Chinas war against the many faces of poverty towards a new long march

China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty measures multidimensional poverty in China and deprivation related to income, education, health issues, living standards and social security The book adopts a well-developed methodology using three different empirical datasets to analyse aspects of regional diversity across rural and urban and migrant populations of China The book also analyses the links between development policies considered by the government and the various facets of poverty in light of rapid economic growth and addresses important policy implications In the existing literature, in-depth research on multidimensional poverty in China is almost non-existent This book is a pioneer study in this important field of research Its innovative approach in concepts and methodologies and its analysis of policy implications make this book a definitive and valuable addition to the literature Jing Yang is Lecturer at Jiangxi Agricultural University, China Pundarik Mukhopadhaya is Associate Professor at the Department of Economics, Macquarie University, Australia Routledge studies in development economics For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com 96 The Microfinance Impact Ranjula Bali Swain 97 Gendered Insecurities, Health and Development in Africa Edited by Howard Stein and Amal Hassan Fadlalla 98 Financial Cooperatives and Local Development Edited by Silvio Goglio and Yiorgos Alexopoulos 99 State-Business Relations and Economic Development in Africa and India Edited by Kunal Sen 100 Digital Interactions in Developing Countries An economic perspective Jeffrey James 101 Migration and Inequality Edited by Tanja Bastia 102 Financing Regional Growth and the Inter-American Development Bank The case of Argentina Ernesto Vivares 103 Globalization and Development Rethinking interventions and governance Edited by Arne Bigsten 104 Disasters and the Networked Economy J.M Albala-Bertrand 105 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Innovation and Change in Value Chain Development Negotiating tradition, power and fragility in Afghanistan Holly A Ritchie 115 Industrial Innovation, Networks and Economic Development Informal information sharing in low-technology clusters in India Anant Kamath 122 China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty Towards a new long march Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya This page intentionally left blank China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty Towards a new long march Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya First published 2016 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya The right of Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Yang, Jing, 1982- author | Mukhopadhaya, Pundarik, author Title: China’s war against the many faces of poverty : towards a new long march / by Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2016 | Series: Routledge studies in development economics ; 122 Identifiers: LCCN 2015039767 | ISBN 9781138819603 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315744346 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Poverty—China | Economic development— China | China—Economic conditions | China—Economic policy Classification: LCC HC430.P6 Y344 2016 | DDC 339.4/60951—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015039767 ISBN: 978-1-138-81960-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-74434-6 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC To my parents Wanxian Yang and Fenglan Peng, husband Zhanbin Liu, children Jiayang and Mengyang —Jing Yang To Chandrama, Proteeti and Prajusha —Pundarik Mukhopadhaya This page intentionally left blank Contents List of figures List of tables Acknowledgements List of abbreviations x xii xviii xx Introduction Multidimensional poverty: concept, methodology and application 17 Income destitution in China and government attempts to combat it: an overview 65 The measurement of multidimensional poverty in China: rural–urban, regional and provincial variations 125 Trends in multidimensional poverty and the determination of key indicators in rural, urban and regional China 167 Analysis of the multidimensional poverty of migrants in comparison with rural and urban groups (2002–2010) 235 Conclusion 308 References Index 321 339 References 331 Li, S and Zhao, R 2011, ‘Market Reform and the Widening of the Income Gap’, Social Sciences in China, vol XXXII, no 2, pp 140–158 Li, Y., Wu, Q., Xu, L., Legge, D., Hao, Y., Gao, L., Ning, N and Wan, G 2012, ‘Factors Affecting Catastrophic Health Expenditure and Impoverishment from Medical Expenses in China: Policy Implications of Universal Health Insurance’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol 90, no 9, pp 664–671 Lin, W and Wong, C 2012, ‘Are Beijing’s Equalization Policies Reaching the Poor? 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contributions of indicators 181–3; multidimensional poverty trends 174–5, 176; trends in 174–83 adjusted poverty gap 43, 62n33 adjusted squared poverty gap 43, 62n33 AF (Alkire-Foster) approach 42, 167, 231n6, 232n24, 232n26, 310; Central region 298; contribution of indicators 181–3, 250, 251, 264–6, 289, 290–1; deprivation in indicators 261–3, 274– 6; diversity in 210, 212–15, 261–3, 286–7, 288; Eastern region 297; empirical poverty estimates 43–50; employed urban vs migrant groups 280, 282–3, 284; literature 222–7, 229–30; multidimensional poverty calculation 55–8; multidimensional poverty measurement 26, 29–31, 35–41; regional diversity in trends of poverty 250, 252, 253; rural and urban contributions to total poverty 261; rural migrant disparities by region 279–80; rural poverty 199–200; rural-urban ratio of multidimensional poverty index 209; rural vs migrant groups 270–1, 272, 273, 276–8; rural vs urban poverty 201–2; test of robustness 195–7; TFR (totally fuzzy and relative) method vs 186–9; trends in deprivation 188–9, 248–50; trends in poverty of migrants 247–53; urban-migrant disparities at regional level 289, 292, 293; urban poverty 200–201; urban-rural disparities 268; urban vs rural groups 257–9, 260; weights 190–3, 195; Western region 299 aggregative strategy 26 agricultural income: policies to increase 97–9, 115 ALEP (Aupspitz, Lieben, Edgeworth and Pareto) approach 24, 61n12 Asian Development Bank (ADB) 65, 76, 91, 172–3, 231n10; measurement of poverty 67, 70; poverty line 70; poverty measurement by 67, 70 Australian National University (ANU) 235, 236 axiomatic approach 26, 36, 38, 44 Basic Medical Insurance System for Urban Residents 100–101, 118, 151, 178, 201, 203 Beijing Normal University (BNU) 235, 236 body mass index (BMI) 40, 173, 228 BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) 313, 315, 317 capabilities 1–2 capability approach (CA) 10, 19–20, 21, 42, 45, 89, 146, 308; indicators of 46 capability well-being 45, 46 China: anti-poverty funding 95; Asian Development Bank (ADB) data 67, 70; best and worst performer in poverty reduction 229–30; causes of provincial and regional disparity 7–9; dataset coverage 169, 235–47, 309–10; development indicators 68–9; development stages 3–4, 13; development strategies 4–7; dimensions and indicators of datasets 310–12; economic openness 6; ethnic groups 122n12; government reports 71, 76, 78, 80–1; headcount ratio 340 Index 78, 79, 82–5; household contract responsibility system 5; literature 81–6, 89–90; migrant situation 9–10; Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Report 70–1, 72–5, 76; policy suggestions 314–15; population 78, 79; poverty-alleviation strategies 90–1; poverty at regional level 80–1; poverty at urban level 81; poverty trends in 65–91; provinces 126, 127, 167, 169; reform of stateowned enterprises 5–6; regions by ranks of investment 124; relaxation of Hukou 9–10; rural development 80; rural poverty line 78, 79; rural poverty-reduction evolution 77; urbanization 6–7; World Bank data 65–7; see also government policies; provinces China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) 11, 24; dataset 125–6, 167, 262, 309–10; dimensions 24, 126, 311; distribution of samples in 127; indicators 173, 176, 311; multidimensional poverty 312–13; poverty cut-off 319n3; social insurance 130 China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) 11, 84, 86, 89, 132, 153, 158, 256; dataset 167, 170, 173, 214, 220, 231n2, 309–10; dimensions 24, 311; indicators 311; literature 220–2; multidimensional poverty 312–13; poverty cut-off 319n3; surveys 169, 183 China Household Income Project Survey (CHIP) 11, 85, 295n4; datasets 309–11; dimensions 24, 311; indicators 311; multidimensional poverty 247, 312–13; pension insurance 245; poverty cut-off 319n3; reasons for using RUMiC and CHIP data 236–7; relationship between RUMiC and, datasets 235–6 China Institute for Income Distribution (CIID) 236, 295n4 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) 82, 83, 236, 296n17 Communist Party of China (CPC) 231n3, 231n5; Agricultural Conference 4, 5; Central Committee 3–4, 93, 97, 103 constant relative risk aversion (CRRA) 67 countries: government expenditure on education 315–16; public expenditure on health 317–18 cut-off 122n13, 128, 170, 242, 250, 264; deprivation 29, 241, 242; dual cut-off approach 26, 29, 125, 167, 170, 310; poverty 29–30, 70, 89, 131–2, 149, 164–5, 174–5, 187–8, 190, 231n9–10, 232n24, 247, 270, 312, 319n3 data-driven weights 130, 232n28; see also weights Deng Xiaoping 3, 13 Department for International Development (DFID) model 19, 63n36 deprivation: cut-off 29, 241, 242; migrant dimensional poverty of migrants 286–9; trend in migrants 248–50; trend of 176–9, 186, 188–9 developing countries: multidimensional poverty 34–41 Development-oriented Poverty Alleviation Strategy 90, 92–3, 97, 159 Dewdrop Project 94, 165 Dibao (Minimum Income Guarantee) 81, 104, 108, 110, 122n17, 123n24, 123n28, 130, 153 disposable income: urban and rural 15 double-track system 3, 4, 13 drinking water: safe 103, 113, 119; see also standard of living dual cut-off approach 26, 29, 125, 167, 170, 310; see also AF (Alkire-Foster) approach economic openness 3, 4, 6, 8, 13 education 23, 24; AF approach 182; categories in datasets 243–4; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 178; dimension 128–9; eigenvalues 51; government expenditure on 315–16; government policies 99–100; headcount ratios 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 170, 174, 184, 208; literature 87; membership functions 59, 184, 241; policies 116; TFR approach 187; weights 49, 52, 131, 147, 174 electricity 24, 42: datasets 311; dimension 126; indicator 128–9, 131, 147, 150, 152, 154, 159, 171–4, 177, 180, 182, 187, 203, 208; Index headcount ratio 204–7; infrastructure policies 102–3; literature 88; membership function 184; ranks by region 124; rural development 80; statistics of 119; weights 190; see also standard of living environmental well-being 45 European Community Household Panel (ECHP) 18 expert opinion weights 25, 61n14 FGT (Foster-Greer-Thorbecke) index 26, 36, 38, 43; estimation by World Bank 65, 66; Shapley decomposition 54; unidimensional poverty 53–4 foreign direct investment (FDI) 3, 6, 13 Friedman test 142 fuzzy approach 34–9; empirical estimates of poverty 44; multidimensional poverty 31–3 Gini coefficient/index 7, 11n2, 14, 44, 321n13 global poverty 2–3, 12 government policies 91–110; education 99–100; health insurance 100–102; increasing agricultural income 97–9; infrastructure construction 102–3, 118–19; poverty-alleviation programs 92–7; public expenditure on poverty 109–10; social security 104–9 health 23; eigenvalues 51; literature 87; public expenditure on 317–18; weights 49, 52 health care 4, 7, 18, 22, 24, 42, 61n10; AF approach 182; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 178–9; dimension 128, 129; headcount ratio 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 171, 174, 180, 184; membership functions 60, 184; TFR approach 187; weights 131, 147, 174 health insurance: government policies 100–102; policies of 117–18 highway 102: statistics of rural 118 HIV/AIDS 20, 46, 71, 112 household contract responsibility system 3, 4, 5, 13, 71, 90, 121–2n7 Hukou (household registration system) 7–8; relaxation of 9–10; urban 274, 287 human functioning 1, 10 341 Human Poverty Index 18 hybrid weights 25, 26, 36, 39, 130 income 24; AF approach 182; correlation 149; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 178; dimension 126, 128; eigenvalues 51; headcount ratio 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 170, 174, 184, 208; membership functions 59, 184, 241; literature 87; migrants 16; policies to increase agricultural 97–9, 115; TFR approach 187; weights 49, 52, 131, 174 income gap: causes of provincial and regional disparity 7–9 income well-being 23 infrastructure construction: government policies 102–3; policies of 118–19 Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) 235, 236, 295n2 Institute of Social Science Survey of Peking University (ISSS) 125 International Poverty Reduction Centre in China (IPRCC) 164 intersection 27–9, 56, 62n19, 131, 132 investments: Chinese regions by rank 124 item-by-item analysis approach 26, 35–6, 38, 61n18 Kendall’s correlation coefficient 141, 142, 146, 147, 195–6, 197–8 Land Management Law Law of Foreign Trade Leading Group of Poverty Alleviation and Development 77, 92, 93, 96 literature: Chinese poverty measurement 81–7, 89–90; comparing multidimensional poverty trend results 220–1, 222–8, 229–30; dimensions 87–8; multidimensional poverty in developing countries 34–41; poverty headcount ratios 82–5; well-being theories 45 livelihoods 7–8, 19, 38 living standards see standard of living Medical Financial Assistance Programme 100–102 Medical Insurance System 100–101, 118, 123n26, 178, 201, 203, 274, 314 342 Index membership function 62n26, 296n11–12; adjusted 232n19; AF approach 241, 255; education 59, 184, 241; fuzzy approach 32–3; health 60, 184; income 59, 184, 241; standard of living 60, 184; TFR approach 183, 185, 188, 241, 242, 245 methane 103: statistics of 119 methodology: poverty 10–11 migrants: statistics 16 Millennium Declaration 70, 111–14, 121n3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2, 20, 21, 22–4, 46, 165n1; achievement 72–5; measurement 70–1; indicators 111–14; progress in China 76, 103 Minimum Income Guarantee (Dibao) 81, 104, 108, 110, 120, 122n17, 123n24, 123n28, 130, 153 Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) 82, 98 monetary poverty 17–18, 34, 86, 89–90, 173 multidimensional poverty 17–18; AF approach 29–31; AF method calculation 55–8; dimensions 19–20, 21, 23–5; fuzzy approach 31–3; measurement of 26–33; notations for 27–9; results with varying weights 189–95; rural-urban-migrant disparity 314; social exclusion (SE) approach 19; sources of dimensions 21, 22; TFR method calculation 59–60; weights 25–6 Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 20, 41–3, 62n32, 126, 129–30, 146, 173, 310 multidimensional poverty measurements: AF vs TFR approaches 186–9; Central region 301, 304, 306; China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) dataset 125–6, 127; choice of dimension and weight 33, 42–3; choice of dimensions and indicators 126, 128–30; decomposition of poverty 149–54; dimensions, indicators and cut-offs 128; diversity among provinces 154–9, 160–3; Eastern region 300, 303, 305; empirical applications of 33–44; estimates using AF approach 43; estimation with varying weights 130–41; evaluation of povertyalleviation strategies 159, 164; examination of individual dimensions 149–54; literature 34–41; studies using fuzzy approach 44; test of robustness 141–9; trends in 174–5, 176; Western region 302, 304, 307 multidimensional poverty of migrants 235, 292–5; AF approach 247–53, 257–60, 261–3, 264–6, 270–3, 274–6, 280, 282–3, 286–7, 289, 290–1; data description 237–41; datasets of RUMiC and CHIP surveys 235–47; education 241, 243–4; employed urban vs migrant groups 280–92; health insurance 242, 245; health status 241, 242, 245; income 241, 242; pension insurance 242, 245; rural vs migrant groups 270–80; selected indicators 241–7; TFR approach 254–6, 260–1, 263–4, 267, 271, 273, 276, 278, 283, 285, 287–9; trends in national 247–56; urban vs rural groups 256–70; work status 242, 245, 246 multidimensional poverty trends: absolute poverty 174–83; AF approach 186–9, 190–3; AF approach diversity 210, 212–15; dimensions, indicators and weights 170–4; diversity between provinces 210, 212–20; literature 220–30; national 247–56; rural trends 199–200; rural vs urban poverty 199–210; test of robustness 195–8; TFR and AF comparison 186–9, 194–5; TFR approach 183–6, 193–4; TFR approach diversity 215, 217–19; urban trends 200–201 multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) 43, 61n18, 62n30 multivariate statistical approach 26, 34–5, 37–41, 61n18 National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBS) 7, 11n2, 14, 16, 78–80, 82, 108, 122n10, 122n12, 235–6, 295n1, 296n16 national inequality: provincial and regional causes 7–9 National New Urbanization Plan 2014–2020, 4, 7, 122n11 national poverty: decomposition by province 156; estimation 137–41; indicators contributing 154, 155; provincial contributions 157 Index 343 objective well-being 45 OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) 24, 113, 313, 315, 317 Outline for Poverty Alleviation and Development of China’s Rural Areas (2001–2010) 22–4, 92, 93–4, 122n12, 128–30 principal component analysis (PCA) 26, 43–4, 50, 61n18, 62n30, 63n37, 130, 189, 225–6, 310 provinces 296n22; AF approach 210, 212–15; best and worst performer in poverty reduction 229–30; China 126, 127; datasets 169, 309–10; diversity between 154, 156–9, 210, 212–20; financial fund of poverty reduction 164–5; major indicators of poverty 160–3; multidimensional poverty and ranking 148; national poverty 157; pairwise comparisons 166n12–13; rank changes 145–6; ranking across weights 143–4, 145; rural poverty 158; sample distribution 127; size of sample households 168; TFR approach 215, 217–19; urban poverty 157 provincial poverty: comparing urban, rural and total, by region 135–6; contribution of indicators 219–20; estimation 134, 135–6 public expenditure: effectiveness on poverty 109–10; health 317–18 purchasing power parity (PPP) 12, 72, 82–5, 111–12, 121n2 pairwise comparison: robustness 142–5, 166n12–13, 195, 197 Pearson correlation coefficient 141–2, 146, 147, 195–6, 197–8, 234n45 pension insurance system 105, 106, 121, 130, 296n22 population: migrants 16 poverty 1; methodology 10–11; monetary 17–18, 34, 86, 89–90, 173; scenario worldwide 2–3; see also multidimensional poverty poverty-alleviation programs: evaluation of strategies 159, 164; government policies 92–7 poverty cut-off 29–30, 70, 89, 131–2, 149, 164–5, 174–5, 187–8, 190, 231n9–10, 232n24, 247, 270, 312, 319n3 poverty line 2, 12, 67, 70, 172, 231n10, 231n7; purchasing power parity (PPP) 12, 72, 82–5, 111–12, 121n2 Poverty Monitoring Report of Rural China 78–81, 95 poverty trends: ADB’s measurement 67, 70; World Bank’s measurement 65, 67 regional diversity: trends of multidimensional poverty 250, 252, 253, 256 regional poverty: contribution of indicators 219–21; contribution of sub-groups to 268–70, 280, 281, 292, 294; disparity in multidimensional 314–15; multidimensional poverty of migrants 268–70; rural-migrant disparities 279–80; urban-migrant disparities 289, 292, 293; urban-rural disparities 268 research and development (R&D) 109–10, 124 Research Centre for Rural Economy of the Ministry of Agriculture of China (RCRE) 83, 85, 86 RMB (Chinese currency renminbi) Robinson, Joan robustness test: AF approach 195–7; change in dimensions 146–9; change in weights 141–6; concordance 142; correlation 141–2; pairwise comparison 141–2, 142–5, 166n12–13, 195, 197; rank changes 145–6; TFR approach 197–8 National Rural Household Survey 122n10 New Cooperative Medical Care System 77, 100–101, 129, 201; coverage of 151, 154, 314; deprivation 178, 203, 274, 278, 280; social security system 122n17; statistics of 117 New Pension Insurance for Rural Residents 104, 106, 121, 122n17, 130, 239 Nine-Year Compulsory Education Policy 99, 128, 151 “No Document” 97, 99, 103 non-aggregative strategy 26, 35, 38–40, 61n18 normative weights 25, 26, 130; datadriven weights 25; see also weights notations: multidimensional poverty 27–9 344 Index rural pension system 105–6, 109 rural poverty: comparing by region 135–6; contribution to total poverty 202–3, 209–10, 261; decomposition by province 156; estimation 132–4, 137–41; indicators 154, 155, 203–8, 210, 211; multidimensional poverty by region 137; multidimensional trends 199–200; provincial contribution 158; reduction 71, 77, 91; urban poverty and 201–8 rural-urban: contribution to total poverty 202–3, 209–10; disparity 167, 202, 204–5, 233n37, 239, 259, 261–2, 312; headcount ratios 206, 207; income gap 8; poverty 125, 141, 164, 167, 202, 204, 208–9; ratio of poverty indices 209, 258, 259, 260, 268 Rural Urban Migration in China and Indonesia (RUMiCI) 235, 295n3 Rural Urban Migration in China (RUMiC) 11, 235; reasons for using, and CHIP data 236–7; relationship between RUMiC and CHIP datasets 235–6 safe drinking water 103, 113: statistics 119; see also standard of living Sen, Amartya 1, 10, 19, 20 Seven-Year Priority Poverty Alleviation Program 92, 93 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) 100 Shapley decomposition 54 simple average index 35, 67 social exclusion (SE) approach 17, 19, 22, 24, 46–7 social inclusion 22, 24, 37, 45, 46–7 social insurance 16, 80, 106, 128, 130–1, 147, 150–5, 159, 311 social security 24, 122n17; datasets 311; dimension 128, 130; government policies 104–9; headcount ratio 152, 153; indicators 150; policies of 120–1; weights 131, 147 Southwest Poverty Reduction Project 94, 96 Spearman’s correlation coefficient 18, 142, 146, 147, 195–6, 197–8, 234n45 Standard Minimum Wage system 104, 106–9 standard of living 1, 10, 24, 42, 128, 129–30; AF approach 182; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 179; eigenvalues 51; headcount ratios 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 171, 172, 174, 184, 208; membership functions 60, 184; literature 87–8; TFR approach 187; weights 49, 52, 131, 147, 174 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) 3, 4; reform of 5–6, 13, 108; urban pension system 105 subjective well-being 20, 45 Sub-Saharan Africa 2; poverty 12, 40, 43 sustainable livelihoods (SL) approach 19 TFA (totally fuzzy approach) 32 TFR (totally fuzzy and relative) approach 11, 32, 167, 231n6, 232n24, 232n26; AF (Alkire-Foster) approach and 186–9; change in poverty index 218; contribution of indicators 186, 187, 255, 267, 278–80, 289, 292; deprivation in indicators 263–4, 276; dimensions 184; diversity in 215, 217–19; diversity of deprivation in each indicator 263–4, 287, 288, 289; employed urban vs migrant groups 283, 285; health insurance 245; income per capita 241; literature 222–3, 229–30; membership function 184, 241, 242, 245; multidimensional poverty calculation 59–60; multidimensional poverty index 185; pension insurance 245; poverty index 233n36; regional diversity of multidimensional poverty 256; rural poverty 199–200; rural-urban ratio of multidimensional poverty index 209, 260; rural vs migrant groups 271, 273; rural vs urban poverty 201–2; test of robustness in 197–8; trends in deprivation 186, 188–9, 254, 255; trends of multidimensional poverty 183–6, 218, 254, 312, 254–6; urban poverty 200–201; urban vs rural groups 260–1; weighting schemes 221; weight of indicators 245, 247; weight system comparisons 189–95 trends see multidimensional poverty trends unidimensional poverty 26, 53–4 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 10, 26, 45, 310 Index United States (US) 316, 318; dollar University of Queensland (UQ) 235 urban housing: reform of system 122n11, 166n16 urbanization: China 4, 6–7, 8, 13, 122n11 urban pension system 105–6, 109, 287 urban poverty: comparing by region 135–7; comparison of rural poverty and 201–8; contribution of indicators 154, 155, 210, 211; contribution to total poverty 202–3, 209–10, 261; decomposition by province 156; estimation 132–4, 137–41; multidimensional trends 200–201; provincial contributions 157; trends of deprivation in indicators 203–8 urban-rural: disparity 199, 202, 221, 229, 235, 256, 262, 268, 270; income gap 90; inequality 109; multidimensional poverty of migrants 256–70; regional levels 268–70 Vero and Werquin Approach (VWA) 32 Watts index 41 weights: AF approach 190–3, 195; choice of 25–6, 130–1, 189; datadriven 25–6, 232n28; decomposition of poverty dimensions/indicators 345 149–54; dimensions and indicators 170, 174, 179, 181, 211; equal 25, 34–41, 42, 48, 56, 60, 130, 173, 179, 185, 189, 229, 245, 250, 310; estimation of multidimensional poverty with varying 130–41; expert opinion 25, 61n14; frequency-based 25, 34–8, 41, 42, 48–50; hybrid 25, 26, 36, 39, 130; normative 25, 26, 130; poverty results with varying 189–95, 208–10; regional multidimensional poverty 221, 229–30, 233n41–2, 233–4n43; statistical 25, 34–5, 37–41, 50–2; test of robustness 141–9; TFR approach 183, 187, 193–5, 197 well-being theories 45 work status 24, 237, 270, 295n7: datasets 246, 311; deprivation 255; headcount ratios 262–3; indicators 237–9, 242, 245, 246–7, 249–51, 255, 262, 264–5, 267 World Bank 14; development indicators 68–9; estimation of FGT index 66; global poverty 2; poverty measurement 65, 67 World Health Organization (WHO) 45, 100 World Trade Organisation (WTO) 3–4, 6, 13, 91 ...China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty measures multidimensional poverty in China and deprivation related to income, education, health issues,... information sharing in low-technology clusters in India Anant Kamath 122 China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty Towards a new long march Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya This page intentionally... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Yang, Jing, 1982- author | Mukhopadhaya, Pundarik, author Title: China’s war against the many faces of poverty : towards a new long march / by Jing Yang and