Christianity , – defeated by Funj sultanate  destruction of Solomonid empire – Oromo settlement in –, – partial Islamisation of – nature of medieval – Roman Catholicism in – Sarsa Dengel’s attempts to stabilise  survival of Christian kingdom – see also Solomonid empire  Index Eware, oba of Benin – Ewe people  Fagan, Brian  Fasiladas, emperor of Ethiopia  Fatimids conquest of Egypt  relations with Nubia  Fernandes, Antonio  Fez , , , ,  Fezzan ,  and trans-Saharan slave trade  firearms , , , , –, –, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  France and Egypt ,  and Algiers  and West Africa  Fulbe people , ,  expansion into Adamawa  revolutionary jihad  Funj sultanate  campaigns against Ethiopia  creation of  effects of emergence of  expansion – Islamisation of – origins – political disintegration – zenith of power  Fur people  establish dominance over Arab nomads   Galadewos, emperior of Ethiopia ,  Gama, Vasco da  Gambia river ,  Garlake, Peter  Ge ez, Ethio-Semitic language , ,  Genghis Khan  Gezira , –,  Ghadames oasis , – Ghat – Goa, Portuguese settlement in India , –,  gold, trade in , , , , –, , , , –, , –, , , , , , ,  Gold Coast European trading settlements  slave trade – Goletta, Tunis  as corsair base  Graham, John  Gray, Richard  Great Zimbabwe, see Zimbabwe Griqua people – Habesh, establishment of Ottoman province of  Hafsid dynasty , ,  attacked by Morocco ,  origins  rule in Ifriqiya – see also Ifriqiya Hammadi Pasha, bey of Tunis  Harar , , , ,  Harms, Robert  Hausa people and cities , –,  Bornu attacks on  conversion to Islam  Islamic influence ,  military raids  slavery  trade  Henry the Navigator, Prince ,  Herbert, Eugenia  Herero people , – migrations of  Hinda dynasties of Karagwe ,  expansion of – Hofrat en-Nahas, copper mines , ,  horses , , , , , , , , , , , ,  military significance of  role in trans-Saharan slave trade –, , ,  Husayn b Ali of Tunisia  Hutu people  Ibn al-Mukhtar ,  Ibn Battuta  Ibn Khaldun , –, , ,  Ibn Rashiq  Ibo people  Index and Atlantic slave trade – Ibrahim Bey of Egypt  Idris Aloma, mai of Bornu ,  Ifat, Walasma dynasty of  Ife – spiritual primacy of  Ifriqiya , ,  agriculture  annexation by Marinid Morocco  Banu Hilal  Black Death  character of Hafsid rulers  decline of  economic strength of  growth as maritime power  Ottoman–Spanish rivalry in Mediterranean – political eclipse by Algiers  trade – under Husayids – Igala kingdom defeat by Benin  political reorganisation of Nupe  Ijaw people, trading activities  Imbangala cooperation with Portuguese slave traders – formation of Kasanje  militaristic social organisation of  war bands – India , , , , , –,  Indian Ocean, East African coast of , , , , , – maritime trading system , , ,  Portuguese activities , –,  trading activities –, , ,  Indonesians settlement of East African coast , – of Madagascar  iron deposits and ironwork , , , , , –, , , , , –, , , , –,  Ishaq, askiya of Songhay, defeat by sharifian Morocco  Islam , , – African conversions to  at Cape  in Darfur and Wadai – on East African coast , –,  Egyptian adoption of – encirclement of Ethiopia – establishment in the Maghrib  in Ethiopia –, , –, –,  Hausa conversion to  in Kanem  in Mali and Songhay –, – Malikite school  in Morocco – in Nubia and Funj ,  pilgrimage  reverence for knowledge  shari a law ,  Sufism – unification of Berbers – al-Jabarti  Jallaba traders , – Jerusalem ,  Jesuit missionaries, and Ethiopia – Jews , , , ,  John, king of Portugal  Judar Pasha, invasion of Songhay – Kakongo kingdom, and Atlantic slave trade  Kalahari desert ,  Kalenjin people – Maasai incursions – Kanem –, ,  abandonment of Nijimi  characteristics of – conflict with Sao  conversion to Islam  impact of Arab pastoralists  Islamic influence settlement of Bornu  as slave suppliers  strategic position on trade route  Kankan, origins of  Kano , , , , ,  Kanuri people of Kanem , –,  Karimi, Egyptian merchants ,  Kasanje  Katsina , , ,  Kawar oasis, trans-Saharan slave trade ,   Index  Kayrawan  university mosque of – Kazembe kingdom , , –, ,  Kenya plateau  incursion of Eastern Nilotes – transition from early to late Iron Age culture  Khayr al-Din (Barbarossa)  allies himself with Ottoman empire  appointed high admiral of Ottoman fleets – captures Algiers  defeat of Spanish fleet  death of  Khayr Bey, Mamluk amir  defection to Ottomans  Khoi people decimated by smallpox  geographical spread of  historical importance of – impact of European settlement at Cape ,  raids on European colonists  scale of cattle-keeping societies  Kikuyu people  Kilwa Island , , ,  growth of  Mahdali dynasty  focus on mainland  strategic significance  trade in gold  Kintu period in Buganda – Kiswahili ,  Kitara kingdom  Lwo conquest of – Kiteve – probable origins of  Kongo kingdom ,  battle of Ambuila  blacksmithing kingdom  Christianity in – conflict with Yaka – defeat by Imbangala and Portuguese  expansion ,  political and economic development – Portuguese contact with – Portuguese military assistance  settlement of new areas – significance of copper  slave trade with Portuguese – Kordofan, penetration by Arab pastoralists – Kreish people, southern migration  Krump, Theodore  Kuba kingdom – Kuchuk Muhammad  Kwena people, migration of  Lalibela, emperor of Ethiopia ,  Lango people ,  language families, African  Las Navas de Tolosa, battle of  Lebna Dengel, emperor of Ethiopia , , –,  Leo Africanus, , ,  Lepanto, battle of  Lesotho, and Sotho-Tswana  Limpopo river , , ,  Loango and Atlantic slave trade  manufacturing  royal rituals – trade with Dutch  Louis IX of France, King ,  Luanda –, ,  capture by Dutch  Luba people characteristics of  kingdom formation  kingship rituals  Lulua people  and Kuba kingdom  Lunda contact with Portuguese  expansion – expeditions against Portuguese  extent of – kingship  origin traditions – political organisation – trade with Portuguese – Luyana (Lozi) people ,  Lwo people contact with Bantu  incorporation of subjects ,  southern migration ,  Index Maasai people , ,  Madagascar Indonesian settlers ,  trade with  settlement by Africans  Maggs, Tim  Maghrib  establishment of Islam  Moroccan expansion in  Regencies (Ottoman provinces) – trade in  trade links with Sudan  see also Ifriqiya; Algiers; Morocco Mahdali dynasty, and Kilwa  Malawi, lake , – Malebo, lake , , , –,  Mali empire , – decline of – gold trade – Islam – slave trade  Malikite school, of Islam ,  in Nilotic Sudan – Malta ,  repels Ottoman attack  Mamluk Egypt , – art and architecture – Bahri rulers  Black Death in – Burji rulers ,  defeat of Mongols  expansion into Maqurra  intervention in Nilotic Sudan – invasion of empire by Timur  measures against Arab nomads – military decline  military defeat by Ottomans  Muhammad Ali’s slaughter of Mamluks  occupation of Suakin  origins of mamluks – restoration of caliphate  trade in gold  Mande people , , –, ,  Manekweni, discovery of – Mangbetu people and kingdom  origins of hegemony – Mapungubwe Hill, kingdom at – Maqqari family and trans-Saharan trade  al-Maqrizi ,  Maqurra kingdom capital city (Dongola)  Christian kingdom of  disintegration of , – Egyptian installation of Muslim ruler  see also Nubia marabouts , –,  Maravi people  conflict with Portuguese forces  kingdoms as confederations  trade – Marinids, see Banu Marin Marj Dabiq, battle of  Marrakesh , –,  Massawa, Ottoman conquest of ,  al-Masudi ,  Mauritania  Mawlay Isma il of Morocco – Mbanza Kongo, later São Salvador –, –,  Mbum people ,  Mbundu people migration from Bungu  stabilising of relations with Imbangala  Mecca and Medina ,  Mediterranean , , , , , –,  Ottoman–Spanish rivalry in – Meknes, Mawlay Isma il’s capital  Miller, Joseph –, , – Mogadishu, Islamic influence  Mogador  Mombasa ,  Portuguese occupation of  revolt against Portuguese  Mongo people impact of migrants  Kuba kingdom  migration of – southern expansion  Mongol empire – defeat by Mamluks ,  Monophysite Christianity ,  Morocco , ,  arabisation of – Berbers in  conquered by Banu Marin   Index  Morocco (cont.) eighteenth-century decline – influence of marabouts –,  invasion of Songhay –, – pilgrimages from  Portuguese encroachments on – sixteenth-century resurgence of  Morocco, Marinid annexation of Ifriqiya  capital at Fez  conquest of Tlemcen  conquest of Tunis  control of trans-Saharan trade  Maliki school of Islam  trade  Morocco, Sharifian black slaves in – control of trade routes – invasion of Songhay –, – Ottoman threat – political weakness –,  resumption of trade with Europe  trans-Saharan trade  victory at battle of al-Qasr al-Kabir  Mozambique , ,  trading networks ,  Portuguese on coast of , ,  Tsonga of ,  Mpondo people  Mubende ,  Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi  Muhammad Ali of Egypt  Muhammad ibn al-Hasan of Tunis  Muhammad ibn Uthman Bey, ruler of Algiers  Muhammad Ture, askyia of Songhay ,  Murad Bey in Egypt  Murzuk, Saharan oasis ,  Musa, Mansa, king of Mali ,  Muscat ,  al-Mustansir, Hafsid ruler of Tunis – Mutapa kingdom , – loss of control over tributary kingdoms  threat from Butwa – Mwata Yamvo –,  Mwene Mutapa, see Mutapa kingdom Nama people  Namibia , ,  al-Nasir Muhammad, Mamluk sultan ,  Natal  and Tsonga  Ndongo kingdom accession of Nzinga Mbande  campaign against Portuguese colonists  conquest of Matamba  relations with Portuguese , – as slave-raiding state  see also Ngola Ngazargamu, establishment of new Kanem capital at  Ngbandi people  ngola emblems  Ngola a kiluange rulers ,  Ngoyo kingdom, and Atlantic slave trade  Nguni people  characteristics  expansion into southern South Africa  historical traditions  Portuguese description of  Niger river , , , –, –, ,  delta  Nile, river –, , , , , –, , –,  Nilo-Saharan language family , ,  Nilotes, Eastern  impact of early expansion – impact of later expansion – southern expansion – Nilotes, Western ,  impact of – southern migration  Nilotic languages , , , –, , – Njimi, capital of Kanem, foundation of – nomads, see pastoralism Ntusi, archaeological site at  Nuba people  Nubia  Christian civilisation of –; art of  Index Egyptian invasion of Maqurra – influx of nomads of upper Egypt  migration of Arab nomads  Ottoman invasions  pact with Fatimid Egypt  political breakdown of Alwa  political breakdown of Maqurra – see also Alwa and Maqurra Nuer people ,  Nupe kingdom  Nyamwezi people – trade ,  Nyanja people  Nzakara people ,  Nzinga a Nkuwu of Kongo ,  Nzinga Mbande, Dona Anna, ruler of Ndongo – Nzinga Mbemba, Afonso, of Kongo  Obayemi, Ade  Oliver, Roland  Olum Labongo, see Rukidi Oran , ,  Orange river –, , , ,  Oromo people , –, ; see also Barentu; Borana Oromo Osei Tutu of Asante  Ottoman empire  and Algiers  defeat of Mamluks  Egptian province of –; see also Ottoman province of Egypt establishment of new province of Habesh  growth of ,  janissaries in – Khayr al-Din – naval defeat at Lepanto  North African Regencies – rivalry with Spain in Mediterranean – Ottoman province of Eygpt administrative reforms  benefits of Ottoman control  Cairene hierarchy – economy – golden age of – janissary ascendancy – military revolts  modernising attempts – Napoleon’s invasion of – Nubian conquests  social organisation – trade , – Ovambo people – Ovimbundu people  and Atlantic slave trade  Oyo empire expansion of – fall of  military government  occupation by Nupe  origin tradition  reconquest and reconstruction  Ozdemir Pasha, Ottoman campaign in Nubia of  Park, Mungo  pastoralism, pastoralists –, , , , –, , , –, , , , , –, , –, , –, –, –, , –, , , , , , , –, , , , , –, , –, – Persian Gulf, trading with East African coast , , ,  Phiri kingdoms among Maravi  pilgrimage Christian Ethiopian to Jerusalem  Muslim , , , ; Mansa Musa’s , ; routes , ,  plague, see Black Death pombeiros (traders) –, , ,  Portuguese attacked by Butwa  Benin  capture of Moroccan ports  conflict with Maravi forces  defeat at battle of al-Qasr al-Kabir  Dyula traders  entry into Africa  military cooperation with Kongo ,  naval superiority in Indian Ocean  Omani attacks on East African settlements – origins of Angola colony –  Index Portuguese (cont.) relations with Shona – revolt in Mombassa  slave trade , , ; cooperation with Imbangala – Sofala trade – supplanted by Dutch in West Africa  trade with Lunda – West African exploration – prazeiros – Pubungu, Lwo military encampment  Pyramids, battle of the  Qala un, Mamluk sultan , ,  al-Qasr al-Kabir, battle of  Qayt Bey, Mamluk sultan  Qutuz, Mamluk sultan  rainforest, Central African  Bantu-speaking population –, – household organisation of Bantuspeakers  Raymond, André  Red Sea , , , , –, , , , –, , –, , , , , – Regencies – government organisation  janissary dominance of – political organisation  power rivalries  trade  see also Algiers; Tripoli; Tunisia Reubeni, David  Ridwan Bey of Egypt  Riebeeck, Jan van  Roberts, Andrew ,  Rozwe people and kingdom  Rukidiof Kitara – Rumfa, Muhammad, sarki of Kano  Runga people  Rwanda kingdom , , –,  origins of  Ryder, Alan   San hunter-gatherers –, , , ; see also Khoi Sao, conflict with Kanem  Sarsa Dengel, emperor of Ethiopis ,  al-Sayyid, Marsot  Schweinfurth, Georg ,  Sebastian, Don, King of Portugal  Sefuwa dynasty, of Kanem – Selim, Ottoman sultan ,  Selim II, Ottoman sultan  shari a law of Islam, ,  Shilluk people ,  Shona peoples , – relations with Portuguese – see also Zimbabwe Shyam, and foundation of Kuba kingdom  Sidama people , , ,  Sidi Muhammad of Morocco  Sierra Leone, slave trade in  Sijilmasa ,  Silveira, Gonỗalo de Sinan Pasha, Ottoman admiral, capture of Tripoli  Sinnar –,  slave soldiers Darfur – Ethiopia , , , ,  Fatimid ,  Funj  Mamluk – Moroccan  Ottoman  slave trade, trans-Saharan , , , – Bornu – Egypt , ,  Fezzan  Kanem  Kawar  to Mauritius  slavery, African kingdoms and , , – slaves and slave-trading, Atlantic , , –,  Aja  Akan  Akwamu  Angola as slave-trading enterprise  Asante – Index Benin, restriction on slave sales ,  Bornu – Cape – Dahomey – Denkyira  effect on internal African development  Efik  Ewe  Fulbe  Gold Coast – Ibo – Imbangala – Kakongo  Kasanje  Loango  Mali empire  Mane  Ovimbundu  Portugal , , , – Portugal and Kongo – Sidama  Sierra Leone  Slave Coast  Songhay – trader Morice  Tsonga  Vili , – Wadai  Wolof  Yaka  Sofala capture of trade by Portuguese – trade with Kilwa  Solomonid empire awareness of Islam  collapse of – conflict with Ifat – international contacts  origins and expansion – peasantry  peripatetic court – social dynamism of  strength of Christianity  westward expansion  Somali people –,  Songhay kingdom capture of Timbuktu  economy  expansion of ,  government of – importance of Timbuktu  Islamic influence – military expansion – Moroccan invasion of –, – origins  successor to Mali – slave trade – Sonni Ali of Songhay – Sotho-Tswana people ,  Spain, North African garrisons  rivalry with Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean – Suakin  occupation by Mamluks  Ottoman conquest of  Sudan (Nilotic) development of nascent Sudanese patriotism in Funj sultanate  process of Islamic conversion – trade links with Maghrib  trade with Ifriqiya – Sudd  Sufism , ,  Sulayman Pasha, Ottoman governor of Egypt  Sulayman Solongdungu of Darfur  Suleyman the Magnificent, sultan  Suleyman Mawlay, sultan of Morocco  Susenyos, emperor of Ethiopia abdication  conversion to Roman Catholicism  incorporation of Oromo  Sutton, John  Swahili settlements ,  economies  trade – see also Kiswahili Swaziland, and Tsonga  Taghaza, salt mines, ,  Takrana, pilgrim migrants  Teke people  Teke kingdom  political development – Teso people – Tigre, district of Ethiopia –, , , ,   Index  Tikar dynasties (Cameroon)  Timbuktu , , , , ,  captured by Songhay  Moroccan arma – Moroccan military citadel  Moroccan occupation of  Songhay empire  trans-Saharan trade  Tuareg occupation – Timur (Tamerlane)  Tlemcen , ,  conquest by Marinid Morocco  involvement of corsair Aruj  political dependency on Ottomans  trans-Saharan trade  Tondibi, battle of  trade Algeria  Benin trade with Portuguese  Bisa – Buganda – Darfur  Dyula trade with Portugal  Gold Coast European trading settlements  Hausa  Ifriqiya – Ijaw  Indian Ocean –,  Kongo  Loango trade with Dutch  Lunda trade with Portuguese – Maghrib ,  Mali ,  Mamluk Egypt ,  Morocco , , –,  Nyamwezi  Ottoman Egypt  Persian Gulf trade with East African coast  Portuguese capture of Sofala trade – Portugal –, –,  Regencies  Sofala , – Swahali settlements – Timbuktu  Tlemcen  Tsonga  Tuareg  Tunis – Wadai – Zimbabwe  Transvaal  settlement of Sotho-Tswana  trekboers  Tripoli ,  as Ottoman province  capture by Ottomans  Ottoman rule of – sovereignty over Fezzan  Spanish garrison at  trade with Bornu ,  Tripolitania  Tsonga people –,  Tswana people  emergence of large conurbations  Tuareg people ,  occupation of Timbuktu  relations with Songhay  trans-Saharan trade  Tunis  as capital of Ifriqiya – capture by Ottoman empire  conquest by Marinid Morocco  Hafsid rulers of  Ottoman–Spanish conflict – population growth  trans-Saharan trade –,  university mosque of  Tunisia  Husayn ibn Ali’s control of  Ottoman rule of – Tunju rulers of Darfur origins  overthrow of – ritual kingship  Turkana people – Tutsi people  Ubangian language group ,  Uganda , ,  arrival of Lwo  incursion of Eastern Nilotes  transition from early to late Iron Age culture  Umar b Idris, mai of Bornu  Usuman dan Fodio ,  Index Vansina, Jan , , , ,  Venda people  Vili people ,  and Atlantic slave trade , – Wadai  expansion of trade – government of  infiltration of Arabs  kingship rituals – overthrow of Tunjur dynasty – slave trade  Walasma dynasty of Ifat, conflict with Solomonids – warfare, nature of African –,  Wazimba, and expeditions against Portuguese  White Nile , , , –, , , – Wing, J Van – Wolof kingdoms  break away from Mali – slave trade  Wrigley, Christopher  Wute people – Xhosa people  clearance by British from Zuurveld – conflict with Dutch ,  population  see also Nguni Yaka people conflict with Kongo  with Lunda  slave trade  Yamvo Naweji, and Lunda kingdom  Yekunno Amlak, first Solomonid ruler,  Yoruba people ,  Zaghawa people  Zagwe dynasty of Ethiopia – Zaire, see Congo Zambezi , , , , , –, , , , – Zanata Berbers  and Marinid Morocco – Zanzibar coast, characteristics of peoples  Zanzibar island , , ,  Zara Ya qob, emperor of Ethiopia  Zaria, Hausa city , , ,  Zawila, oasis of  Zayyanid dynasty of Tlemcen  Zeila  Ottoman conquest of  Zimbabwe, Great, kingdom , –,  abandonment of  de Barros’ description of  disruption of trade routes  modest beginnings of  political character of  Portuguese and – trade in gold   ... Australia http://www .cambridge. org © Cambridge University Press 2001 This edition © Cambridge University Press (Virtual Publishing) 2003 First published in printed format 2001 A catalogue record... PUBLISHED BY CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS (VIRTUAL PUBLISHING) FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP 40 West 20th... volume, Africa since  (with Roland Oliver,  editions since ) This page intentionally left blank Medieval Africa, – ROLAND OLIVER A N T H O N Y AT M O R E PUBLISHED BY CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY