China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty measures multidimensional poverty in China and deprivation related to income, education, health issues, living standards and social security The book adopts a well-developed methodology using three different empirical datasets to analyse aspects of regional diversity across rural and urban and migrant populations of China The book also analyses the links between development policies considered by the government and the various facets of poverty in light of rapid economic growth and addresses important policy implications In the existing literature, in-depth research on multidimensional poverty in China is almost non-existent This book is a pioneer study in this important field of research Its innovative approach in concepts and methodologies and its analysis of policy implications make this book a definitive and valuable addition to the literature Jing Yang is Lecturer at Jiangxi Agricultural University, China Pundarik Mukhopadhaya is Associate Professor at the Department of Economics, Macquarie University, Australia Routledge studies in development economics For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com 96 The Microfinance Impact Ranjula Bali Swain 97 Gendered Insecurities, Health and Development in Africa Edited by Howard Stein and Amal Hassan Fadlalla 98 Financial Cooperatives and Local Development Edited by Silvio Goglio and Yiorgos Alexopoulos 99 State-Business Relations and Economic Development in Africa and India Edited by Kunal Sen 100 Digital Interactions in Developing Countries An economic perspective Jeffrey James 101 Migration and Inequality Edited by Tanja Bastia 102 Financing Regional Growth and the Inter-American Development Bank The case of Argentina Ernesto Vivares 103 Globalization and Development Rethinking interventions and governance Edited by Arne Bigsten 104 Disasters and the Networked Economy J.M Albala-Bertrand 105 Microfinance, Debt and Over-Indebtedness Juggling with money Edited by Isabelle Guérin, Solène Morvant-Roux and Magdalena Villarreal 106 The Universal Social SafetyNet and the Attack on World Poverty Pressing need, manageable cost, practical possibilities, favourable spillovers Anthony Clunies-Ross and Mozammel Huq 107 Youth and Employment in Sub-Saharan Africa Working but poor Edited by Hiroyuki Hino and Gustav Ranis 108 Financial Stability and Growth Perspectives on financial regulation and new developmentalism Edited by Luiz Carlos Bresser-Pereira, Jan Kregel and Leonardo Burlamaqui 109 A History of Development Economics Thought Challenges and counter-challenges Shahrukh Rafi Khan 116 Employment and Inclusive Development Rizwanul Islam and Iyanatul Islam 110 Economic Complexity and Human Development How economic diversification and social networks affect human agency and welfare Dominik Hartmann 117 Growth and Institutions in African Development Edited by Augustin K Fosu 111 Building Businesses in Emerging and Developing Countries Challenges and opportunities Edited by Elie Chrysostome and Rick Molz 112 The Informal Economy in Developing Countries Edited by Jean-Pierre Cling, Stéphane Lagrée Mireille Razafindrakoto and Franỗois Roubaud 118 Public Finance and Economic Growth in Developing Countries Lessons from Ethiopia’s reforms Stephen B Peterson 119 Peripheral Visions of Economic Development New frontiers in development economics and the history of economic thought Edited by Mario Garcia-Molina and Hans-Michael Trautwein 113 African Industrial Development and European Union Cooperation Prospects for a reengineered partnership Francis A.S.T Matambalya 120 The Political Economy of Natural Resources and Development From Neoliberalism to resource nationalism Edited by Paul A Haslam and Pablo Heidrich 114 Developmental Macroeconomics New developmentalism as a growth strategy Luiz Carlos Bresser-Pereira, José Luis Oreiro and Nelson Marconi 121 Institutional Innovation and Change in Value Chain Development Negotiating tradition, power and fragility in Afghanistan Holly A Ritchie 115 Industrial Innovation, Networks and Economic Development Informal information sharing in low-technology clusters in India Anant Kamath 122 China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty Towards a new long march Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya This page intentionally left blank China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty Towards a new long march Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya First published 2016 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya The right of Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Yang, Jing, 1982- author | Mukhopadhaya, Pundarik, author Title: China’s war against the many faces of poverty : towards a new long march / by Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2016 | Series: Routledge studies in development economics ; 122 Identifiers: LCCN 2015039767 | ISBN 9781138819603 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315744346 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Poverty—China | Economic development— China | China—Economic conditions | China—Economic policy Classification: LCC HC430.P6 Y344 2016 | DDC 339.4/60951—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015039767 ISBN: 978-1-138-81960-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-74434-6 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC To my parents Wanxian Yang and Fenglan Peng, husband Zhanbin Liu, children Jiayang and Mengyang —Jing Yang To Chandrama, Proteeti and Prajusha —Pundarik Mukhopadhaya This page intentionally left blank Contents List of figures List of tables Acknowledgements List of abbreviations x xii xviii xx Introduction Multidimensional poverty: concept, methodology and application 17 Income destitution in China and government attempts to combat it: an overview 65 The measurement of multidimensional poverty in China: rural–urban, regional and provincial variations 125 Trends in multidimensional poverty and the determination of key indicators in rural, urban and regional China 167 Analysis of the multidimensional poverty of migrants in comparison with rural and urban groups (2002–2010) 235 Conclusion 308 References Index 321 339 References 331 Li, S and Zhao, R 2011, ‘Market Reform and the Widening of the Income Gap’, Social Sciences in China, vol XXXII, no 2, pp 140–158 Li, Y., Wu, Q., Xu, L., Legge, D., Hao, Y., Gao, L., Ning, N and Wan, G 2012, ‘Factors Affecting Catastrophic Health Expenditure and Impoverishment from Medical Expenses in China: Policy Implications of Universal Health Insurance’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol 90, no 9, pp 664–671 Lin, W and Wong, C 2012, ‘Are Beijing’s Equalization Policies Reaching the Poor? An Analysis of Direct Subsidies Under the “Three Rurals” (Sannong)’, China Journal, no 67, pp 23–46 Lin, Y and Chen, B 2013, ‘Development Strategy, Industrial Structure and Income Distribution’, China Economic Quarterly, vol 12, no 4, pp 1109–1140 (In Chinese) Lin, Y., Cai, F and Li, Z 1998, ‘The Analysis of the Regional Disparities During the Period of the Economic Transition in China’, Economic Research Journal, no 6, pp 3–10 (In Chinese) Lin, Y., Cai, F and Li, Z 1999, The Chinese Miracle: Development Strategy and Economic Reform Shanghai: Shanghai Joint Publishing Corporation and Shanghai People’s Publishing House (In Chinese) Lin, Y and Liu, P 2003, ‘Chinese Development Strategy and Economic Convergence’, Economic Research Journal, no 3, pp 19–25 (In Chinese) Lindelow, M and Wagstaff, A 2005, ‘Health Shocks in China: Are the Poor and Uninsured Less Protected’, World Bank Research Papers, No WPS 3740 Lipton, M and Zhang, Q 2007, ‘Reducing Inequality and Poverty During Liberalisation in China: Rural and Agricultural Experiences and Policy Options’, PRUS Working Paper No 37 Liu, X and Yin, X 2008, ‘Spatial Externalities and Regional Wage Differences: A Dynamic Panel Data Study’, China Economic Quarterly, vol 8, no 1, pp 77–98 (In Chinese) Liu, Y 2004, ‘Development of the Rural Health Insurance System in China’, Health Policy and Planning, vol 19, no 3, pp 159–165 Liu, Y., Rao, K., and Hsiao, W.C 2003, ‘Medical Expenditure and Rural Impoverishment in China’, Health Population and Nutrition, vol 21, no 3, pp 216–222 Lu, C 2010, ‘Who Is Poor in China? A Comparison of Alternative Approaches to Poverty Assessment in Rural Yunnan’, The Journal of Peasant Studies, vol 37, no 2, pp 407–428 Luo, C 2010, ‘Poverty Dynamics in Rural China’, Economic Research Journal, no 5, pp 123–138 (In Chinese) Ma, X., Zhang, J., Meessen, B., Decoster, K., Tang, X., Yang, Y and Ren, X 2011, ‘Social Health Assistance Schemes: The Case of Medical Financial Assistance for the Rural Poor in Four Counties of China’, International Journal of Equity Health, vol 10, p 44 Mascherini, M and Hoskins, B 2008, ‘Retrieving Expert Opinion on Weights for the Active Citizenship Composite Indicator’, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen – EUR JRC46303 EN McGillivray, M and White, H 1993, ‘Measuring Development? The UNDP’s Human Development Index’, Journal of International Development, vol 5, no 2, pp 183–192 Mehta, A 2003, ‘Multidimensional Poverty in India: District Level Estimates’, Chronic Poverty Research Centre Working Paper 332 References Meng, L 2013, ‘Evaluating China’s Poverty Alleviation Program: A Regression Discontinuity Approach’, Journal of Public Economics, vol 101, pp 1–11 Miceh, D 2006, ‘Multidimensional and Fuzzy Poverty in Switzerland’ In Fuzzy Set Approach to Multidimensional Poverty Measurement, Springer, pp 195–210 Mitra, S 2013, ‘Towards a Multidimensional Measure of Governance’, Social Indicators Research, vol 112, no 2, pp 477–496 Mitra, S., Posarac, A and Vick, B 2013, ‘Disability and Poverty in Developing Countries: A Multidimensional Study’, World Development, vol 41, pp 1–18 Mohanty, S 2011, ‘Multidimensional Poverty and the State of Child Health in India’ Moldan, B and Billharz, S 1997, Indicators of Sustainable Development Chichester: John Wiley Molnar, M., Panduru, F., Vasile, A and Duma, V 2006, ‘Multidimensional Fuzzy Set Approach Poverty Estimates in Romania’ In Fuzzy Set Approach to Multidimensional Poverty Measurement Springer, pp 175–194 Montalvo, J.G and Ravallion, M 2010, ‘The Pattern of Growth and Poverty Reduction in China’, Journal of Comparative Economics, vol 38, no 1, pp 2–16 Mukherjee, N 1997, Participatory Appraisal of Natural Resources New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company Mukherjee, N 1999, Consultations with the Poor in Indonesia: Country Synthesis Report World Bank Indonesia Murphy, K M and Topel, R H 2006, ‘The Value of Health and Longevity’, Journal of Political Economy, vol 114, no 5, pp 871–904 Mussard, S and Pi Alperin, M.N 2008, ‘Inequalities in Multidimensional Poverty: Evidence from Argentina’, Applied Economics Letters, vol 15, no 10, pp 759–765 Myers, D.G and Diener, E 1995, ‘Who Is Happy? Summary’ In Ackerman et al (eds.), pp 174–177 Ningaye, P., Ndjanyou, L and Saakou, G.M 2011’, Multidimensional Poverty in Cameroon: Determinants and Spatial Distribution’, African Economic Research Consortium Njong, A.M and Ningaye, P 2008, ‘Characterizing Weights in the Measurement of Multidimensional Poverty: An Application of Data-Driven Approaches to Cameroonian Data’, Retrieved from Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI-wp21 pdf Nordhaus, W and Tobin, J 1971, Is Growth Obsolete? Cowles Foundation Discussion Papers 319 USA: Cowles Foundation, Yale University Notten, G 2008, Multidimensional Poverty in the Republic of Congo: Being Poor Simultaneously in Many Ways BWPI, The University of Manchester Nussbaum, M 2003, ‘Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements: Sen and Social Justice’, Feminist Economics, vol 9, no 2/3, pp 33–59 Nussbaum, M.C 2000, Women and Human Development Cambridge: Cambridge University Press OECD 2008, Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and User Guide Joint Research Centre-European Commission OECD Publishing Outline for Development-oriented Poverty Reduction for China’s Rural Areas (2011–2020) Oyekale, T., Okunmadewa, F., Omonona, B and Oni, O 2009, ‘Fuzzy Set Approach to Multidimensional Poverty Decomposition in Rural Nigeria’, The IUP Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol 6, no 3–4, pp 7–44 References 333 Panday, P.K 2008, ‘The Extent of Adequacies of Poverty Alleviation Strategies: Hong Kong and China Perspectives’, Journal of Comparative Social Welfare, vol 24, no 2, pp 179–189 Panek, T 2006, ‘Multidimensional Fuzzy Relative Poverty Dynamic Measures in Poland’ In Fuzzy Set Approach to Multidimensional Poverty Measurement, Springer, pp 233–255 Park, A and Wang, S 2001, ‘China’s Poverty Statistics’, China Economic Review, vol 12, no 4, pp 384–398 Park, A and Wang, S 2010, ‘Community-Based Development and Poverty Alleviation: An Evaluation of China’s Poor Village Investment Program’, Journal of Public Economics, vol 94, no 9, pp 790–799 Park, A., Wang, S and Wu, G 2002, ‘Regional Poverty Targeting in China’, Journal of Public Economics, vol 86, no 1, pp 123–153 Poncet, S 2006, ‘Provincial Migration Dynamics in China: Borders, Costs and Economic Motivations’, Regional Science and Urban Economics, vol 36, no 3, pp 385–398 Puentes, E and Abufhele, A 2011, Poverty Transitions: Evidence for Income and Multidimensional Indicators Qi, D and Wu, Y 2014, ‘Child Poverty in China-A Multidimensional Deprivation Approach’, Child Indicators Research, vol 7, no 1, pp 89–118 Raftopoulos, B 2001, ‘The state and poverty reduction in Zimbabwe, 1980–1997’ In F Wilson, N Kanji and E Braathen (eds.), Poverty Reduction: What Role for the State in Today’s Globalized Economy? Comparative Research on Poverty (CROP) Program/Zed Books, London, pp 196–217 Ramos, X and Silber, J 2005, ‘On the Application of Efficiency Analysis to the Study of the Dimensions of Human Development’, Review of Income and Wealth, vol 51, no 2, pp 285–309 Ramsay, M 1992, Human Needs and the Market Aldershot, UK: Avebury Ranis, G., Stewart, F and Samman, E 2006, ‘Human Development: Beyond the Human Development Index’, Journal of Human Development, vol 7, no 3, pp 323–358 Ravallion, M 1998, ‘Poverty Lines in Theory and Practice’, LSMS Working Paper Ravallion, M 2007, ‘Geographic Inequity in a Decentralized Anti-Poverty Program: A Case Study of China’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No 4303 Ravallion, M 2009a, ‘Decentralizing Eligibility for a Federal Antipoverty Program: A Case Study for China’, World Bank Economic Review, vol 23, no 1, pp 1–30 Ravallion, M 2009b, ‘How Relevant Is Targeting to the Success of the Antipoverty Program?’, World Bank Research Observer, vol 24, pp 205–231 Ravallion, M 2011, ‘A Comparative Perspective on Poverty Reduction in Brazil, China, and India’, The World Bank Research Observer, vol 26, no 1, pp 71–104 Ravallion, M and Chen, S 2005, ‘Hidden Impact? Household Saving in Response to a Poor-Area Development Project’, Journal of Public Economics, vol 89, no 11, pp 2183–2204 Ravallion, M and Chen, S 2007, ‘China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Pover ty’, Journal of Development Economics, vol 82, no 1, pp 1–42 Ray, R and Mishra, A 2012, ‘Multi-Dimensional Deprivation in the Awakening Giants: A Comparison of China and India on Micro Data’, Journal of Asian Economics, vol 23, no 4, pp 454–465 334 References Rippin, N 2012a, ‘Distributional Justice and Efficiency: Integrating Inequality Within and Between Dimensions in Additive Poverty Indices’, Courant Research Centre: Poverty, Equity and Growth-Discussion Papers Rippin, N 2012b, ‘Integrating Inter-and Intra-Personal Inequality in Additive Poverty Indices’, 32nd IARIW Conference, Boston Rippin, N 2012c, ‘Operationalising the Capability Approach: A German Correlation Sensitive Poverty Index’, Courant Research Centre: Poverty, Equity and GrowthDiscussion Papers Robeyns, I 2002, ‘Sen’s Capability Approach and Gender Inequality’, Conference Proceeding-Promoting Woman’s Capabilities: Examining Nussbaum’s Capabilities Approach, 9–10 September 2002, St Edmund’s College Cambridge Robeyns, I and van der Veen, R.J 2007, Sustainable Quality of Life: Conceptual Analysis for a Policy-Relevant Empirical Specification Bilthoven and Amsterdam: Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency and University of Amsterdam Robinson, J 1979, Aspects of Development and Underdevelopment New York: Cambridge University Press Roche, J.M 2008, ‘Monitoring Inequality among Social Groups: A Methodology Combining Fuzzy Set Theory and Principal Component Analysis 1’, Journal of Human Development, vol 9, no 3, pp 427–452 Roche, J.M and Santos, M.E 2012, ‘In Search of a Multidimensional Poverty Index for Latin America’ Rowntree, B.S 1901, Poverty: A Study of Town Life Macmillan Saboor, A 2013, ‘Multidimensional Poverty in Pakistan: Regional Variations and Temporal Shifts’ Sagli, G., Zhang, J., Ingstad, B and Fjeld, H.E 2013, ‘Poverty and Disabled Households in the People’s Republic of China: Experiences With a New Rural Health Insurance Scheme’, Disability and Society, vol 28, no 2, pp 218–231 Saisana, M., Saltelli, A and Tarantola, S 2005, ‘Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis Techniques as Tools for the Quality Assessment of Composite Indicators’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), vol 168, no 2, pp 307–323 Saith, A 2003, Social Protection as Social Investment: Reflections on the Micro-Macro Inter face in Chinese Policy Options Unpublished manuscript London: The Hague Salahuddin, T and Zaman, A 2012a, ‘Multidimensional Poverty Measurement in Pakistan: Time Series Trends and Breakdown’, The Pakistan Development Review, vol 51, no 4-II, pp 493–504 Salahuddin, T and Zaman, A 2012b, ‘Multidimensional Poverty Measurement in Pakistan: Time Series Trends and Breakdown’, 28th AGM Conference Papers Schischka, J., Dalziel, P and Saunders, C 2008 ‘Applying Sen’s Capabilities Approach to Poverty Alleviation Programs’ Journal of Human Development, vol 9, pp 229–246 Sen, A 1980, ‘Equality of What?’ In Sterling M McMurrin (ed.), The Tanner Lectures on Human Value Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, pp 195–220 Sen, A 1983, ‘Poor, Relatively Speaking’, Oxford Economic Papers, pp 153–169 Sen, A 1989, The Standard of Living Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Sen, A 1992, Inequality Reexamined Oxford: Oxford University Press Sen, A 1993, ‘Capability and Well-Being’ In M Nussbaum and A Sen (eds.), The Quality of Life Oxford: Clarendon Press Sen, A 1999, Development as Freedom (1st ed.) New York: Knopf Press References 335 Sen, A 2004a, ‘Capabilities, Lists, and Public Reason: Continuing the Conversation’, Feminist Economics, vol 10, no 3, pp 77–80 Sen, A 2004b, ‘Elements of a Theory of Human Rights’, Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol 234, pp 315–356 Sen, A.K 1979b, Equality of What? Tanner Lecture on Human Values, Stanford University www.tannerlectures.utah.edu Sen, A.K 1984, Resources, Values and Development Oxford: Basil Blackwell Sen, B 1995, ‘Rural Poverty Trends: 1963–64 to 1983–90’ In Z.R Hossain and M Hossain (eds.), Rethinking Rural Poverty: Bangladesh as a Case Study New York: Sage Publication Seth, S and Alkire, S 2014, ‘Measuring and Decomposing Inequality Among the Multidimensionally Poor Using Ordinal Data: A Counting Approach’, OPHI Working Paper Shen, G and Song, F 2011, ‘Effect of FDI on China’s Income Distribution and Countermeasures: An Empirical Research on Multidimensional Variable’, World Economy Study, no 10, pp 69–73 (In Chinese) Shirvanian, A and Bakhshoodeh, M 2012, ‘Investigating Poverty in Rural Iran: The Multidimensional Poverty Approach’, Agricultural Sciences, vol 3, no 5, pp 640–650 Sicular, T., Ximing, Y., Gustafsson, B and Li, S 2007, ‘The Urban–Rural Income Gap and Inequality in China’, Review of Income and Wealth, vol 53, no 1, pp 93–126 Sicular, T., Ximing, Y., Gustafsson, B and Li, S 2010, ‘How Large Is China’s Rural-Urban Income Gap?’ In M.K Whyte (ed.), One Country, Two Societies Rural-Urban Inequality in Contemporary China Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp 85–104 Silber, J 2007, ‘Measuring Poverty: Taking a Multidimensional Perspective’, Hacienda Pública Española, no 182, pp 29–74 Silber, J and Yalonetzky, G 2015, ‘Measuring Multidimensional Deprivation With Dichotomized and Ordinal Variables’ In Betti and Lemmi (eds.), Multidimensional Poverty Part I Routledge Song, Y 2012, ‘Poverty Reduction in China: The Contribution of Popularizing Primary Education’, China and World Economy, vol 20, no 1, pp 105–122 Sun, X., Sleigh, A.C., Carmichael, G.A and Jackson, S 2010, ‘Health PaymentInduced Poverty Under China’s New Cooperative Medical Scheme in Rural Shandong’, Health Policy and Planning, vol 25, no 5, pp 419–426 Sun, X., Tian, G., Pan, Y Zhang, Z and Zhang, W 2012, ‘Research on Rural Poverty Measurement in China: Based the Data of Shanxi Province’, On Economic Problems, vol 4, pp 79–84 (In Chinese) Swanson, B.E 2006, ‘Extension Strategies for Poverty Alleviation: Lessons from China and India’, Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, vol 12, no 4, pp 285–299 Taylor, J.E., Rozelle, S and De Brauw, A 2003, ‘Migration and Incomes in Source Communities: A New Economics of Migration Perspective from China’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol 52, no 1, pp 75–101 Taylor, J.G and Li, X 2012, ‘China’s Changing Poverty: A Middle Income Country Case Study’, Journal of International Development, vol 24, no 6, pp 696–713 Thorbecke, E 2007, ‘Multidimensional Poverty: Conceptual and Measurement Issues’ In N Kakwani and J Silber (eds.), The Many Dimensions of Poverty New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp 3–19 336 References Tian, W., Wang, X and Ke, F 2003, ‘The Poverty Alleviation Role of Agriculture in China’, Roles of Agriculture Project, FAO Tilly, C 2006, The Politics of Exclusion Paper produced for the World Bank ‘Moving out of Poverty’ project Townsend, P 1979, Poverty in the United Kingdom London: Harmondsworth, Penguin Tsui, K 2002, ‘Multidimensional Poverty Indices’, Social Choice and Welfare, vol 19, no 1, pp 69–93 UN 2014, ‘The Millennium Development Goals Report 2014’ http://www un.org/millenniumgoals/reports.shtml UNDP 1990, World Development Report Oxford University Press UNDP, 2003, ‘Poverty Reduction and Human Rights: A Practice Note’, UNDP Publication, pp 1–15 United Nations 2003, Indicators for Monitoring the Millennium Development Goals New York Vero, J 2006, ‘A Comparison of Poverty According to Primary Goods, Capabilities and Outcomes Evidence from French school Leavers’ surveys’ In Fuzzy Set Approach to Multidimensional Poverty Measurement Springer, pp 211–231 Vero, J and Werquin, P 1997, ‘Reexamining the Measurement of Poverty: How Do Young People in the Stage of Being Integrated in the Labor Force Manage’, Economie et Statistique, vol 8, no 10, pp 143–156 Vijay, R., Lahoti, R and Swaminathan, H 2013, ‘Moving from the Household to the Individual: Multidimensional Poverty Analysis’, IIM Bangalore Research Paper No 404 Vinson, T 2007, Dropping Off the Edge: The Distribution of Disadvantage in Australia, Richmond, Jesuit Social Services/ Catholic Social Services Australia Wagle, U 2005, ‘Multidimensional Poverty Measurement with Economic Well-being, Capability, and Social Inclusion: A Case from Kathmandu, Nepal’, Journal of Human Development, vol 6, no 3, pp 301–328 Wagle, U 2008, Multidimensional Poverty Measurement: Concepts and Applications New York: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Wan, G 2013, ‘The Urbanization- Inequality Nexus: Method and Application to China’, Economic Research Journal, no 5, pp 73–86 (In Chinese) Wan, H and Li, S 2013, ‘The Effects of Household Registration System Discrimination on Urban-Rural Income Inequality in China’, Economic Research Journal, no 9, pp 43–55 (In Chinese) Wang, D 2014, ‘The Ef fect of Labor Market Segmentation on Regional Economic Development and Regional Income Disparity’, Zhejiang Social Science, no 11, pp 4–12 (In Chinese) Wang, H., Yip, W., Zhang, L., Wang, L and Hsiao, W 2005, ‘Community-Based Health Insurance in Poor Rural China: The Distribution of Net Benefits’, Health Policy and Planning, vol 20, no 6, pp 366–374 Wang, L., Li, X., Wang, W and Zhou, G 2010, Fiscal Policy, Regional Disparity and Poverty in China: A General Equilibrium Approach PEP-MPIA Wang, S 2005, ‘Poverty Targeting in the People’s Republic of China’ In J Weiss (ed.), Poverty Targeting in Asia Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Wang, M 2007, ‘Emerging Urban Poverty and Effects of the Dibao Program on Alleviating Poverty in China’, China and World Economy, vol 15, no 2, pp 74–88 References 337 Wang, S., Li, Z and Ren, Y 2004, ‘The 8–7 National Poverty Reduction Program in China – The National Strategy and Its Impact’, Presented in Shanghai, 25–27 May 2004 Wang, S and Wang, X 2013, ‘Measurement of Multidimensional Poverty in China’, China Agricultural University Journal of Social Sciences Edition, vol 30, no 2, pp 129–136 (In Chinese) Wang, X 2006, ‘Market Potential, Externalities and Regional Wage Inequality of China’, South China Journal of Economics, no 8, pp 46–54 (In Chinese) Wang, X and Alkire, S 2009, ‘Chinese Multidimensional Poverty Measurement: Estimation and Policy Implications’, China Rural Economy, vol 12, pp 4–23 (In Chinese) Wang, X and Fan, G 2005, ‘Income Inequality in China and Its Influential Factors’, Economic Research Journal, no 10, pp 24–36 (In Chinese) Watson, A 2012, ‘Building Social Welfare in China: Providing Retirement Incomes in a Transforming Economy’ In H Mckay and L Song (eds.), Rebalancing and Sustaining Growth in China Australian National University Press Whelan, C.T., Layte, R and Mtre, B 2004, ‘Understanding the Mismatch Between Income Poverty and Deprivation: A Dynamic Comparative Analysis’, European Sociological Review, pp 287–302 White, S and Petit, J 2004, ‘Participatory Approaches and the Measurement of Human Well-Being, WeD Working Paper 8’, Bath Well-being in Developing Countries (WeD) Research Group World Bank 2015, World Bank Group; International Monetary Fund 2015 Global Monitoring Report 2014/2015: Ending Poverty and Sharing Prosperity Washington, DC: World Bank Group © World Bank https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/20330 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO Wu, F., Zhang, D and Zhang, J 2008, ‘Unequal Education, Poverty and Low Growth – A Theoretical Framework for Rural Education of China’, Economic Education Review, vol 27, pp 308–318 Yan, D and Hua, F 2004, ‘Infrastructure, Growth, and Poverty Reduction in China’, Presented in Scaling Up Poverty Reduction: A Global Learning Process and Conference, Shanghai, May 25–27, 2004 Yang, J and Mukhopadhaya, P forthcoming, ‘The Pattern of Urban–Rural Disparities in Multidimensional Poverty in the PRC: 2000–2011’ In Internal Migration, Urbanisation and Poverty in Asia: Dynamics and Interrelationships Heidelberg: Springer, Chapter 10 Yang, P 2010, ‘Who Gets More Financial Aid in China? A Multilevel Analysis’, International Journal of Educational Development, vol 30, pp 560–569 Yang, Y., Williamson, J.B and Shen, C 2010, ‘Social Security for China’s Rural Aged: A Proposal Based on a Universal Non-Contributory Pension’, International Journal of Social Welfare, vol 19, no 2, pp 236–245 Yao, S 2000, ‘Economic Development and Poverty Reduction in China Over 20 Years of Reforms’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol 48, no 3, pp 447–474 Yao, S., Zhang, Z and Hanmer, L 2004, ‘Growing Inequality and Poverty in China’, China Economic Review, vol 15, no 2, pp 145–163 Yip, W and Hsiao, W.C 2009, ‘Non-Evidence-Based Policy: How Effective Is China’s New Cooperative Medical Scheme in Reducing Medical Impoverishment?’, Social Science and Medicine, vol 68, no 2, pp 201–209 338 References York and Geneva: United Nations Development Programme and International Labour Organization Younger, S.D 2003, ‘Growth and Poverty Reduction in Uganda, 1992–1999: A Multidimensional Analysis of Changes in Living Standards’, Cornell Food and Nutrition Policy Program Working Paper No 151 Yu, J 2013, ‘Multidimensional Poverty in China: Findings Based on the CHNS’, Social Indicators Research, vol 112, no 2, pp 315–336 Zhang, H 2009, ‘Poverty and Politics The Evolution of Minimum Living Standard Guarantee System in China in the Period of Transition’, Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, vol 19, no 2, pp 5–20 Zhang, L., Huang, J and Rozelle, S 2003, ‘China’s War on Poverty: Assessing Targeting and the Growth Impacts of Poverty Programs’, Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, vol 1, no 3, pp 301–317 Zhang, Q and Zhou, Q 2014, ‘The Dynamic Measurement of the Multidimensional Poverty During the Transition Period of China’, Journal of Zhongnan University of Economic and Law, no 1, pp 60–68 (In Chinese) Zhang, Q., Zhou, Q and Jiang, Y 2014, ‘On the Dynamic Multidimensional Measurement of China’s Poverty in Different Provinces – The CHNS Data Among Nine Provinces’, Journal of Guizhou College of Finance and Economics, no 1, pp 98–105 (In Chinese) Zhang, T and Zhao, M 2006, ‘Universalizing Nine-year Compulsory Education for Poverty Reduction in Rural China’, International Review of Education, vol 52, no 3–4, pp 261–286 Zhang, Y and Wan, G 2006, ‘The Impact of Growth and Inequality on Rural Poverty in China’, Journal of Comparative Economics, vol 34, no 4, pp 694–712 Zhao, H., Zhang, H and Cao, S 2014, ‘Unexpected Results from China’s Agricultural Subsidies Policy’, Society and Natural Resources, vol 27, no 4, pp 451–457 Zhao, R and Li, S 1999, ‘The Analysis of Increase in Household Income Inequality in China’ In R Zhao, S Li and C Riskin (eds.), Re-Thinking Chinese Household Income Distribution Beijing: Financial and Economic Press of China, pp 42–71 Zhou, H., Xiao, W and Yao, X 2010, ‘China’s Unbalanced Economic Growth and National Income Distribution’, China Industrial Economics, no 6, pp 35–45 (In Chinese) Zhou, L and Wang, X 2013, ‘The Urban Poverty in China: From the Multidimensional Perspective’, IPRCC Working Paper (In Chinese) Zhu, L 2007, ‘Effects of Rural Medical Financial Assistance in China’, China and World Economy, vol 15, no 2, pp 16–28 Zhu, N and Luo, X 2010, ‘The Impact of Migration on Rural Poverty and Inequality: A Case Study in China’, Agricultural Economics, vol 41, no 2, pp 191–204 Zhu, Y 2012, ‘Social Protection in Rural China: Recent Developments and Prospects’, Journal of Policy Practice, vol 11, no 1–2, pp 42–58 Zou, W and Fang, Y 2011, ‘A Study on the Dynamic Multidimensional Measurement of China’s Poverty’, Chinese Journal of Population Science, vol 6, pp 49–59 (In Chinese) Zou, W., Zhang, F., Zhuang, Z and Song, H 2008, ‘Transport Infrastructure, Growth and Poverty Alleviation: Empirical Analysis of China’, Annals of Economics and Finance, vol Index absolute poverty 65, 78, 108: contribution of dimensions 179–81; contributions of indicators 181–3; multidimensional poverty trends 174–5, 176; trends in 174–83 adjusted poverty gap 43, 62n33 adjusted squared poverty gap 43, 62n33 AF (Alkire-Foster) approach 42, 167, 231n6, 232n24, 232n26, 310; Central region 298; contribution of indicators 181–3, 250, 251, 264–6, 289, 290–1; deprivation in indicators 261–3, 274– 6; diversity in 210, 212–15, 261–3, 286–7, 288; Eastern region 297; empirical poverty estimates 43–50; employed urban vs migrant groups 280, 282–3, 284; literature 222–7, 229–30; multidimensional poverty calculation 55–8; multidimensional poverty measurement 26, 29–31, 35–41; regional diversity in trends of poverty 250, 252, 253; rural and urban contributions to total poverty 261; rural migrant disparities by region 279–80; rural poverty 199–200; rural-urban ratio of multidimensional poverty index 209; rural vs migrant groups 270–1, 272, 273, 276–8; rural vs urban poverty 201–2; test of robustness 195–7; TFR (totally fuzzy and relative) method vs 186–9; trends in deprivation 188–9, 248–50; trends in poverty of migrants 247–53; urban-migrant disparities at regional level 289, 292, 293; urban poverty 200–201; urban-rural disparities 268; urban vs rural groups 257–9, 260; weights 190–3, 195; Western region 299 aggregative strategy 26 agricultural income: policies to increase 97–9, 115 ALEP (Aupspitz, Lieben, Edgeworth and Pareto) approach 24, 61n12 Asian Development Bank (ADB) 65, 76, 91, 172–3, 231n10; measurement of poverty 67, 70; poverty line 70; poverty measurement by 67, 70 Australian National University (ANU) 235, 236 axiomatic approach 26, 36, 38, 44 Basic Medical Insurance System for Urban Residents 100–101, 118, 151, 178, 201, 203 Beijing Normal University (BNU) 235, 236 body mass index (BMI) 40, 173, 228 BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) 313, 315, 317 capabilities 1–2 capability approach (CA) 10, 19–20, 21, 42, 45, 89, 146, 308; indicators of 46 capability well-being 45, 46 China: anti-poverty funding 95; Asian Development Bank (ADB) data 67, 70; best and worst performer in poverty reduction 229–30; causes of provincial and regional disparity 7–9; dataset coverage 169, 235–47, 309–10; development indicators 68–9; development stages 3–4, 13; development strategies 4–7; dimensions and indicators of datasets 310–12; economic openness 6; ethnic groups 122n12; government reports 71, 76, 78, 80–1; headcount ratio 340 Index 78, 79, 82–5; household contract responsibility system 5; literature 81–6, 89–90; migrant situation 9–10; Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Report 70–1, 72–5, 76; policy suggestions 314–15; population 78, 79; poverty-alleviation strategies 90–1; poverty at regional level 80–1; poverty at urban level 81; poverty trends in 65–91; provinces 126, 127, 167, 169; reform of stateowned enterprises 5–6; regions by ranks of investment 124; relaxation of Hukou 9–10; rural development 80; rural poverty line 78, 79; rural poverty-reduction evolution 77; urbanization 6–7; World Bank data 65–7; see also government policies; provinces China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) 11, 24; dataset 125–6, 167, 262, 309–10; dimensions 24, 126, 311; distribution of samples in 127; indicators 173, 176, 311; multidimensional poverty 312–13; poverty cut-off 319n3; social insurance 130 China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) 11, 84, 86, 89, 132, 153, 158, 256; dataset 167, 170, 173, 214, 220, 231n2, 309–10; dimensions 24, 311; indicators 311; literature 220–2; multidimensional poverty 312–13; poverty cut-off 319n3; surveys 169, 183 China Household Income Project Survey (CHIP) 11, 85, 295n4; datasets 309–11; dimensions 24, 311; indicators 311; multidimensional poverty 247, 312–13; pension insurance 245; poverty cut-off 319n3; reasons for using RUMiC and CHIP data 236–7; relationship between RUMiC and, datasets 235–6 China Institute for Income Distribution (CIID) 236, 295n4 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) 82, 83, 236, 296n17 Communist Party of China (CPC) 231n3, 231n5; Agricultural Conference 4, 5; Central Committee 3–4, 93, 97, 103 constant relative risk aversion (CRRA) 67 countries: government expenditure on education 315–16; public expenditure on health 317–18 cut-off 122n13, 128, 170, 242, 250, 264; deprivation 29, 241, 242; dual cut-off approach 26, 29, 125, 167, 170, 310; poverty 29–30, 70, 89, 131–2, 149, 164–5, 174–5, 187–8, 190, 231n9–10, 232n24, 247, 270, 312, 319n3 data-driven weights 130, 232n28; see also weights Deng Xiaoping 3, 13 Department for International Development (DFID) model 19, 63n36 deprivation: cut-off 29, 241, 242; migrant dimensional poverty of migrants 286–9; trend in migrants 248–50; trend of 176–9, 186, 188–9 developing countries: multidimensional poverty 34–41 Development-oriented Poverty Alleviation Strategy 90, 92–3, 97, 159 Dewdrop Project 94, 165 Dibao (Minimum Income Guarantee) 81, 104, 108, 110, 122n17, 123n24, 123n28, 130, 153 disposable income: urban and rural 15 double-track system 3, 4, 13 drinking water: safe 103, 113, 119; see also standard of living dual cut-off approach 26, 29, 125, 167, 170, 310; see also AF (Alkire-Foster) approach economic openness 3, 4, 6, 8, 13 education 23, 24; AF approach 182; categories in datasets 243–4; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 178; dimension 128–9; eigenvalues 51; government expenditure on 315–16; government policies 99–100; headcount ratios 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 170, 174, 184, 208; literature 87; membership functions 59, 184, 241; policies 116; TFR approach 187; weights 49, 52, 131, 147, 174 electricity 24, 42: datasets 311; dimension 126; indicator 128–9, 131, 147, 150, 152, 154, 159, 171–4, 177, 180, 182, 187, 203, 208; Index headcount ratio 204–7; infrastructure policies 102–3; literature 88; membership function 184; ranks by region 124; rural development 80; statistics of 119; weights 190; see also standard of living environmental well-being 45 European Community Household Panel (ECHP) 18 expert opinion weights 25, 61n14 FGT (Foster-Greer-Thorbecke) index 26, 36, 38, 43; estimation by World Bank 65, 66; Shapley decomposition 54; unidimensional poverty 53–4 foreign direct investment (FDI) 3, 6, 13 Friedman test 142 fuzzy approach 34–9; empirical estimates of poverty 44; multidimensional poverty 31–3 Gini coefficient/index 7, 11n2, 14, 44, 321n13 global poverty 2–3, 12 government policies 91–110; education 99–100; health insurance 100–102; increasing agricultural income 97–9; infrastructure construction 102–3, 118–19; poverty-alleviation programs 92–7; public expenditure on poverty 109–10; social security 104–9 health 23; eigenvalues 51; literature 87; public expenditure on 317–18; weights 49, 52 health care 4, 7, 18, 22, 24, 42, 61n10; AF approach 182; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 178–9; dimension 128, 129; headcount ratio 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 171, 174, 180, 184; membership functions 60, 184; TFR approach 187; weights 131, 147, 174 health insurance: government policies 100–102; policies of 117–18 highway 102: statistics of rural 118 HIV/AIDS 20, 46, 71, 112 household contract responsibility system 3, 4, 5, 13, 71, 90, 121–2n7 Hukou (household registration system) 7–8; relaxation of 9–10; urban 274, 287 human functioning 1, 10 341 Human Poverty Index 18 hybrid weights 25, 26, 36, 39, 130 income 24; AF approach 182; correlation 149; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 178; dimension 126, 128; eigenvalues 51; headcount ratio 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 170, 174, 184, 208; membership functions 59, 184, 241; literature 87; migrants 16; policies to increase agricultural 97–9, 115; TFR approach 187; weights 49, 52, 131, 174 income gap: causes of provincial and regional disparity 7–9 income well-being 23 infrastructure construction: government policies 102–3; policies of 118–19 Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) 235, 236, 295n2 Institute of Social Science Survey of Peking University (ISSS) 125 International Poverty Reduction Centre in China (IPRCC) 164 intersection 27–9, 56, 62n19, 131, 132 investments: Chinese regions by rank 124 item-by-item analysis approach 26, 35–6, 38, 61n18 Kendall’s correlation coefficient 141, 142, 146, 147, 195–6, 197–8 Land Management Law Law of Foreign Trade Leading Group of Poverty Alleviation and Development 77, 92, 93, 96 literature: Chinese poverty measurement 81–7, 89–90; comparing multidimensional poverty trend results 220–1, 222–8, 229–30; dimensions 87–8; multidimensional poverty in developing countries 34–41; poverty headcount ratios 82–5; well-being theories 45 livelihoods 7–8, 19, 38 living standards see standard of living Medical Financial Assistance Programme 100–102 Medical Insurance System 100–101, 118, 123n26, 178, 201, 203, 274, 314 342 Index membership function 62n26, 296n11–12; adjusted 232n19; AF approach 241, 255; education 59, 184, 241; fuzzy approach 32–3; health 60, 184; income 59, 184, 241; standard of living 60, 184; TFR approach 183, 185, 188, 241, 242, 245 methane 103: statistics of 119 methodology: poverty 10–11 migrants: statistics 16 Millennium Declaration 70, 111–14, 121n3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2, 20, 21, 22–4, 46, 165n1; achievement 72–5; measurement 70–1; indicators 111–14; progress in China 76, 103 Minimum Income Guarantee (Dibao) 81, 104, 108, 110, 120, 122n17, 123n24, 123n28, 130, 153 Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) 82, 98 monetary poverty 17–18, 34, 86, 89–90, 173 multidimensional poverty 17–18; AF approach 29–31; AF method calculation 55–8; dimensions 19–20, 21, 23–5; fuzzy approach 31–3; measurement of 26–33; notations for 27–9; results with varying weights 189–95; rural-urban-migrant disparity 314; social exclusion (SE) approach 19; sources of dimensions 21, 22; TFR method calculation 59–60; weights 25–6 Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 20, 41–3, 62n32, 126, 129–30, 146, 173, 310 multidimensional poverty measurements: AF vs TFR approaches 186–9; Central region 301, 304, 306; China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) dataset 125–6, 127; choice of dimension and weight 33, 42–3; choice of dimensions and indicators 126, 128–30; decomposition of poverty 149–54; dimensions, indicators and cut-offs 128; diversity among provinces 154–9, 160–3; Eastern region 300, 303, 305; empirical applications of 33–44; estimates using AF approach 43; estimation with varying weights 130–41; evaluation of povertyalleviation strategies 159, 164; examination of individual dimensions 149–54; literature 34–41; studies using fuzzy approach 44; test of robustness 141–9; trends in 174–5, 176; Western region 302, 304, 307 multidimensional poverty of migrants 235, 292–5; AF approach 247–53, 257–60, 261–3, 264–6, 270–3, 274–6, 280, 282–3, 286–7, 289, 290–1; data description 237–41; datasets of RUMiC and CHIP surveys 235–47; education 241, 243–4; employed urban vs migrant groups 280–92; health insurance 242, 245; health status 241, 242, 245; income 241, 242; pension insurance 242, 245; rural vs migrant groups 270–80; selected indicators 241–7; TFR approach 254–6, 260–1, 263–4, 267, 271, 273, 276, 278, 283, 285, 287–9; trends in national 247–56; urban vs rural groups 256–70; work status 242, 245, 246 multidimensional poverty trends: absolute poverty 174–83; AF approach 186–9, 190–3; AF approach diversity 210, 212–15; dimensions, indicators and weights 170–4; diversity between provinces 210, 212–20; literature 220–30; national 247–56; rural trends 199–200; rural vs urban poverty 199–210; test of robustness 195–8; TFR and AF comparison 186–9, 194–5; TFR approach 183–6, 193–4; TFR approach diversity 215, 217–19; urban trends 200–201 multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) 43, 61n18, 62n30 multivariate statistical approach 26, 34–5, 37–41, 61n18 National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBS) 7, 11n2, 14, 16, 78–80, 82, 108, 122n10, 122n12, 235–6, 295n1, 296n16 national inequality: provincial and regional causes 7–9 National New Urbanization Plan 2014–2020, 4, 7, 122n11 national poverty: decomposition by province 156; estimation 137–41; indicators contributing 154, 155; provincial contributions 157 Index 343 objective well-being 45 OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) 24, 113, 313, 315, 317 Outline for Poverty Alleviation and Development of China’s Rural Areas (2001–2010) 22–4, 92, 93–4, 122n12, 128–30 principal component analysis (PCA) 26, 43–4, 50, 61n18, 62n30, 63n37, 130, 189, 225–6, 310 provinces 296n22; AF approach 210, 212–15; best and worst performer in poverty reduction 229–30; China 126, 127; datasets 169, 309–10; diversity between 154, 156–9, 210, 212–20; financial fund of poverty reduction 164–5; major indicators of poverty 160–3; multidimensional poverty and ranking 148; national poverty 157; pairwise comparisons 166n12–13; rank changes 145–6; ranking across weights 143–4, 145; rural poverty 158; sample distribution 127; size of sample households 168; TFR approach 215, 217–19; urban poverty 157 provincial poverty: comparing urban, rural and total, by region 135–6; contribution of indicators 219–20; estimation 134, 135–6 public expenditure: effectiveness on poverty 109–10; health 317–18 purchasing power parity (PPP) 12, 72, 82–5, 111–12, 121n2 pairwise comparison: robustness 142–5, 166n12–13, 195, 197 Pearson correlation coefficient 141–2, 146, 147, 195–6, 197–8, 234n45 pension insurance system 105, 106, 121, 130, 296n22 population: migrants 16 poverty 1; methodology 10–11; monetary 17–18, 34, 86, 89–90, 173; scenario worldwide 2–3; see also multidimensional poverty poverty-alleviation programs: evaluation of strategies 159, 164; government policies 92–7 poverty cut-off 29–30, 70, 89, 131–2, 149, 164–5, 174–5, 187–8, 190, 231n9–10, 232n24, 247, 270, 312, 319n3 poverty line 2, 12, 67, 70, 172, 231n10, 231n7; purchasing power parity (PPP) 12, 72, 82–5, 111–12, 121n2 Poverty Monitoring Report of Rural China 78–81, 95 poverty trends: ADB’s measurement 67, 70; World Bank’s measurement 65, 67 regional diversity: trends of multidimensional poverty 250, 252, 253, 256 regional poverty: contribution of indicators 219–21; contribution of sub-groups to 268–70, 280, 281, 292, 294; disparity in multidimensional 314–15; multidimensional poverty of migrants 268–70; rural-migrant disparities 279–80; urban-migrant disparities 289, 292, 293; urban-rural disparities 268 research and development (R&D) 109–10, 124 Research Centre for Rural Economy of the Ministry of Agriculture of China (RCRE) 83, 85, 86 RMB (Chinese currency renminbi) Robinson, Joan robustness test: AF approach 195–7; change in dimensions 146–9; change in weights 141–6; concordance 142; correlation 141–2; pairwise comparison 141–2, 142–5, 166n12–13, 195, 197; rank changes 145–6; TFR approach 197–8 National Rural Household Survey 122n10 New Cooperative Medical Care System 77, 100–101, 129, 201; coverage of 151, 154, 314; deprivation 178, 203, 274, 278, 280; social security system 122n17; statistics of 117 New Pension Insurance for Rural Residents 104, 106, 121, 122n17, 130, 239 Nine-Year Compulsory Education Policy 99, 128, 151 “No Document” 97, 99, 103 non-aggregative strategy 26, 35, 38–40, 61n18 normative weights 25, 26, 130; datadriven weights 25; see also weights notations: multidimensional poverty 27–9 344 Index rural pension system 105–6, 109 rural poverty: comparing by region 135–6; contribution to total poverty 202–3, 209–10, 261; decomposition by province 156; estimation 132–4, 137–41; indicators 154, 155, 203–8, 210, 211; multidimensional poverty by region 137; multidimensional trends 199–200; provincial contribution 158; reduction 71, 77, 91; urban poverty and 201–8 rural-urban: contribution to total poverty 202–3, 209–10; disparity 167, 202, 204–5, 233n37, 239, 259, 261–2, 312; headcount ratios 206, 207; income gap 8; poverty 125, 141, 164, 167, 202, 204, 208–9; ratio of poverty indices 209, 258, 259, 260, 268 Rural Urban Migration in China and Indonesia (RUMiCI) 235, 295n3 Rural Urban Migration in China (RUMiC) 11, 235; reasons for using, and CHIP data 236–7; relationship between RUMiC and CHIP datasets 235–6 safe drinking water 103, 113: statistics 119; see also standard of living Sen, Amartya 1, 10, 19, 20 Seven-Year Priority Poverty Alleviation Program 92, 93 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) 100 Shapley decomposition 54 simple average index 35, 67 social exclusion (SE) approach 17, 19, 22, 24, 46–7 social inclusion 22, 24, 37, 45, 46–7 social insurance 16, 80, 106, 128, 130–1, 147, 150–5, 159, 311 social security 24, 122n17; datasets 311; dimension 128, 130; government policies 104–9; headcount ratio 152, 153; indicators 150; policies of 120–1; weights 131, 147 Southwest Poverty Reduction Project 94, 96 Spearman’s correlation coefficient 18, 142, 146, 147, 195–6, 197–8, 234n45 Standard Minimum Wage system 104, 106–9 standard of living 1, 10, 24, 42, 128, 129–30; AF approach 182; datasets 311; deprivation trend 177, 179; eigenvalues 51; headcount ratios 152, 153, 177, 180, 204, 205; indicators 131, 150, 171, 172, 174, 184, 208; membership functions 60, 184; literature 87–8; TFR approach 187; weights 49, 52, 131, 147, 174 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) 3, 4; reform of 5–6, 13, 108; urban pension system 105 subjective well-being 20, 45 Sub-Saharan Africa 2; poverty 12, 40, 43 sustainable livelihoods (SL) approach 19 TFA (totally fuzzy approach) 32 TFR (totally fuzzy and relative) approach 11, 32, 167, 231n6, 232n24, 232n26; AF (Alkire-Foster) approach and 186–9; change in poverty index 218; contribution of indicators 186, 187, 255, 267, 278–80, 289, 292; deprivation in indicators 263–4, 276; dimensions 184; diversity in 215, 217–19; diversity of deprivation in each indicator 263–4, 287, 288, 289; employed urban vs migrant groups 283, 285; health insurance 245; income per capita 241; literature 222–3, 229–30; membership function 184, 241, 242, 245; multidimensional poverty calculation 59–60; multidimensional poverty index 185; pension insurance 245; poverty index 233n36; regional diversity of multidimensional poverty 256; rural poverty 199–200; rural-urban ratio of multidimensional poverty index 209, 260; rural vs migrant groups 271, 273; rural vs urban poverty 201–2; test of robustness in 197–8; trends in deprivation 186, 188–9, 254, 255; trends of multidimensional poverty 183–6, 218, 254, 312, 254–6; urban poverty 200–201; urban vs rural groups 260–1; weighting schemes 221; weight of indicators 245, 247; weight system comparisons 189–95 trends see multidimensional poverty trends unidimensional poverty 26, 53–4 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 10, 26, 45, 310 Index United States (US) 316, 318; dollar University of Queensland (UQ) 235 urban housing: reform of system 122n11, 166n16 urbanization: China 4, 6–7, 8, 13, 122n11 urban pension system 105–6, 109, 287 urban poverty: comparing by region 135–7; comparison of rural poverty and 201–8; contribution of indicators 154, 155, 210, 211; contribution to total poverty 202–3, 209–10, 261; decomposition by province 156; estimation 132–4, 137–41; multidimensional trends 200–201; provincial contributions 157; trends of deprivation in indicators 203–8 urban-rural: disparity 199, 202, 221, 229, 235, 256, 262, 268, 270; income gap 90; inequality 109; multidimensional poverty of migrants 256–70; regional levels 268–70 Vero and Werquin Approach (VWA) 32 Watts index 41 weights: AF approach 190–3, 195; choice of 25–6, 130–1, 189; datadriven 25–6, 232n28; decomposition of poverty dimensions/indicators 345 149–54; dimensions and indicators 170, 174, 179, 181, 211; equal 25, 34–41, 42, 48, 56, 60, 130, 173, 179, 185, 189, 229, 245, 250, 310; estimation of multidimensional poverty with varying 130–41; expert opinion 25, 61n14; frequency-based 25, 34–8, 41, 42, 48–50; hybrid 25, 26, 36, 39, 130; normative 25, 26, 130; poverty results with varying 189–95, 208–10; regional multidimensional poverty 221, 229–30, 233n41–2, 233–4n43; statistical 25, 34–5, 37–41, 50–2; test of robustness 141–9; TFR approach 183, 187, 193–5, 197 well-being theories 45 work status 24, 237, 270, 295n7: datasets 246, 311; deprivation 255; headcount ratios 262–3; indicators 237–9, 242, 245, 246–7, 249–51, 255, 262, 264–5, 267 World Bank 14; development indicators 68–9; estimation of FGT index 66; global poverty 2; poverty measurement 65, 67 World Health Organization (WHO) 45, 100 World Trade Organisation (WTO) 3–4, 6, 13, 91 ...China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty measures multidimensional poverty in China and deprivation related to income, education, health issues,... information sharing in low-technology clusters in India Anant Kamath 122 China’s War against the Many Faces of Poverty Towards a new long march Jing Yang and Pundarik Mukhopadhaya This page intentionally... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Yang, Jing, 1982- author | Mukhopadhaya, Pundarik, author Title: China’s war against the many faces of poverty : towards a new long march / by Jing Yang and