The Paths of History Tracing an outline of historical processes from palaeolithic times to the present day, The Paths of History provides a unique, concise and readable overview of the entire history of humanity and the laws governing it This is a broad and ambitious study which takes as its point of departure Marx’s theory of social evolution Professor Diakonoff, however, has expanded Marx’s five stages of development to eight In addition, and in contrast to Marx, Professor Diakonoff denies that our transition from one stage to the next is marked by social conflict and revolution and demonstrates that these transitions are sometimes achieved peacefully and gracefully Professor Diakonoff’s focus is not limited solely to the economic and socio-economic aspects of our development, rather he examines in detail the ethnic, cultural, religious and military-technological factors which have been brought to bear over the centuries Professor Diakonoff also denies that social evolution necessarily implies progress and shows how ‘each progress is simultaneously a regress’ Finally the book concludes with a prognosis for the future of humanity, leaving the reader to draw their own conclusion about what the future holds As the book moves through the various chronological stages, the reader is drawn into a remarkable and thought-provoking study of the process of the history of the human race which promises to be the most important work of intellectual world history since Toynbee i g o r m d i a k o n o f f is Emeritus Professor at the Institute of Oriental Studies, University of St Petersburg He is the author of many scholarly publications including the three-volume History of the Ancient World (1989), of which he was principal editor, and Archaic Myths of Orient and Occident (1993) The Paths of History IGOR M DIAKONOFF published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge cb2 1rp, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge, cb2 2ru, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk 40 West 20th Street, New York, ny 10011–4211, USA http://www.cup.org 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia Originally published in Russian as Puti Istorii Ot drevneishego chelovek nashikh dnei by Vostochnaia Uteratwa 1994 and © Igor M Diakonoff First published in English by Cambridge University Press as The Paths of History English edition © Igor M Diakonoff 1999 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 1999 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeface Lexicon A (The Enschedé Type Foundry) 9/12.5pt System QuarkXPress A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library isbn 521 64348 hardback isbn 521 64398 paperback [se] Contents Foreword by Geoffrey Hosking Preface vii xi Introduction 1 First Phase (Primitive) 10 Second Phase (Primitive Communal) Third Phase (Early Antiquity) Fourth Phase (Imperial Antiquity) Fifth Phase (the Middle Ages) Sixth Phase (the Stable Absolutist Post-Medieval Phase) Seventh Phase (Capitalist) Eighth Phase (Post-Capitalist) 13 21 37 56 144 193 324 v Foreword by Geoffrey Hoskins The collapse of the Soviet Union and the ending of the Marxist monopoly on intellectual life freed Russian social scientists and historians to deploy a broader range of theoretical approaches to the history of their own country and the world When one couples this renewed freedom with the very distinctive personal experience of those who have lived through the Soviet experiment, the results are sometimes remarkable The Paths of History is one of the most intriguing and innovative fruits of this intellectual and spiritual milieu Its author, Igor Mikhailovich Diakonoff, was born on 12 January 1915 in Petrograd, the son of a bank employee His father had enough experience of finance and banking to be sent as an employee to the Commercial Department of the Soviet embassy in Christiana (Oslo) Thus Igor received his primary education at a Norwegian school, and learned to speak Norwegian fluently, the first of the many languages which he displayed a remarkable ability and desire to learn in later life (At the age of seventy-three he confessed to a colleague who was learning modern Greek: ‘I’m always jealous of someone who knows a language I don’t!’) His highly unusual linguistic range has enabled him to penetrate the mentality of many different cultures, and this undoubtedly underlies the wide sweep of human sympathy evident in The Paths of History One of his acquisitions was English, which he knows so well that he has translated some of the works of Keats and Tennyson, and was able to prepare this translation of The Paths of History largely himself After returning to the Soviet Union and matriculating in 1930 from a secondary school in Leningrad, he studied in the Assyriological Section of the History Faculty in the Leningrad Institute of Linguistics and History, mastering Akkadian, Sumerian, Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic Following graduation, he worked in the Hermitage Museum, with its unique collection of Oriental and Middle Eastern artefacts He married in 1936, but the following year both his father and his wife’s father were arrested After ‘learning the art of standing in prison queues’, Igor was informed that his own father had been ‘sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment without right of correspondence’ – a sentence which he rightly interpreted as execution by firing squad When the war came, his wife Nina, who was pregnant, was evacuated from Leningrad to Tashkent, while Igor was mobilised into military intelligence He vii viii Foreword worked in Karelia, preparing propaganda material for distribution among the enemy Then, in 1944, he was sent to Kirkenes, in Finnmark, at the northern extremity of Norway, which was temporarily occupied by the Red Army as the Germans retreated Speaking fluent Norwegian, he was made deputy commandant of the occupied zone He admired Norwegian democracy and loved the Norwegian people, and so became an invaluable mediator between the occupiers and the population He was so much valued by them that in 1994 he and Nina were invited to Oslo to a fiftieth anniversary celebration of the liberation from the Germans, was formally presented with the thanks of the Norwegian people and was received by the King as a guest of honour Demobilised in 1946, he returned to the Hermitage and later worked at the Oriental Institute of the Academy of Sciences for most of the rest of his professional life There were very few oriental specialists in the Soviet Union when he started work there, and he played a major role in building up the Institute However, he also managed to publish a major series of scholarly works on the languages, cultures, socio-economic systems and histories of, among others, Assyria, the Hittite kingdom, Babylon, Parthia and Armenia The climax of his scholarly career was the publication in 1989 of a three-volume History of the Ancient World, of which he was the principal editor Having brought out this magnum opus in his mid-seventies, Diakonoff might have been expected to relax from his lifelong endeavours On the contrary, he resolved on the opposite course – to embark on his most ambitious project yet, an outline of world mythology It so happened that a team which he and several colleagues had assembled to compile a comparative dictionary of Afro-Asian languages fell apart, undoing several years’ work In a recent letter to me, Diakonov wrote that ‘For a long while I was deeply frustrated by this But the large amount of material collected by our group led me to some inferences on the mentality of ancient man, who expressed his understanding of the world and his feelings toward it in the only way available to him, namely in myths.’ The outcome of these reflections was his Archaic Myths of Orient and Occident (Göteborg, 1993) This work in its turn stimulated him to attempt something even more wide-ranging, a universal history in which socio-psychological factors would occupy a far more dominant position than was normal in Marxist and even postMarxist accounts As early as 1983 he had delivered a theoretical paper to the Oriental Institute on the importance of socio-psychological factors in history, tacitly casting doubt on the primary role which Marxists attribute to material factors Having learnt in his earlier work to give close attention to myth, religion, science and philosophy, he believed he observed certain regularities at work in the spiritual as well as material evolution of the world’s earliest civilisations, those of the Middle East He set out to discover if similar regularities could be discerned in others parts of the world and at other times He came to the conclusion that they could Foreword ix The result is the present book Diakonoff’s point of departure is the theory of social evolution as elaborated by Marx and Engels However, he has introduced some changes of cardinal importance, which impart to the theory both greater flexibility and greater explanatory power In the first place, he has expanded Marx’s five stages of social evolution (primitive; slave-owning; feudal; bourgeois capitalist; socialist) to eight (Primitive; Primitive-Communal; Early or Communal Antiquity; Late or Imperial Antiquity; Middle Ages; Absolutist Post-Middle Ages; Capitalism; Post-Capitalism) He denies that the transition from one stage to another is necessarily marked by heightened social conflict and revolution: on the contrary, he asserts, it is sometimes accomplished peacefully and gradually The conflict which does take place is not only between the forces of production and the social relationships surrounding them, but much more broadly between religious, ethnic and other socio-psychological formations (Though, it should be noted, Diakonoff denies the overriding importance which the late-twentieth-century Russian theorist Lev Gumilev ascribes to ethnic factors.) Altogether Diakonoff is much more interested in ethnic, cultural and religious factors than Marx was, and also in military technology He ascribes to them not just the residual significance of an airy and derivative superstructure over a substantial and primary base, but sees them as independent and powerful influences in themselves He denies that social evolution necessarily implies progress, other than in the narrowly technological sense Rather, he sees humanity as developing simultaneously in two contradictory directions: ‘each progress is simultaneously a regress’ On the one hand humans attain greater technological mastery, mounting prosperity and mutual tolerance and they move towards the gradual elimination of war through the mediation of international institutions; but at the same time they also generate unrestrained population growth, ethnic cleansing, exhaustion of resources and gross degradation of the environment, while those wars which occur are unprecedentedly destructive Diakonoff declines to say which tendency he thinks is likely to take the upper hand, but in his exposition the idea of the ‘end of history’ has a very different ring from the one evoked by Francis Fukuyama in his book The End of History and the Last Man What makes Diakonoff’s book so remarkable is both the wide sweep of its learning and the humanity of its insights Few if any theorists of world history before him have been experts on ancient Asian and Middle Eastern societies, so that his chapters on Primitive Society, Antiquity and the Middle Ages are written with a penetration, sympathy and awareness of diverse possibilities which none of his rivals can match At the same time his personal experience of war and political terror, but also of the attempts since World War II to create greater confidence and better relations between nations, have deepened his insights, instilling in them both a profound concern about the fate of humanity and also an ambivalent attitude towards its future x Foreword There have of course been other post-Marxist theorists of world history, such as Perry Anderson1 and Immanel Wallerstein,2 but none of them has Diakonoff’s depth of personal insight, nor have they emancipated themselves so fully from Marx As for the non-Marxist theorists, they not usually offer such a detailed and elaborate periodisation of social evolution as Diakonoff Ernest Gellner,3 for example, whose work has similar range and penetration, operates with a relatively simple scheme of ‘agrarian’, ‘industrial’ and ‘post-industrial’ societies Michael Mann4 ascribes as much importance as Diakonoff does to military, religious and cultural factors, but devotes less attention to ancient society, while overall his theory is more diffuse, perhaps more all-embracing, but also less easy to apply to individual instances Diakonoff’s book, then, occupies its own distinctive and very valuable position in the relatively small repertoire of works which offer a theory, rather than just a narrative account, of universal history Indeed, it could be asserted that it sets out the most clearly argued and convincingly elaborated periodisation of human societies currently to be found in the scholarly literature It is certain that its propositions will be keenly debated and that its ideas will inspire historians and sociologists to fruitful comparison, in whatever period or region they are working School of Slavonic & East European Studies, University of London Lineages of the Absolutist State, London: NLB, 1974; Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism, London: Verso, 1978 The Modern World System, vols., New York: Academic Press, 1974–1989 Plough, Sword and Book: The Structure of Human History, London: Collins Harvill, 1988 The Sources of Social Power, vols., Cambridge University Press, 1986–1993 Index Canada 223, 312, 331 Cape Colony (South Africa) 214, 215, 216, 217 capitalism development of classical 325 in England 5, 155, 178–9 in France 179 and Keynesianism 326 in Marxist theory 2, 3–5, 325–6 in the Post-Medieval Phase 154–7, 164 Capitalist (Seventh Phase) 193–323 and Arab nationalism 319 art and architecture 322–3 China 217–19 and colonial expansion 213–19, 223–9 and colonial independence 318, 331–2 and the Eastern Question 202–4 England 197–200 and European literature 206–7 First World War (1914–1918) 230–50 France 200, 201 Germany 201–2 and the Great Economic Depression (1929) 278, 283 and the League of Nations 273–8, 279–80, 283 literature and poetry 322 and Nazism 279, 280–2 philosophy 193–4 and political revolutions 194–6 religion 193–4 Russia 200, 204–5, 219–23, 250–73 and science 251, 253 Second World War 282, 290–316 South Africa 214–17 technological developments 193 and totalitarianism 318–19 transition to the Post-Capitalist Phase 322–3 United States 205–6 and world wars 251–2, 273–4 and Zionism 319–21 Catal-Hüyük culture 19 Catherine II (Empress of Russia) 175, 186, 204 Catholicism see Roman Catholicism causal relations, and primitive man 14–15, 16 causality Cavour, Count 209, 210 Central Asia, Mongol invasion of 59–60, 102, 103 Cervantes, Miguel 165 Chamberlain, Austen 278 Chamberlain, H.S 228 341 Chamberlain, Joseph 216 Charlemagne, Emperor 88, 89 Charles I (King of England) 170–1 Charles II (King of England) 172 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) 114, 118 Chartism 198 Chechnia 333 Ch’en Lung (Emperor of China) 191 Chiang Kai-shek 279, 284, 310 chiefdoms 14, 17–20, 32–3, 56 in the European taiga zone 77–8 Slavonic 84 Chile 135 China agriculture 66–7, 68, 188 archaic cults 51 Boxer Rebellion 218–19 Buddhist monasteries 190 bureaucracy 190–1 and Chiang Kai-shek 279 Communist 273, 284–5, 316, 331, 333 Confucianism 48, 51, 54, 63, 65, 67–8, 188–9, 189–90 ‘Cultural Revolution’ 321 Early Antiquity 30, 34, 35, 47 and the First World War 235, 247 Great Wall 66 Han dynasty 64–6, 72, 73, 74 historians 54 Imperial Antiquity 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 63 Japanese conflict with (1930s) 279, 284–5 literacy 68, 187–8 literature 68, 191 Manchu conquest and dynasty 190–1, 217, 278, 279 Medieval Phase 62, 63–8 Ming dynasty 189–90 and Japan 69 Mongol conquest and dynasty 68, 101–3, 105–6, 189 nomadic invasions 60, 64, 65–6, 101–2 Opium Wars with Britain 199 philosophers 51–2, 52 Post-Capitalist Phase 329 Post-Medieval Phase 154, 187–91 scientists 55 and the Second World War 314 self-consciousness 188–9 ‘silk’ road 43, 64, 74 slavery 63–4 and Soviet Russia 321 and Sun Yet-sen 278–9 Sung dynasty 68, 106, 188–6 342 Index China (cont.) T’ai P’ing Society 217–18 T’ang dynasty 66–8, 82 Taoism 51–2, 65, 67, 68 war with Japan (1894–1895) 218 and the Western Powers 217–18, 223 Christianity 324–5 and capitalism 155 and the Crusades 88, 90, 95–7 Eastern Orthodox 89, 127 and the Germanic tribes 78 and heresy 77 in Imperial Antiquity 49, 50, 55 in Iran 74 and Islam 90, 91 and Lithuania 87 and monastic communities 76 and the Ottoman Empire 202 Presbyterianism 162, 163 and the Roman Empire 75–7 and Spanish America 132, 135, 137 Uniate Church in Poland 127 see also Bible, the; Protestant Reformation; Roman Catholicism Chu Yüan-chang (Emperor of China) 189 Chuang Tzu 52 Chung Taoling 52 Churchill, Winston 294, 297, 303, 306, 307, 311–12, 313 cities in China 188 in Japan 191 Late Roman Empire 75 in the Middle Ages 116 Hanseatic 125 North Italian 118–22 citizenship, polis system 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 54 city-states, in Early Antiquity 22, 26, 33 class and the Capitalist Phase in England 198 in China 66 in Early Antiquity 21–4 in Imperial Antiquity 44–6, 63 in Japan 192 in Latin America 136–7 in the Middle Ages 61, 117, 122, 125 Poland 126 Russia 127–8, 129 in the Persian Sasanian Empire 72–3 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 329–30 in the Post-Medieval Phase 145–6, 154, 156, 157–8 and primitive societies 17, 18, 19–20 in Russia 187 see also bourgeoisie; peasantry; working class Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 165, 179 colonial expansion 213–19, 223–9 independence for former colonies 318, 331–2 Columbus, Christopher (Cristobal Colon) 131–3 communes in the Middle Ages 116 North Italian 118–22 Communism 324 in China 273, 284–5, 324 in Eastern Europe 316, 318, 324, 328 and Nazism 280–2, 284 and the Post-Capitalist Phase 329, 330–1 post-war spread of 316–17 in Russia 252–5, 273, 328 and totalitarianism 318–19 Communist formation, in Marxist theory 2–3, 252 communities in Early Antiquity (Near East) 23–8 in primitive communal societies 14 Comte, Auguste Condorcet, Marquis de 5–6, 334 Confucianism 48, 51, 54, 55, 63, 65, 67–8, 70, 188–9, 189–90 Constantine, emperor 76, 77 Corday, Charlotte 181 Corsica 118, 120 Cortés, Hernán 134 Cossacks, and the Russian Civil War 265 credit in China 64 in Early Antiquity 38 Creto-Mycenean civilisation 30, 31–2, 33 Crimea, and the Russian Civil War 264 Crimean Tatars 224 Crimean War (1853–1856) 115–16, 203–4 Cromwell, Oliver 170, 171–2 Cromwell, Thomas 163 Crusades 88, 90, 95–7, 120, 126 Cuba 132, 213, 318 Cyprus 119, 223 Czechoslovakia Communist 316 Hitler’s invasion of 290 and Soviet Russia 321 D’Alembert, Jean le Rond 5, 174, 175 Dante Alighieri 1, 123, 124 Index Dark Ages 62 Darlan, Admiral 306 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen 179–80, 325 Deniken, General A.I 261, 263, 264 Denmark 88, 166 colonial territories 225 Descartes, R 5, 164 Diderot, Denis 5, 174, 175 Disarmament Conference (1932) 278 Dönitz, Admiral 313 Dudayev, General 333 Dutch East India Company 214 Early Antiquity (Third Phase) 20, 21–36 agriculture 26, 27, 34 China 30, 34, 35, 47 and class 21–3 cultural and scientific achievements 54–5 Egypt 28–30, 31, 38 Greece 32–4 Creto-Mycenean civilisation 30, 31–2, 33 Hittite Kingdom 32, 33, 39 and international trade 27 Japan 30, 34–5 military technology 21–2 in the Near East 23–8, 32, 34 and religion 29–30, 35 slavery and the labour force 21, 23–5, 29 state and private-and-communal sectors 25–30, 31, 32, 33 temples and royal power 25, 27 transition to Imperial Antiquity 37–8, 46–7 East India Company British 199–200 Dutch 214 Eastern Europe Communism in 316, 318, 321, 328 post-war settlement 311–12, 314 see also individual countries, e.g Poland Eastern Question 202–4 ecological environment, and technological development 11 economic growth, in Early Antiquity 35–6 economic policies, and the Post-Capitalist Phase 325–7 Ecuador 142 Egypt British and French conflict over 228 as a British protectorate 213 Early Antiquity 28–30, 31, 32, 38 Imperial Antiquity 41, 42, 44 343 and Islam 91 and the Suez Canal 213, 297, 319 Eighth Phase see Post-Capitalist (Eighth Phase) Elizabeth I (Queen of England) 158, 167, 169, 175, 199 Encyclopaedie 5, 174, 175 energy conservation law Engels, F 11–12, 17, 18, 207, 208 England capitalist development in 5, 155, 178–9, 197–200 Magna Carta 87 medieval 86, 87 Parliament 169, 170, 171–2, 179 Reform (1832) 194, 195, 198 Post-Medieval Phase 154–5, 158 and the Reformation 163, 194 and revolutionary France 181, 182–3 English Revolution (Civil War) 168–73, 179, 194 Enlightenment, Age of 174–5 environmental damage 334 Erasmus of Rotterdam 159, 160–1 Ermanaric (Ostrogothic king) 80 Ethiopia 288, 297, 318 ethnic groups, and national self-consciousness 153 Etruscan civilisation 30 eunuchs, in the Ottoman Empire 115 Evliya Celebi 116 Fabian Society 208, 325 Falkenhayn, Erich von 238 Falkland Islands 234 families, in the Primitive Communal phase 18 Fascism in Italy 280 in Spain 289–90 Fertile Crescent 13 see also Near East feudalism 85–6, 87, 109 in Marxist theory 2, Fifth Phase see Middle Ages (Fifth Phase) Finland and Russia 222, 256, 260 and the Second World War 292–3, 300, 316 Firdousi (Persian poet) 99–100 firearms, development of 148–50, 158–9 First International (International Working Men’s Association) 208, 253 First Phase (Primitive) 2, 10–12 344 Index First World War (1914–1918) 226, 230–50 Battle of Jutland 240–1 Dardenelles operation 235 military technology 244–5 aircraft 239–40, 241–2 mobilised men and number of losses 249–50 propaganda 245–6 Schlieffen plan 232 Second Battle of the Somme 248 social democrats and moves for peace 242 Fizuli (Turkish poet) 116 Flanders 125, 155, 157 Florence 119, 120–2, 155, 157 formations, Marxist theory of 2–5 Formosa (Taiwan) 316, 333 fortified towns, in Early Antiquity 22 Fourth Phase see Imperial Antiquity (Fourth Phase) France absolutism 165 colonial territories 223–4, 228, 332 Algeria 201, 223, 318 in the Far East 218, 223, 316 and the Crimean War 203 and the First World War 231, 232, 242, 245, 246, 248, 250 Franco-Russian alliance 227 Huguenots 155–6, 159, 161, 175 industrial development 179 July Revolution (1830) 200, 201 Paris Commune (1871) 211–12 and the peace of Utrecht (1713) 173–4 and the peace of Westphalia (1648) 167–8 Popular Front government 288, 290 revolution of 1848 201 and the Second World War 291, 293, 294–5 Allied landings 308, 309 property losses 315 resistance movement 306 Vichy government 306–7 Francis of Assisi, St 124 Franco, General Francisco 288, 289–90, 314 Franco-Prussian war (1870) 210–11 Frederic II, King of Prussia (the Great) 175 Frederic III, Elector of Saxony 161 French colonists in Brazil 140–1 in North America 176 French language 174, 186–7 French Revolution (1789) 4–5, 6, 156, 175, 179–84, 195 and Russia 221, 253 Fundamentalism 328–9 Gama, Vasco da 132 Garibaldi, Giuseppe 210 Gaulle, Charles de 307 Genghis (Jenghiz) Khan 101, 104 Genoa 119–20 Georgia 256, 266, 333 German Democratic Republic 318 Germanic tribes in medieval Europe 77–83 Germany capitalism in colonial territories 218, 225, 226–7 Communist Party 281–2, 284 1848 revolution 201 and the First World War 230, 231–6, 238, 239–41, 242, 243, 244, 245–6, 248–9, 250 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 260 and the Great Economic Depression (1929) 283 and the League of Nations 276, 277–8, 280, 284 peasant war (1524–1526) 164 racist ideology 227–8, 305–6 and the Reformation 162 revolutionary events (1918) 249 and the Russian Civil War 261 and the Second World War 290–316 bombing of Dresden 312–13 unification of 201–2, 212 and the Versailles Treaty 275, 277 and the Yalta Conference 312 see also Holy Roman Empire; Nazism Giraud, General 307 Gobineau, Comte de 228 Golden Horde, The 104–5, 107 Goncharov, I.A 196 Gorbachev, Mikhail 332 Göring, Hermann 295 Gorki, Maxim 260 Gothic-Vandal tribes 78, 79–80, 84 Great Economic Depression (1929) 278, 283 Greece Creto-Mycenean civilisation 30, 31–2, 33 Early Antiquity 32–4 and the First World War 250 Imperial Antiquity 38, 39, 44 scientists 55 independence of 203 Index philosophy 33, 50, 54 post-war settlement 312 and the Second World War 296–7, 309 Guiscard, Robert and Roger 118 Gustavus II Adolphus (King of Sweden) 167 Haig, Douglas, 1st Earl 244 handicrafts in China 188 in Early Antiquity 37 in Japan 191 in the Middle Ages 116–17, 124 Hanseatic League 125, 167 Hawaii 214 Hebrew language 151–2, 319 Hegel, G.W.F 2, helots 26, 29, 44–5 Henry IV (King of France) 156, 159, 165 Henry the Navigator 131 Henry VIII (King of England) 161, 162, 163, 194 Herzl, Theodor 319 Hindenburg, Paul von 249, 284 Hinduism 50–1, 69–72, 108, 109, 200 Hispaniola (now Haiti) 132, 133 Hitler, Adolf and the Allied offensive 311 and the Dunkerque evacuation 294–5 failed attempt to assassinate 308–9 and the invasion of Soviet Russia 298, 300, 303, 304 Mein Kampf 285 military doctrine 294 and the occupation of Norway 293 and the outbreak of World War II 290–1 and the rise of Nazism 279, 281, 284 suicide 313 Hittite Kingdom 32, 33, 39 Ho Chi Minh 316 Holbach, Baron 174, 175 Hollweg, Bethmann 242, 246 Holy Alliance (European powers) 184, 195, 200, 201 Holy Roman Empire 88, 117–18, 120, 125, 165 and the Ottoman Empire 113–14 and the Reformation 162–3 and the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) 166–8 and the War of the Spanish Succession 174 Hong Kong 218 Hood, Admiral 240 horses, domestication of 39, 56, 57 Hospitallers of St John (Maltese order) 96, 107 345 Huguenots 155–6, 159, 162, 175 Hulagu (Mongol ruler) 105 human rights, doctrine of 324–5 humanism 124, 159–61 Hungary Communism in 316 1848 revolution 201 and the League of Nations 276, 277, 283 and the Second World War 296 and Soviet Russia 321 Huns 31, 59, 80, 80–1 Hypatia 76 Ibn Khaldun 94 Ieyasu Tokugawa 192 Ikhnaton, Pharaoh 30 immigration, to Israel 320–1 Imperial Antiquity (Fourth Phase) 37–55 archaic cults 52, 53, 54 China 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 and class 44–6, 63 cultural and scientific achievements 54–5 empires 43 international trade 41–2, 43 Japan 42, 52–3 military technology 39, 42, 55 Near East 39–40, 42 and nomadic ‘empires’ 58 religion 40, 47–52, 55 and revolution 46–7 slavery 39, 44–6, 63 transition to the Medieval Phase 49, 56 Incas 135 India British Empire in 172, 199–200 caste system 71–2, 200 independence (1947) 316 Mauryan empire 40, 42, 43, 44, 50, 69 Mogul Empire 107–8 and the Mongol conquest 106, 107 religion 47, 69–70, 108–9 Hinduism 50–1, 69–72, 108, 109, 200 Islam 72, 108 varnas 46 Indo-China 223, 316 Indo-Europeans 19, 31, 58–9 Indonesia 302, 317 Indus civilisation 31, 32 industrial enterprises, in the Post-Capitalist Phase 330 Industrial Revolution 178, 194, 197–8 Innocent III, Pope 118 Inquisition 94, 165 346 Index International Labour Organisation 275 international trade agreements (1713) 174 and China 189 and the Crusades 97 in Early Antiquity 27 in Imperial Antiquity 41–2, 43 and Japan 191 in the Middle Ages 116 in the Post-Medieval Phase 154 and the Sasanian Empire 74 Iran (Persia) and feudalism 109 and the First World War 236 and Islam 97–8 and the Mongol conquest 102, 103, 106, 107 and the Ottoman Empire 113 Qyzylbash conquest of 109 Sasanian Empire 72–4, 91, 92 and the Second World War 297 and Turkic tribes 99, 100 and Zoroastrianism 48, 72, 73, 98 Iraq 321–2, 331 Iron Age 33, 39, 41, 46 and nomads 57, 58 Isabella (Queen of Spain) 118 and the discovery of the Americas 131, 133–4 Islam 90–5 and the Crusades 97 and India 72, 108 and the Mongol invasions 105 Muslims in Central Asia, and Soviet Russia 258–9, 265 and the Ottoman Empire 111, 112 and the ‘Persian’ nation 98 and Sufism 109–10 and Turkic tribes 98–9 Israel 48–9, 319–21 Istanbul 112 Italian language 209 Italy capitalism in 5, 201 colonial territories 224, 332 Fascism in 280 and the First World War 237, 250 and the League of Nations 277, 288 in the Middle Ages 117–23 in the Post-Medieval Phase 157, 158 and the Second World War 290, 296, 297, 307 unification of 195–6, 209–10 Ivan III (Tsar of Russia) 127, 128 Ivan IV (Tsar of Russia) (the Terrible) 105, 128 Jainism 47, 50 James I (King of England) 169, 170 James II (King of England) 172 janizaries, and the Ottoman Empire 112, 114–15 Japan bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 314 conflict with China (1930s) 279, 284–5 Early Antiquity 30, 34–5 and the First World War 235 Imperial Antiquity 42, 52–3 Medieval Phase 68–9 Meiji Revolution (1868) 196 Middle Ages 62 Post-Medieval Phase 154, 191–2, 194 Russo-Japanese war (1904–1905) 219–20 and the Second World War 301–2, 309–10 and Shintoism 196, 314 and Soviet Russia 266–7 Tanaka plan 279, 301 war with China (1894–1895) 218 Jaurès, Jean 230 Jellicoe, Admiral 240 Jenghiz (Genghis) Khan 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 Jerome, St 155 Jerusalem and the Crusades 96, 97 destruction of (70 ad) 125 and Israel 320 Jesuits (Society of Jesus) 165 missions in China 189, 190 in Latin America 135, 140 Jesus Christ 49, 91, 324 Jews and Judaism 48–9, 55 and anti-Semitism 319 in Genoa 120 and the humanists 159–60 and Islam 91 and Marranos 131 and national self-consciousness 151–2 Nazi persecution of 280, 281, 285–6 in Poland 125–6, 152 and the Reconquista in Spain 120 in Russian territories 224 in the Sasanian Empire 74 and Zionism 319–21 Index Joffre, General 242 Julian, emperor 76 Julius Caesar 45, 78 Justinian (Roman Emperor) 77, 79, 82 Jutland, Battle of (1916) 240–1 K’ang-his, Emperor of China 190 Kazakhstan 204, 258–9, 328 Kazimierz III (King of Poland) (the Great) 125, 126–7 Kellenbenz, Professor 298 Kerenski, A.F 251, 256, 257 Keynes, J.M 326 Khrushchev, N 328 kinship, and primitive societies 12, 18 Kitchener, Horatio Herbert, 1st Earl 216 Knights Templars 96 Kolchak, Admiral A.V 263, 264 Konev, General 310, 311 Korea 35, 218, 220 Korean War 317–18 Kornilov, General L.G 257, 261 Kruger, S.J.P 216 Kublai Khan 60, 105–6 Kudryavstev, O 299 Kursk Bulge, Battle of (1943) 304–5, 307 Kuwait 319, 322, 331 labour force, in Early Antiquity 23–6 labour productivity, in Early Antiquity 37 land ownership in the Caliphate 92 in China 63, 64, 65 in Early Antiquity 23–4 enclosure of common land 154–5, 168–9 feudalism 85–6 Late Roman Empire 75 Middle Ages 61, 63, 143 nomadic groups 101 in the Primitive Communal phase 18–19 in Soviet Russia 258 languages Arabic 93, 319 French 174, 186–7 Greek 124 and humanism 124 Indo-European 31, 58–9 Italian 209 of the Jews 151–2, 319 Latin 80, 82, 85, 124, 160 in Latin America 138–9, 142 347 and literacy 152 in the Middle Ages 79–80, 85, 93 Russian 187 Slavic 79–80 Turkic 60, 110, 111 Ukrainian 224 Lao Tzu 51, 52, 54 Laos 317 Latin America aboriginal population 142 birth-rate 337 Brazil 140–2 creole population 138–9 encomienda system 136, 138 and the First World War 247 and the League of Nations 280 Negro slaves in 139–40 nineteenth-century ‘war of liberation’ 138–9 and the Panama Canal 245 Phases of the historical process 137, 138–40, 142–3 post-war conflicts 318 social structure 135–7 Spanish conquest of 130, 134–42 totalitarian states 318, 324 Latin language 80, 82, 85, 124, 160 law codification Code Napoleon (France) 182 Roman law 82 Lawrence, T.E 237 laws of the historical process 1, League of Nations 246, 248, 274–8, 279–80, 283, 284, 288, 325, 331 Lebanon 297 Leibniz, G Lenin, V.I 242, 252, 253–5, 256, 257, 262, 267, 269, 270, 271 Leningrad, siege of 300–1 Leo III (Pope) 88 Leo X (Pope) 160 Leonardo da Vinci 122 Leontief, Wassily 326 Li Yuan 66 Liberia 224 liberty, individual, in ancient Greece 33 Libya 297–8, 331 linguistic development 14 literacy in China 68, 187–8 in medieval and post-medieval societies 152 twentieth-century 322 348 Index literature China 68, 191 European, and the Capitalist Phase 206–7 Japan 69 Russia 187, 207 see also poetry Lithuania 87, 127, 205, 265–6 Litvinov, Maxim 291 Liu An 52 Liu Pang (Emperor of China) 41 living standards, and Islam 94–5 Locarno Pact (1925) 277, 280, 284 Locke, John 164, 180 Louis Philippe (King of the French) 200 Louis XIV (King of France) 156, 165, 173 Louis XVI (King of France) 179, 180 Ludendorf, Erich von 248, 249 Luther, Martin 161–2 Luxembourg, and the Second World War 294 MacArthur, General Douglas 310, 314 MacMahon, Marshall 211 Madison, James 177 Mahmud Ghaznawi 99, 100, 108 Makarov, Vice-Admiral 220 Makhyno, Nestor 263 Malaysia 316 Malta 223 Mamluks 113 Manichaeism 73–4 Manutius, Aldus 159 Mao Tse-tung 285, 314, 316, 318 Marat, Jean Paul 181 marriage, in primitive societies 12 Mars, possibility of a colony on 337–8 Marx, Karl 18 Communist Manifesto 197 Das Capital 197 and the International Working Men’s Association (First International) 208, 253 and the Paris Commune 212 and the Post-Capitalist Phase 327–8 Marxist theory 2–5, 7, 13, 24, 56, 144 and the crisis of over-production 325–6 and the Russian Revolution 252–5 Max of Baden, Prince 249 Medici family in Florence 121–2 Mehmed II, Sultan 112–13 mercantilism 157 Messiah, cult of the 49 Mexico 134, 135, 210 Michaelangelo 122 Middle Ages (Fifth Phase) 56–143 America 128–43 art 62, 122–3 Carolingian dynasty 85 and Catholicism 123–4 China 62, 63–8 city growth 116 and the Crusades 88, 90, 95–7, 120, 126 ethics and the state 60–1 and feudalism 3, 85–6, 87, 109 handicraft industries 116–17 and international trade 61–2 invasions by Germanic and Slavonic tribes 77–85 and Islam 90–3 Italy 117–23 Japan 68–9 and land ownership 61, 63, 143 and language 79–80, 82, 85, 93, 110–11, 124 and the Late Roman Empire 74–7, 78–9, 81–2, 89 literature and poetry 66, 68, 69, 99–100, 109–10, 116, 123 military technology 61, 63, 112, 125, 129 and the Mongol conquest 101–7 Ottoman Empire 110–16 and the peasantry 61, 63, 86, 87, 142–3 Persian Sasanian Empire 72–4 Poland 125–7 and religion 61, 62 Russia 127–9 and technological change transition to the Post-Medieval Phase 144–6 and Turkic tribes 60, 66, 83, 84–5, 98–9, 100 and war 61 middle class see bourgeoisie Mikolajczyk, S 311, 312 ‘military democracy’ 17–18 military technology 8–9 Arabic 92 in China 68 in Early Antiquity 21–2 First World War 244–5 aircraft 239–40, 241–2 in Imperial Antiquity 39, 42, 55 in the Middle Ages 61, 63, 112, 125, 129 Second World War aircraft 295–6 Mill, John Stuart Index Milyukov, P.N 255 mining in Imperial Antiquity 41 and technological change Mirbach-Harff, Graf 262 Molotov, V.M 291 money in China 67, 188 introduction of coins 42 Mongol conquest 31, 59–60, 69, 101–7, 189 monogamy, and primitive societies 12 Montaigne, M de 5, 164 Montesquieu, Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de 136, 174, 175, 177, 325 More, Sir Thomas 159, 161 Morgan, L.H 12 Morocco 318 Mozambique 318 Muhammad Ali (Pasha of Egypt) 203, 213 Muhammad, Prophet 90 Muhammad Sheibani-Khan 107 Münzer, Thomas 164 Murad II, Sultan 112 Mussolini, Benito 277, 288, 295, 307 mythology, in ancient Greece 33–4 myths, and primitive man 15, 17 Nantes, Edict of 156, 175 Naples 118 and revolutionary France 183 Napoleon Bonaparte 180, 181, 182–4, 195 and Latin America 138, 139 Napoleon III (Emperor of France) 201, 202, 209, 210, 211 Natal 215, 217 nation, medieval meaning of 88 national self-consciousness, development of 148, 150–4 nationalism Arab 319 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 332 Nazism 324 persecution of the Jews 280, 281, 285–6, 306 and the Post-Capitalist Phase 329 racist ideology 305–6 and the Reichstag fire (1933) 284 rise of 279, 280–2 underground resistance movement 306 see also Hitler, Adolf Near East early civilisation 13, 23–8, 32, 34 349 Imperial Antiquity 39–40, 42, 47 and Islam 91, 93 and the Mongol conquest 106 and religion 48–9, 50 Nelson, Horatio 181, 182 Nepal 223 Nesimi (Turkish poet) 116 Netherlands 166, 167 colonial territories 225, 332 and the Second World War 294 New Zealand 223, 312, 332 Newton, Sir Isaac 164 Nicholas I (Tsar of Russia) 200, 201, 203, 204 Nicholas II (Tsar of Russia) 221, 222, 223, 243–4, 257, 261 Nicholas III (Pope) 121 nomads 56–60 Germanic and Slavonic tribes 77–85 invasions of China 60, 64, 65–6 Normans (Scandinavian tribes) 82–3, 84, 87, 118 Northern Italy industrial revolution in 201 in the Middle Ages 117, 118–22 Norway 87 and the Second World War 293–4, 306 Novgorod 128, 167 nuclear families and Confucianism 48 and primitive societies 12 nuclear weapons 8, 321, 325, 335 Ostrogoths 80–1 Ottoman Empire see Turkey (Ottoman Empire) Pakistan 316 Palaeolithic Australians 10–11, 12, 14 Palestine 333 as a British protectorate 237, 320 Cannanite civilisation 37 Jewish settlements in 320 Panama Canal 245 papacy and Florence 120, 121 the ‘Great Schism’ 123 and the Holy Roman Empire 88, 118, 163 and the unification of Italy 210 Paraguay 135, 140 Paris Commune (1871) 211–12 Paul, St 75 Pearl Harbour, Japanese attack on 301–2 350 Index peasantry in China 190 in the Eastern Roman Empire 89 in Late (Imperial) Antiquity 34 in the Middle Ages 61, 63, 86, 87, 142–3 and Nazi Germany 282 in Russia 187 Soviet 267–8, 273 Perovskaya, Sofia 208 Persia see Iran Peru 134–5, 142 Pétain, Henri Philippe 195, 307 Peter I (Tsar of Russia) (the Great) 186 Phase transition Philip V (King of Spain) 174 Philippines 214, 302, 314 philosophy Arabic 93–4 in the Capitalist Phase 193–4 Chinese 51–2, 54 Enlightenment 174–5 Greek 33, 50, 54 humanism 124, 159–61 and Protestantism 164 seventeenth-century 164 Pico della Mirandola 122–3 Pinzón, M Alonzo 131 Pizarro, Francisco 134–5 plague, Black Death (1349) 121, 125, 157 ploughs, and technological change poetry in antiquity 55 in China 66, 68 Islamic 109–10 in Japan 69 medieval Italy 123 Persian 99–100, 110, 116 Russia 322 Turkish 116 Poland Hitler’s invasion of 290–1 in the Middle Ages 86–7, 125–7 in the Post-Medieval Phase 185–6 post-war settlement 311, 312 religion 127 and the Russian Civil War 265 Russian rule in 200, 204–5 and the Second World War 307–8 numbers of deaths 314–15 and the Versailles Treaty 275 polygamy and Islam 91 and primitive societies 12 Pope, Alexander 161 population growth and Germanic tribes 78 and industrial development in Europe 179 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 330, 334, 335, 337 in primitive and early ancient society 37, 58–9 Portugal and Brazil 140–1 colonial territories 225 and revolutionary France 183 and ‘the Indies’ 132 Post-Capitalist (Eighth Phase) 323, 324–38 and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) 335–6 and atomic energy 334, 337 changes in social structure 329–30 and Communism 329, 330–1 and the depletion of mineral reserves 334–5 economic policies 325–7 and environmental damage 334, 335, 336 and independence of former colonies 331–2 and nationalism 332 and population growth 330, 334, 335, 337 and science 323 post-Industrial/post capital society 2, 4, 8, 327–8 Potsdam Conference (1945) 313–14 Primitive Communal (Second Phase) 13–20, 21, 37 and Germanic tribes 78 and nomads 56, 57, 58–9 transition to Early Antiquity 21, 31, 32–3 Primitive (First Phase) 2, 10–12 Primitive formation, in Marxist theory 2, 11–12 Primo de Rivera, Miguel 288 prisoners of war in the Caliphate 99 in Early Antiquity 22, 24–5, 26 in the Ottoman Empire 113, 115 Soviet 299, 315–16 production in Early Antiquity 22, 35–6 in Imperial Antiquity 41, 42 in Late (Imperial) Antiquity 34 over-production in the capitalist economy 325 in the Post-Medieval Phase 154–5 in primitive communal societies 13–14 Index progress, idea of 5–7 property, in Early and Late Antiquity 46 Protestant Reformation 161–4, 194 and the development of capitalism 155–6, 164 and Presbyterianism 162, 163 and Puritans 169–70 Prussia and the Franco-Prussian war (1870) 210–11 and German unification 202 and revolutionary France 180, 183 Puerto Rico 213 Puritans, and the English Revolution 169–70 Qutbaddin Aibak 108 Rafael 122 railways Russian (to Vladivostok) 218, 219 strategic importance of 227 Rasputin 243, 250 Reformation see Protestant Reformation religion in ancient Egypt 29–30 in the Capitalist Phase 193–4 in China 48, 51–2, 54, 63, 65, 67–8 and the English Civil War 169–70, 171, 172–3 and the Germanic tribes 78 in Imperial Antiquity 40, 47–52, 55 in India 47, 50–1, 69–72, 108 in Japan 35 in the Late Roman Empire 75–7 in Latin America 137 and the Ninth Phase of the historical process 336 in the Persian Sasanian Empire 73–4 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 329 and primitive man 16–17 see also individual religions Rembrandt 165 Renaissance 157 Reuchlin, Johann 159–60, 161 revolution and capitalism 4–5, 194–6, 207–9 and Imperial Antiquity 46–7 Rhodes 114, 226 Rhodes, Cecil 179, 216, 226 Rhodesia 216 Richard I Coeur de Lion 96 Rio de Janeiro 141 Robespierre, M 180, 181 351 Rokossowski, Konstantin 310, 311 Roman Catholicism counter-reformation 164–5 and the Eastern Roman Empire 89 and the Holy Roman Empire 88 in the Middle Ages 123–4 and the peace of Westphalia (1648) 167 in Poland 127 in the Post-Medieval Phase 158 see also Jesuits (Society of Jesus) Roman Empire 41, 44, 45, 47, 63 codification of Roman law 82 invasions by Germanic tribes 78–9, 81–2 Late 74–7, 78–9, 81–2, 89 and religion 49, 50 Rommel, Erwin 297–8, 309 Roosevelt, Franklin D 302, 307, 311, 312, 313 ‘New Deal’ policy 326 Rotterdam, bombing of 294 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 18, 175, 180 Rumania 212, 275 Communism in 316 and the First World War 238, 239 post-war settlement 311–12 and the Second World War 296, 308 Rundstedt, Karl von 303 Russia boyars 127–8 and capitalism 5, 196 in the Capitalist Phase 200, 204–5 and China 218, 219 colonial empire 224 Decembrists 187 and the Eastern Question 202, 203–4 and the First World War 230, 231, 232–3, 235, 236, 238–9, 243–4, 245, 248, 250 and Germany 226 and the Great Slavonic Empire idea 228 language and literature 187, 207 in the Middle Ages 127–9 Mongol invasions of 59, 102, 103, 104–5, 106 and nationhood 88 Normans in 80, 83, 84 Novgorod 128, 167 and Poland 200, 204–5 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 328–9, 332–3 in the Post-Medieval Phase 186–7 princes 86, 127, 128 and revolutionary France 183, 184 revolutionary movement in 208–9, 220–3 serfdom 128, 129, 185, 186 abolition of 204 352 Index Russia (cont.) Vladivostok 218, 219, 220, 267 war with Japan (1904–1905) 219–20 war with Turkey (1877–1878) 212 Russian Revolutions (1917) 196, 243–4, 248, 250–61, 326 and the Cheka 260, 262 and the Constituent Assembly 259, 262–3 and the creation of the USSR 267 Far Eastern Republic 266–7 and First World War peace negotiations 251, 255–6, 257, 258, 260 and Marxism 252–5 and non-Russian nationalities 256, 258–9 Petrograd Soviet 250–1, 257–8 and the Provisional Government 250–1, 255–7 and Transcaucasia 258, 261, 266 see also Soviet Russia (1918–1991) Saint-Simon, Claude Henri, Comte de Samarkhand 107 Samoa 214 Sanders, General Liman von 229 Sardinia 118, 120 Sasanian Empire 72–4, 91, 92 Saudi Arabia 237, 319 Scandinavia medieval 87 see also Finland; Norway; Sweden Scandinavian tribes 79, 82–3, 84 Schörner, General 313 science in antiquity 54–5 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 323 in the Post-Medieval Phase 147, 164 Scotland and the Civil War 170, 171 clan system in the Highlands 155 Presbyterianism in 162, 163, 170, 194 Scythians 57, 59 Second International 208, 253 Second Phase see Primitive Communal (Second Phase) Second World War 282, 290–316 aircraft 295–6, 307 Allied landings 306–8, 309, 310 and the atomic bomb 313, 314 Barbarossa Plan 298–301 Battle of Britain 295–6 bombing of cities 294, 306, 312–13 deaths 314–15 Dunkerque evacuation 294–5 invasion of Poland 290–1 and ‘Lend-lease’ 302–3 Pacific Front 301–2, 309–10, 314 ‘phony war’ 294 ‘Winter War’ 292–4 see also Hitler, Adolf; Nazism Serbia and the Balkan war (1912–1913) 229 and the First World War 230–1, 233, 238, 250 and the Ottoman Empire 111–12 Seventh Phase see Capitalist (Seventh Phase) sexual minorities, in the Post-Capitalist Phase 326 Shakespeare, William 165 Shintoism 196, 314 shipbuilding, in Imperial Antiquity 39 Sicily 118 Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) 47 Sikhism 108 Sikorski, Igor 241 Singapore 316 Sixth Phase see Stable Absolutist Post-Medieval (Sixth Phase) slavery in China 63–4 in Early Antiquity 21, 23–5, 29 in Imperial Antiquity 39, 44–6, 63 Late Roman Empire 75 in Latin America 133–4, 138, 139–40, 141 in Marxist theory 2, in the Primitive Communal phase 18 in South Africa 215, 216 in the Southern United States 176, 206 and technology Slavic language 79–80 Slavic tribes 78, 79, 83–5 Smith, Adam 178–9 socialism, ‘Utopian’ 161 Socrates 33, 50 Solzhenitsyn, A 322 South Africa 19, 214–17, 223, 312, 332 South-East Asia, Communist spread in 316–17 Southern Italy, in the Middle Ages 118 Soviet Russia (1918–1991) agriculture 315–16, 328 and the Civil War 261–70 and Communism 328 and Eastern Europe 321 and German Nazism 281 industrial development 283 Index industry 316 and the intelligentsia 271 Jewish emigration to Israel from 320–1 literature and poetry 322 mass exterminations 286–7 and ‘military communism’ 267–8 and Nazism 281 and the New Economic Policy (NEP) 268 nomenclatura 271, 272, 329, 332 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 330–1 post-war relations with Western Powers 316 and the Potsdam Conference 313–14 and the Red Army 267, 287 and the Second World War 291–3, 298–301, 302–5, 307–8, 309, 310–11 numbers of deaths 314–15 prisoners of war 299, 315–16 and Stalin’s authority 283–4 and state capitalism 270–1 and totalitarianism 271–2 and the Yalta Conference 311, 312 see also Russian Revolutions Spain creation of a unified kingdom 118 and the discovery of America 131–7 and the Franco-Prussian war (1870) 210–11 Reconquista 94–5, 120 and revolutionary France 183 and the Spanish-American war 213–14 Spanish Civil War (1936–9) 288–90 Spencer, Herbert Spinoza, B 5, 164 Spiridonova, Maria 261 Stable Absolutist Post-Medieval (Sixth Phase) 144–92 absolutist states 147–8, 165–6, 168 and the bourgeoisie 156, 158, 173 and capitalism 154–7, 164 China 187–91 and class 145–6, 148, 154, 156, 157–8 and colonial expansion 147, 157 England 154–5, 158, 163, 178–9 English Revolution 168–73, 179 French Revolution 4–5, 6, 156, 175, 179–82 and international trade 154, 188, 191 Japan 154, 191–2 and mercantilism 157 and military technology 146, 147–50, 158–9 and national self-consciousness 148, 150–4 353 and the peasantry 157, 158, 168, 169 and the Reformation 155–6, 161–4 and religion 147, 158 Russia 186–7 and science 147, 164 Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) 166–8 transition to Capitalist phase 175, 192 War of the Spanish Succession 173–4 Stalin, Joseph 2, 4, 11, 258, 267, 269, 272 and anti-Semitism 320–1 foreign policy 287–8 and German Communists 282 mass extermination policy 286–7 and the Potsdam Conference 313–14 power in Soviet Russia 283–4 and the Second World War 298, 299, 300, 308 and Tito 318 and the Yalta Conference 311, 312 Stalingrad, battle of 304 steel production, in Imperial Antiquity 39 Stolypin, P A 223–4 Streseman, G 278 strikes 326 Sudan, as a British protectorate 212 Suez Canal 213, 297, 319, 320 Sukarno (Indonesian president) 317 Suleiman I (the Magnificent) 113–14 Sumer 22, 23, 31 Sun Yet-sen 278–9 Sweden 87, 167, 168 and revolutionary France 183 Switzerland 166, 168, 183 Syria 237, 297 Tacitus 78 Taiwan (Formosa) 316, 333 T’ao Yuanming 66 Taoism 51–2, 65, 67, 68 taxation in Imperial Antiquity 45 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 326–7 technological development and ancient Egypt 29 in the Capitalist Phase 193, 205–6 and historical changes 6–9 in Imperial Antiquity 38–9 speed of 10–11 Teutonic knights 87 Thiers, Louis Adolphe 211 Third Phase see Early Antiquity (Third Phase) 354 Index Third World countries and Fundamentalism 328–9 population growth 327 totalitarian states in 318–19 Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) 166–8 Timur the Lame (Tamerlane) 106–7, 112 Tito, Marshal 309, 312, 318 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494) 132, 133, 140, 141 totalitarianism 318–19, 324, 325 and Fundamentalism 328–9 Toynbee, A Toyotomi Hideyoshi 192 trade in ancient Greece 33 in China 63 in Early Antiquity 38 see also international trade trade unions 326 in Britain 208 Transcaucasia, and Soviet Russia 258, 261, 266 Transvaal 215, 217 Triple Alliance (Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany) 227, 229 Trotsky, L 242, 255, 257, 260, 263, 267, 268 Truman, Harry S 313 Tukhachevski, Marshall 265, 299 Tung Chung-shu 65 Turkey (Ottoman Empire) 110–16, 202–4, 212, 213, 226 and Armenia 266 and the Balkan war (1912–1913) 229 and the First World War 233–4, 236–7, 250 and Soviet Russia 260, 266 Young Turk movement 229 Turkic language 60, 100, 111 Turkic tribes 60, 83, 84–5, 100 and China 66, 101, 102 and Iran 109 and Islam 98–9 and the Ottoman Empire 110–11 Tz’u His (Empress of China) 218 Ukraine 224, 258, 260, 332 Civil War in 263, 265 and the Second World War 299, 312 Ulugh Begh 107 United Arab Emirates 319 United Nations Organisation 312, 320, 325, 331, 333 United States and the Capitalist Phase 205–6 Civil War (1861–1865) 178, 206 colonial territories 224 Constitution and Bill of Rights 177–8, 195, 325 Declaration of Independence 176–7, 195 and the First World War 235, 245, 246–8, 249, 250 and the Korean War 317–18 and the League of Nations 276 and the Panama Canal 245 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 330–1 and the Second World War 301–3 and the Spanish-American war 213–14 and the Vietnam War 317, 331 see also America Uratu 40 urbanisation in Early Antiquity 37 see also city-states USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) see Soviet Russia usury 38, 64, 126, 155 ‘Utopian’ socialists 161 Utrecht, Peace of (1713) 173–4 Uzbekistan 328 Venice 119, 120, 166 Versailles Treaty (1919) 275, 277, 278, 280, 282 Vespucci, Amerigo 133, 140 Victor Emmanuel III (King of Italy) 307 Vietnam War 317, 331 Visigoths 81 Vladivostok 218, 219, 220, 267 Voltaire, F 174–5, 182, 186 Wagner, Richard 228 Wang Ch’ung 54 Wang Mang 63–4, 65 warfare Anglo-Boer war 216–17 bacteriological and chemical 335 Balkan war (1912–1913) 229 in the Capitalist Phase 196–7, 209–12 and the Crusades 95–7 in Early Antiquity 21–2, 36, 37 First Northern War (1655–1661) 168 First World War (1914–1918) 226, 230–50 Germanic and Slavonic tribes 77–85 Gulf War (1991) 321–2, 331 Israeli Six Day War 321 Korean War 317–18 in the Middle Ages 89 Mongol conquest 31, 59–60, 69, 101–7 nuclear weapons 321, 325, 335 and the Ottoman Empire 111–14 Index in the Post-Medieval Phase 156–7, 158–9 Russian Civil War 261–70 Russo-Japanese war (1904–1905) 219–20 and the Sasanian Empire 74 Spanish Civil War (1936–9) 288–90 Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) 166–8 Vietnam War 317 War of the Spanish Succession (1701–13) 173–4 world wars and the Capitalist Phase 251–2 impossibility of 331, 335 see also military technology Washington, George 176 Westphalia, peace of (1648) 167–8 William I (Emperor of Germany) 212 William I (King of England) (the Conqueror) 86, 87 William II (Emperor of Germany) 216, 226, 227–8, 249 and the First World War 230, 231 William III (King of England) (William of Orange) 172 Wilson, Woodrow Fourteen Points 246–8, 249, 325 and the League of Nations 273–4 355 women in the Post-Capitalist Phase 326 in the Post-Medieval Phase 145 and primitive man 16 working class and capitalist development 206, 325, 326 in England 198 in the Post-Capitalist Phase 330 in Soviet Russia 268 Wrangel, General 264 Yalta Conference (1945) 311, 312 Yeltsin, Boris 332, 333 Yudenich, General 264 Yugoslavia Communism in 318 post-war settlement 312 and the Second World War 296, 297, 309 Zhokov, G.K 310–11 Zimbabwe 19 Zionism 319–21 Zoroastrism 48, 50, 55, 67, 72, 73, 74 and Islam 90, 98 Zwingli, H 162