The Science of Science Policy I N N O VAT I O N A N D T E C H N O L O GY I N T H E W O R L D E C O N O M Y Martin Kenney, Editor University of California, Davis/Berkeley Round Table on the International Economy Other titles in the series: Sally H Clarke, Naomi R Lamoreaux, and Steven W Usselman The Challenge of Remaining Innovative: Insights from Twentieth- Century American Business John Zysman and Abraham Newman, eds How Revolutionary Was the Revolution? National Responses and Global Technology in the Digital Era Martin Fransman, ed Global Broadband Battles: Why the U.S and Europe Lag Behind While Asia Leads David C Mowery, Richard P Nelson, Bhaven N Sampat, and Arvids A Siedonis Ivory Tower and Industrial Innovation: University-Industry Technology Transfer Before and After the Bayh-Doyle Act in the United States Gary Fields Territories of Profit: Communications, Capitalist Development, and the Innovative Enterprises of G.F Swift and Dell Computer Martin Kenney and Bruce Kogut, eds Locating Global Advantage: Industry Dynamics in the International Economy Urs von Burg The Triumph of Ethernet: Technological Communities and the Battle for the LAN Standard The Science of Science Policy A Handbook Edited by Kaye Husbands Fealing, Julia I Lane, John H Marburger III, and Stephanie S Shipp S TA N F O R D B U S I N E S S B O O K S An Imprint of Stanford University Press Stanford, California Stanford University Press Stanford, California © by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Ju nior University All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press Special discounts for bulk quantities of Stanford Business Books are available to corporations, professional associations, and other organizations For details and discount information, contact the special sales department of Stanford University Press Tel: () -, Fax: () - Any opinion, fi nding, and conclusion or recommendation expressed in this book are those of the authors and not necessarily reflect the institutions they represent Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The science of science policy : a handbook / edited by Kaye Husbands Fealing [et al.] p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN ---- (cloth : alk paper) Science and state—United States I Fealing, Kaye Husbands Q.US .'—dc Typeset by Westchester Book Group in / Minion Pro Contents Acknowledgments Editors’ Introduction vii Kaye Husbands Fealing, Julia I Lane, John H Marburger III, and Stephanie S Shipp Why Policy Implementation Needs a Science of Science Policy John H Marburger III PART ONE: The Theory of Science Policy Editors’ Overview 23 Politics and the Science of Science Policy 31 Harvey M Sapolsky and Mark Zachary Taylor Sociology and the Science of Science Policy 56 Walter W Powell, Jason Owen-Smith, and Laurel Smith-Doerr The Economics of Science and Technology Policy 85 Richard B Freeman A Situated Cognition View of Innovation with Implications for Innovation Policy 104 John S Gero Technically Focused Policy Analysis 120 M Granger Morgan Science of Science and Innovation Policy: The Emerging Community of Practice 131 Irwin Feller Developing a Science of Innovation Policy Internationally Fred Gault 156 vi Contents PART TWO: Empirical Science Policy— Measurement and Data Issues Editors’ Overview 10 183 Analysis of Public Research, Industrial R&D, and Commercial Innovation: Measurement Issues Underlying the Science of Science Policy 193 Adam B Jaffe 11 The Current State of Data on the Science and Engineering Workforce, Entrepreneurship, and Innovation in the United States 208 E J Reedy, Michael S Teitelbaum, and Robert E Litan 12 Legacy and New Databases for Linking Innovation to Impact 232 Lynne Zucker and Michael Darby 13 A Vision of Data and Analytics for the Science of Science Policy 258 Jim Thomas and Susan Albers Mohrman PART THREE: Practical Science Policy 14 Editors’ Overview 283 Science Policy: A Federal Budgeting View 289 Kei Koizumi 15 The Problem of Political Design in Federal Innovation Organization 302 William B Bonvillian 16 Science Policy and the Congress 327 David Goldston 17 Institutional Ecology and the Social Outcomes of Scientific Research 337 Daniel Sarewitz 18 Science Policy in a Complex World: Lessons from the European Experience 349 Janez Potocˇnik Contributors 357 Index 367 Acknowledgments The editors would like to acknowledge the contributions of Bill Valdez, who provided valuable insights and contributed greatly to t he editing and structure of this book We are also grateful to the National Science and Technology Committee’s NSTC’s Science of Science Policy Interagency group, whose continued support of and engagement with the very real practical issues have been critical to the revitalization of the field We would also like to recognize the invaluable assistance of the editorial staff at Stanford University Press, Margo Beth Crouppen and Jessica Walsh, as well as of Laura Yerhot, who did an enormous amount of work to help us prepare the manuscript Jim Thomas passed away suddenly while the book was being produced We are deeply saddened by the loss of a visionary researcher, a colleague, and a friend We are honored that his vision of the application of Visual Analytics to the Science of Science Policy is part of this book The Science of Science Policy 372 Index education and training, (continued) of foreign students in U.S institutions, –, impact of investment on, – in information technology (IT), Sputnik’s impact on, – U.S science education policies, – workforce measures using, –, – Einstein, Albert, EIO/LA analysis, Eisenhower, Dwight, embryonic stem cell research See human embryonic stem cell (hESC) research emergence, , , emerging industry databases, , –t, – empirical information See measurement processes employment, – The Endless Frontier (V Bush), , energy and the environment, t, , n energy balance, Energy Frontier Research Centers (EFRCs), – engineers See workforce in S&E occupations entrepreneurial activity, , , – definitions of, education and training in, measurement of, –, n policies supporting, – Environment, Health and Safety Research database, t Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), ethics training, t, –, –, , nn– institutional contexts of, – network dynamics in, – power relationships in, ETHXWeb database, t EUREKA initiative, , n European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), – European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO), – European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), , –, European Policy for Intellectual Property, t European Research Area, , – European Research Council (ERC), , n European Science Foundation (ESF), , European Space Agency and Observatory (ESA/ESO), , European Union (EU), – Biotechnology Archive of, collaborative research policies of, , –, Community Innovation Survey of, , , , decision-making mechanisms of, – funding of research of, , , n industrial and technological policy in, – Lisbon Strategy of , mobility of scientists in, , n norms and standards of, Seventh Framework Programme of, , See also Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Eurostat, – evaluation studies, t evidence-based platform of science policy, –, – core disciplines of, – data requirements for, – statistical models for, –, n See also measurement processes executive branch annual R&D priorities of, – budgetary decisions in, , – changes in administrations in, – Index mandate for science policy studies, – policy-making machinery of, –, –, –, – science advisors of, –, , See also federal budget tools; names of specific presidents, e.g Clinton experimental design, – Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR), expert analysis and review, , –, fact memories, – failure in research, – Fealing, Kaye Husbands, federal budget tools, t, – coordinated roadmap for, , , – decision-making tools for, – for evaluation of high-risk research, t, , – future directions of, – improvement opportunities for, – incremental budgeting in, , – overview of, – See also government funding Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs), –, –, federal R&D labs, t Federal Reserve Board, t, t, Feller, Irwin, , , –, financial services, fi xed, large-scale lab model, – fi xed effects and difference models, Foray, D., fragmentation of research and innovation, t, –, –, –, Fredrickson, Don, Freeman, Richard B., , –, , 373 Frickel, S., Friedman, Tom, – Friedman proposition, function-behavior-structure (FBS) ontology, – function of an artifact, – funding See government funding funding opportunity data, f, future directions in data development and analysis, – in federal budgeting for R&D, – in institutional ecology, – in measurement processes, – political contexts of, of political design models, – Galison, P., “Gathering Storm” report, Gault, F., GenBank database, t, gender See women in science Genentech, Inc., –, t General Accountability Office (GAO), , GenETHX database, t Georgetown UNRSBL, t Gero, John S., –, , Geron, , Gibbons, Jack, Global Change Research Program (GCRP), globalization, , –, – definitions of, innovation communities of practice in, – in politics of distribution, – role of governments in, Goldston, David, , , , Gombrich, E., Google Scholar database, t government funding, t, –, –, , annual spending on, , , on biotechnology, –, , 374 Index government funding, (continued) budget decision-making in, – on defense and national security research, , , –, n development banks in, direct funding in, – fragmentation in, t, –, –, –, granting agencies for, indirect funding in, – quantitative analysis of, , –, , –, –nn– in response to Sputnik, , , , – percent benchmark for, volatility of, – See also American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of ; bureaucracy of science policy government institutions See bureaucracy of science policy Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) of , , –, , , graduate research fellowships (GRFs), – grants.gov website, graphical illustration of data, –, Great Recession of –, green innovation, Griliches, Z., –, , , gross returns, Gualt, Fred, Hackett, Edward, – Hall, Bronwyn, Hart, David, – Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI), – H-B visas, – health sciences research, t, , , n government funding of, –, in health care service delivery, impact of disease advocacy groups on, , , n innovation policies of, regulatory science in, – Heiligendamm-L’Aquila Process (HAP), Hezlett, Leo, high-risk research, t, , –, – Hirschman, Albert, Historical Cross-Country Technology Adoption (HCCTA) Data Set, t history of science policy, t Holdren, J., homeland security See defense and national security Hoover, Herbert, House Appropriations Committee, House Committee on Science and Technology, Huff, C W., et al., – human embryonic stem cell (hESC) research, –, , –, , –, – competition in, federal policies on, , – fragmentation of research in, – unanticipated consequences of policies in, – Hwang, Woo Suk, , Ibero-American Network on Science and Technology Indicators (RICYT), ICON/Rice University, t, – IDA, – impact opportunity data, f, – implementation, incentive structure, – incremental budgeting, , – indicators and metrics, t See also measurement processes information technology (IT) revolution, , Initial Public Offerings (IPOs), Index innovation, , , t actors and activities in, –, , n computational social science modeling of, creative cognitive processes of, , , –, n, – as creative destruction, –, , – databases of, , – definitions of, –, , implementation stage of, inputs into the process of, institutional ecology of, –, –, –, – interest group resistance to, –, markets for, – measurement of, , – outputs of, – political contexts of, – political design model in, – politics of distribution in, –, – scientific research into, , – situated cognition in, – strategies for, system of, – U.S system of, f innovation hubs, – innovation policy activities in, t, – agenda development for, – components of, –, t, – coordination in, – education and training in, evaluation and analysis of, –, –, framework for, – global community of practice in, – implementation of, international dimensions of, – people in, t, public institutions in, t, – 375 reasons for, – role of markets in, –, t, – stakeholder engagement in, – surveys and measurement in, – The Innovator’s Dilemma (Christensen), Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), t, , institutional ecology, , –, –, –, – aggregates of institutions in, – coherence of values in, disjunctures of outcomes in, – economics of, – funding contexts of, future directions in, – institutionalization, institutions, t creation of, – decision analysis paradigms of, f, ecology of, –, – interdisciplinarity in, – mandated policies in, – policy conundrums in, – restricted policies in, – social dynamics of, –, –, n Integrated Longitudinal Business Database (LBD), t, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), t integrated science models, –, n Intel Corporation, t intellectual property rights, – interdisciplinarity, , , t, , evaluation and peer review in, – in graduate programs, – in policymaking, power relationships in, – social dynamics of, , – translationality in, unanticipated consequences of, – interest groups See lobbyists/interest groups 376 Index Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internal Revenue Service (IRS), , , t international contexts, t, , –, – of big science, cooperation mechanisms in, –, – labor migrations and diasporas in, –, , , –, , language of innovation in, – marketing of innovation in, – mobility of researchers in, , n policy components in, – policy development in, – quantitative analysis in, –, – See also African Union; European Union International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Thermonuclear Energy Reactor (ITER), intrapreneurs, Inventory of Agrifood Nanotechnology, t investigator-initiated research, – IOM–SAFENANO, t ISI Highly Cited database, t, ISI Web of Knowledge database, t, ISR–Michigan Census Research Data Center, t “Issues in Assessing the Contribution of Research and Development to Productivity Growth” (Griliches), Jaffe, Adam B., , , , , Jensen, R., job creation/retention See workforce in S&E occupations Johnson, Lyndon, Joint Program in Statistical Methodology, Juma, Calestous, jump processes, , – Kauff man Firm Survey, t Kauff man Foundation, t Kauff man Index of Entrepreneurial Activity, t Kerr, Robert, Key Biotech Indicators in OECD, t Keynes, John Maynard, – Kingdon, J W., knowledge capital, , – knowledge creation database, Knowledge Express database, t knowledge flow and capture, knowledge production See analytical capacity in science policy; data/ databases; measurement processes knowledge spillovers, Koizumi, Kei, , n, , Koopmans, T C., Kornberg, Arthur, Kuhn, Thomas, labor force See workforce in S&E occupations Lamont, M., Lane, Julia, Lane, Neal, n language of innovation, – large-scale lab model, – Lave, L B., et al., Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, lead markets, Lead Systems Integrators, Leamer, E E, learning, Lee, Cheol Song, legacy databases, , –t, – Leonardo da Vinci, Levinson, Marc, – life-cycle analysis (LCA), linearity, Lisbon European Council, , – Litan, Robert E., –, –, – Index lobbyists/interest groups, disease advocacy groups, , , n management of unfavorable science by, resistance to technological change by, –, long differences, Longitudinal Business Database (LBD), –, t Longitudinal Employer-Household Dynamics (LEHD), t, , n Los Alamos, Lotka, A J., Lowell, B Lindsay, Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich, Machlup, F., , mandate for science policy studies, – Manhattan Project, , Mansfield, E., –, Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP), –, manufacturing sector, – Marburger, John H., III, on analysis and learning, , on benchmarks, on decision makers, on widening scope of innovation policy, , , Marie Curie fellowships, , n markets for innovation, –, t, – Marshall, A., Martin, B R., Maslow, Abraham, mass balance, matched pairs models, measurement processes, t, , , –, –, n actors in, –, n bibliometric tools in, , , , –, t, t, , –, 377 of causation, –, nn– control groups in, correlations in, , – cumulative (additionality) effects in, , current infrastructure of, – cyber-infrastructure capabilities in, database development and linkage in, – of entrepreneurial activity, , , – evidence-based outcomes as platform of, –, , –, – future directions for, –, , –, – of innovation, – knowledge creation database for, limitations of, –, –, –, –, – of multiple outcomes, objectives of, – proposed metrics for, – proxies in, –, , randomized trials in, –, – of rates of return, , –, n, of the S&E workforce, – of spillover, , , structural modeling in, – See also quantitative analysis Melton, Douglas, memory, as constructive, –, MESUR project (ww.mesur.org), metamorphic progress, Micro-business Innovation Survey, t, t, Micro Data on Patents and Trademarks, t micro-economic analysis, – migrations, MITRE, – modularity, Mohrman, Susan Albers, – moral exemplars, 378 Index Morgan, M Granger, , , Moses, Robert, n multiple outcomes, Nanobank–Documenting Nanoscience & Technology database, t nano EHS Virtual Journal database, t NanoEthicsBank, t Nanomedicine Publications, t Nano Particle Library, t Nanotechnology Database, t NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), –, – Congressional oversight of, Sputnik’s impact on, , , , – National Academies of Science (NAS), , , on federal budgets, , focus on leadership by, report on increasing interest in the sciences of, technology assessment methods of, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), Historical Cross-Country Technology Adoption (HCCTA) Data Set of, t patent database of, , Scientific Papers Database, t National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), , t National Defense Education Act, National Defense Research Council (NDRC), national innovation systems, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Advanced Technology Program (ATP) of, , t, –, mission of, R&D budget of, National Institutes of Health (NIH), , challenge grants of, Congressional oversight of, CRISP database of, t Data Book of, t establishment of, funding of, –, –, , , –, increasing budget of, , , mandated ethics training by, –, –, n safety guidelines for recombinant DNA research of, science and technology databases of, t, t, t support of R&D by, , National Library of Medicine, National Longitudinal Youth Survey, National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), , National Renewal Energy Laboratory (NREL), National Research Council (NRC), on prediction of outcomes, quantitative policy analysis of, “A Strategy for Assessing Science” report, National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), –, Committee on Science of, , on innovation ecosystems, – on lack of data, science policy roadmap of, , , – National Science Board (NSB), – National Science Foundation (NSF), –, , – Business R&D Innovation Survey of, , , , , , t education and training mission of, –, , , , , Index entrepreneurship measures by, t, establishment of, funding decisions by, innovation measurement of, –t international work of, measurement methods of, –, , , t, t original mission of, nn– performance metrics of, , R&D budget of, science and technology databases of, –t science and technology development work of, , n Science & Engineering Indicators report of, Science of Science and Innovation Policy (SciSIP) program of, –, , , , science policy training programs of, Sputnik’s impact on, – support of R&D by, Survey of Doctoral Recipients of, Survey of Earned Doctorates of, workforce measurement by, t, , t National Survey of College Graduates (NSCG), t, t National Survey of Recent College Graduates (NSRCG), t, t natural excludability, – NBER-RPI Scientific Papers Database, t Nelson, Richard, , , NESTI (Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators), net returns, Networking and Information Technology Research and Development (NITRD) program, network structures, crosscutting networks in, 379 in decision analysis paradigms, – for international collaboration, –, – of mandated policies, – moral exemplars in, policy contention in, policy conundrums in, – restricted policies in, – social dynamics of, –, n in S&T success, teamwork and collaboration in, – neuroscience of creative cognition, – of situated cognition, – New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), , NIH See National Institutes of Health NIOSH–NIL, t NIPA R&D and Innovation Satellite Accounts, t, NIST-TIP Advanced Technology Program surveys, t Noll, R., non-compete agreements, noneconomistic thinking, NORC-Enclave, t NSF See National Science Foundation Obama (Barack) administration economic stimulus (ARRA) of, , , , , embryonic stem cell policies of, innovation strategy of, –, , public-sector management policies of, science budgets of, , , , – science policy of, , , space exploration policies of, – stabilization and growth policies of, Strategy for American Innovation goals of, student data reporting policies of, 380 Index observation, OECD See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Office of Management and Budget (OMB), , , annual R&D priorities of, – investment criteria of, – Performance Assessment and Rating Tool (PART) of, science data and analysis at, support of outcome-oriented goals by, – Office of Naval Research, , n Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), , – annual R&D priorities of, , bureaucratic role of, – National Science and Technology Council of, – support of outcome-oriented goals by, – See also National Science and Technology Council Office of Science Research and Development (OSRD), Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), open innovation, – operations research, – opportunity data, f, – optimal statistical decision theory, options modeling, , –, n, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), , Blue Sky II conference of, –, “Innovating Out of Poverty” workshop of, Key Biotech Indicators database of, t Oslo Manual of, – patent statistics of, Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers of, Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators (NESTI) of, See also European Union Orphan Drug Act of , Oslo Manual, – osti.gov/fedrne website, outcomes, – evidence-based measurement of, –, , –, n, – multiple outcomes, predictability of, –, –, projections of, – See also measurement processes Owen-Smith, Jason, , –, , Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics database, t Patent and Trademark Office, , t, , t Patent Application Bibliographic Data, t Patent Grant Bibliographic Data, t Patent Lens database, t patents and licensing Bayh-Dole Patent and Trademarks Act of , –, , –, n citation levels used in, databases of, –, , t, in federal budgeting decisions, intellectual property rights in, – of living organisms, patent protections in, – statistics on innovation in, t, pecuniary spillovers, peer-review systems, –, Peha, Jon, people See workforce in S&E occupations Performance Assessment and Rating Tool (PART) of OMB, Pfirman, S., pilot studies, – Index pipeline model, –, n policymaking, – See also science policy political contexts, –, – of Congressional science policy, , – in European Union’s collaborative approach, expert analysis in, , –, of federal budgeting for R&D, – ideological views on role of science in, –, n impact of globalization on, – interest group resistance to technological change, –, manipulation of data in, rules of design in, –, , –, , , , – security concerns in, unfavorable science in, See also bureaucracy of science policy political design models, t, –, – Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA-E), – Advanced Technology Program (ATP), – connected science approach to, , , , n constituencies in, , Energy Frontier Research Centers (EFRCs), – focus of front advance in, , future directions of, – grant-making support in, , information technology (IT) in, innovation gap analysis in, – innovation hubs in, – integrated science models in, –, n intra-agency rivalry in, , large permanent lab model of, – Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP), –, 381 mission in, , –, pipeline model of, –, n prelaunch support in, , – RE-ENERGYSE, – scale in, , Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, – Sputnik’s impact on, – valleys of death in, –, political science, –, , politics of distribution See distributive innovation theory portfolio analysis, Posen, Barry, “Possibilities for Our Grandchildren” (Keynes), – postdoctoral researchers, – post-secondary education See education and training Potočnik, Janez, Powell, Walter W., , –, , power relationships distributive innovation theory of, –, , n mandated policies in, policy contention in, – policy conundrums in, restricted policies in, social dynamics of, –, –, n stakeholders in, t, , , –, , n, – predictability of outcomes, –, –, Presidency See executive branch; names of specific presidents, e.g Clinton President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST), Press, Frank, priority setting, prizes, procurement, – progress in science, , – prospective approaches, t 382 Index proxies, –, , psychology, of creative cognitive processes, , , –, n of situated cognition, – Publication Search database, t public health See health sciences research public institutions See bureaucracy of science policy public management paradigm, public policy See government funding public values, Quade, E S., quantitative analysis, t, – conclusions on causation in, – economic approaches to, –, – education and training in, – in international contexts, – measurement issues in, – political manipulation of, practitioners of, – of public policy funding, , –, , –, –nn– relevance of, – tools used for, – typical approaches to, – of workforce achievements, – See also measurement processes Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, RADIUS–RAND Database of R&D in the U.S., , t RAND Corporation, , – randomized trials, –, – The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity (NBER), rates of return, t, –, measurement of, , – social rates of, n spillovers in, RDDS Search database, t Recovery Act See American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of Redström, J., Reedy, E J., –, –, – RE-ENERGYSE (Regaining our ENERGY Science and Engineering Edge), – regional high-tech clusters, , –, , anchor tenants in, institutional dynamics of, – network structures of, – unanticipated consequences of, –, regression discontinuity, n regulatory science, – rent spillovers, Research America, research.gov website, – Resources for the Future (RFF), – retrospective approaches, t to budget-making decisions, – legacy databases in, , –t, – Rhoten, Diana, –, RICYT (Ibero-American Network on Science and Technology Indicators), RIMS II model, Rising Above the Gathering Storm (NAS), , risk model, t, –, – Rivlin, A., Roosevelt (Franklin D.) administration, –, Rosen, Stephen R., Rosenberg, N., rules of political design See political design models Sachs, O., safety, , – Sagan, Carl, Salter, A J., Index Sapolsky, Harvey M., –, –, , , , n Sarewitz, Daniel, , , – satellite accounts, Schrank, Andrew, Schumpeter, Joseph, –, , , Science: The Endless Frontier (V Bush), , science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education See education and training Science and Engineering Indicators report, Science and Engineering Statistics Database, t science technology studies, , , Science and Technology-Based Economic Development Programs database, t Science and Technology Pocket Data Book, t science.gov website, – Science magazine, , science of innovation policy See innovation policy Science of Science and Innovation Policy (SciSIP) program, –, , , , The Science of Science Policy: A Federal Research Roadmap (NSTC Committee on Science), , , – Science of Science Policy interagency task group (SOSP ITG), – science opportunity data, f, – science policy allocation paradigms for, – building communities of practice in, –, – bureaucracy of, –, – core disciplines of, – cross-disciplinary paradigms of, – data development and exploration in, t, , , – 383 decision analysis in, – European context of, – evidence-based platform of, –, – experimental basis of, – future directions for, –, – predictability of outcomes in, –, –, , – scope of practice in, – See also analytical capacity in science policy; innovation policy sciences of the artificial, science systems complexity of, – embeddedness of, – global connectedness of, – interdisciplinarity of policymaking in, sources of uncertainty in, Scientific Papers Database, t scientists See workforce in S&E occupations Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT), t SDC Platinum database, t, Self-Employment Dynamics Database, t September , , terrorist attacks, – S&E State Profi les database, t Simon, Herbert, simulation modeling, situated cognition, – computational social science modeling of, constructive memory in, – creation of meaning in, – effects of interaction in, – function-behavior-structure (FBS) ontology in, – value system changes in, – Sloan Foundation, Small Business Administration (SBA), , t, 384 Index Small Business Innovation Development Act of , Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, – Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) program, Smith-Doerr, Laurel, , –, , , Social, Behavioral and Economic Research in the Federal Context (NSTC), – Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Subcommittee of the Committee on Science, social capital in decision analysis, f, – social collaboration opportunity data, f, social influence, – social rates of return, , , , n, social science community, sociological approach, , , , –, to institutions, –, –, –, –, – to interactions between innovators and adopters, to network dynamics, –, –, –, –, –, to policy contentions, , –, to policy conundrums, –, to policy mandates, –, – to policy restrictions, , –, to power relations, –, –, –, , to transformative practices, – to unanticipated consequences, , , , – SOI Tax Stats–Corporation Tax Statistics database, t Solow, R M., , , , Sony Corporation, t SOSP ITG/SciSIP website, Spector, Arlen, spillovers and clusters, t measurement of, , , , – types of, , , Sputnik program, , , , – stability in measurement, stakeholders, t, , engagement in innovation policy of, – in politics of distribution, –, , n See also power relationships Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system, n standards, See also measurement processes STAR METRICS project, , , , , star scientists, , f, – impact of, – patents of, – statistical infrastructure See measurement processes stem cell research See human embryonic stem cell (hESC) research STEM education See education and training Stephan, P., – Stiglitz, J., Strategy for American Innovation, “A Strategy for Assessing Science” (NRC), structural modeling, – structure of an artifact, – The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Kuhn), Summers, Lawrence, supply of engineers and scientists, –, , – foreign scientists in, –, , –, impact of educational policies on, –, n impact of financial incentives on, –, – Index impact of investment on, –, – impact of teamwork and collaboration in, – in international contexts, women’s representation in, – See also workforce in S&E occupations Survey of Business Owners (SBO), t, Survey of Consumer Finance, t Survey of Doctoral Recipients (SDR), , t, t Survey of Earned Doctorates, , t Survey of Federal Funds for Research and Development, t Survey of R&D Expenditures at Universities and Colleges, t, , t Survey of Small Business Finance, t, sustainable growth, t synthesis of data, f, – systems models and applications, t, – talent See star scientists Task Force on the Future of American Innovation, Taylor, Mark Zachary, –, – teamwork See network structures TECH-Net database, t technological modularity, technological opportunity, , technological spillovers See spillovers and clusters technology assessment, Technology Investment Program (TIP), – technology launch, Teitelbaum, Michael S., –, –, – theoretical basis of science policy See evidence-based platform of science policy 385 Thomas, Jim, – Thomson, James, –, , Thomson/Reuters ISI, t, t, , Thursby, J., Thursby, M., Tibbets, Roland, top-down approaches, Topical Guide to this Handbook, t Toulmin, Stephen, Toyota, transformational research, t, , – government debates on, – social science study of, – trends, triple-helix partnerships, t Truman, Harry, n unanticipated consequences, in human embryonic stem cell research, , – in interdisciplinary networks, – of mandatory ethics education, of regional high-tech clusters, – uncertainty models, , , United Nationals Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), , , , University of Minnesota Healthcare Partners, unobservables, – U.S Congress See Congress U.S Patents Citations Data File, t, U.S Patents Full-Text and Full-Page Image Databases, t U.S Supreme Court, , user-driven innovation, valley of death programs, –, , “value of information” literature, 386 Index value systems, , changing adopter situations in, – changing producer and innovator situations in, – impact of change on, – situated “push-pull” interactions in, – in value-based decision-making, t, van Leeuwen, T N., Van Reenen, John, Virtual Journal of Biological Physics Research, t Virtual Journal of Nanoscale Science & Technology, t Virtual Journal of Quantum Information, t Virtual Journal of Ultrafast Science, t visa categories, – visual analytics, t, –, , visualization, , Wagner, C., – “Wanted: Better Benchmarks” (Marburger), wealth creation, t Webb, James, Weber, Max, , Weinberg, Robert, , Weiner, Sanford L., Weiss, C., Weitzman, Martin, Wildavsky, A., Wilson, James Q., , Wilson Center for Scholars, –t Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF), –, , Wolf, J C., women in science, – math test scores of, power relationships of, , – workforce in S&E occupations, t, , , – demand for, –, , – doctoral degree graduates in, – entrepreneurial activity in, , , –, n foreign scientists in, –, , –, , growth of, impact of investments on, – in international innovation contexts, measurement of, –, n migration and mobility of, , , n NSB task force on, – occupational measures of, – quality of, size and sustainability of, – star scientists of, , –, –, f, – supply of, –, , – women in, , –, – See also education and training Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators (NESTI), World Bank, World Wide Web, X-prize Foundation, Zerhouni, Elias, – Zucker, Lynne, , , , ... what I understand to be the science of science policy I became acutely aware of the inadequacy of available science policy tools following the terrorist attacks of September , These actions... originate outside of the social sciences This migration and synthesis of ideas is precisely what creates a dynamic community of practice One area of the science of science policy that is often... for science policy would be a welcome change, if hardly a panacea What the Science of Science Policy Entails One of the aims of recent science of science policy activities is to develop the evidentiary