US Assistance, Development, and Hierarchy in the Middle East Aid for Allies Anne Mariel Zimmermann US Assistance, Development, and Hierarchy in the Middle East Anne Mariel Zimmermann US Assistance, Development, and Hierarchy in the Middle East Aid for Allies Anne Mariel Zimmermann Zurich, Switzerland ISBN 978-1-349-94999-1 ISBN 978-1-349-95000-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-349-95000-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016961643 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Cover image © Peter Scholey / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Nature America Inc New York I dedicate this book with affection to my husband, Doron Zimmermann, whose provocative questions, generosity of knowledge, and strength struck me from day one—and without which this book would not exist Acknowledgments As with any journey that occupies nearly a decade of one’s life, this book is not only the work of its author but also of mentors, friends, family, and benefactors who have helped along the way I completed a narrower version of this project at the University of Virginia, where my interest in theoretical anomalies led me to write a doctoral dissertation on US assistance and state building in Egypt, Jordan, South Korea, and Taiwan My dissertation advisor and teacher, David Waldner, provided critical advice in this initial stage of my work, and encouraged me to look more deeply into the concept of parallel institutions Herman Schwartz was a source of kindness and wisdom, and Bill Quandt made my field research in Egypt logistically possible I am grateful to the Council of American Overseas Research Centers/American Center of Oriental Research, the US–Egypt Binational Fulbright Commission, and the Miller Center GAGE Program for supporting my fieldwork in Amman, Cairo, and Washington, DC As an assistant professor at Wesleyan University, I was inspired to expand the thematic scope of this book to international hierarchy, as well as to limit its regional focus to the Middle East by taking on the well- documented yet complex case of US assistance to Israel I am grateful to Wesleyan and the Project on Middle East Political Science for supporting my additional research in the Middle East and at the National Archives in College Park David Lake, Stephen Krasner, and John Owen offered early comments on my joint effort with Sean Yom to operationalize international hierarchy, the framework of which informs part of this book I am also grateful to the Center for Global Development, the Harvard Middle vii viii Acknowledgments East Politics Workshop, the Northeast Middle East Politics Workshop, the University of St Gallen, Brown University, the New America Foundation, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies for allowing me various opportunities to present my research From our initial meeting as graduate students, Sean Yom has shared his intelligence, drive, and friendship with me, allowing our mutual research interests to develop into a fruitful and diverse collaboration and dialogue Marwan Kardoosh generously shared his deep understanding of Jordanian politics and economy In addition, I am indebted to the colleagues who have read and commented on various stages of my work: Jason Brownlee, Amaney Jamal, Jillian Schwedler, Melanie Cammett, Ellen Lust, Pete Moore, Lisa Blaydes, Erin Snider, Stefanie Nanes, David Faris, John Waterbury, David Patel, Tarek Masoud, Hilde Restad, Kyle Lascurettes, Ryan Saylor, André Bank, and Michael Shalev In the field, my friends Yorke Rowan, Morag Kersel, and Heather Badamo were not only fantastic company but gifted me with a hobbyist’s interest in Mediterranean history and archaeology I am also grateful to the dozens of individuals who granted me interviews, opened their Rolodexes, and gave me critical feedback on nascent hypotheses Several deserve to be mentioned by name, and will know that this omission reflects their own wishes rather than the gratitude I hold toward them My family provided me with the inspiration to study political science, as well as the reminder that, while theoretical simplicity may be elegant, it is the real world that is the most beautiful Kaye Thompson Peters and Jeffrey Wallin Peters gave me the opportunities of a good education, travel, debate, and newsroom humor, while Jean Hartsock Peters, Gordon Sikes Peters, and Berniece Ault demonstrated the importance of giving back to others with all means available My sisters, Sarah and Emily Peters, never let me stray too far from the joys of our childhood, and Yaël and Faye Zimmermann have been generous enough to share theirs with me Erich Zimmermann, Anna Maria Wehrli, Anna Pfeiffer, Donatella RichtmanCinquini, and Daniel Richtman showed me new levels of strength and persistence, and provided the warmth of family far from home Nebel the Cat was, as ever, a pleasant companion in the office The opinions herein are my own personal views, and not represent those of my employer or its staff All errors are my own Contents What Does US Aid “Buy” in the Middle East? 1 Aid and the Logic of Political Survival 19 Part I Israel39 Non-distributive Survival Strategy 41 Origins of US Aid to Israel 61 US Aid to Israel: Developmental Bargain 83 Part II Jordan103 Distributive Survival Strategy 105 Origins of US Aid to Jordan 125 ix x Contents US Aid to Jordan: Geopolitical Bargain 147 Part III Egypt163 9 Hybrid Survival Strategy 165 10 Origins of US Aid to Egypt 183 11 US Aid to Egypt: Illusive Bargains 207 12 Conclusion 225 Bibliography 235 Index265 List of Figures Fig 1.1 US economic and military aid obligations as constant 2014 dollars, 1951–2010 (USAID, US Overseas Loans)4 Fig 1.2 US economic and military aid obligations as percent GDP, 1960–2009 (USAID, US Overseas Loans; World Bank, World Development)4 Fig 2.1 Skew of hierarchical dyads 35 Fig 5.1 Aspects of the budget of the Government of Israel, 1960–2009 (Author’s calculations based on budget and GNP data from World Bank, World Development; aid data from USAID, US Overseas Loans; and budget data from Bank of Israel, “Table 6.A.1(1);” Bank of Israel “Table 6.A.2(1).”)85 Fig 5.2 Aspects of the defense budget of the Government of Israel, 1960–2009 88 Fig 5.3 Exchanges of the US–Israel hierarchy, 1955–2010 91 Fig 8.1 Aspects of the budget of the Government of Jordan, 1965–2010 (Author’s calculations based on budget and GNI data from World Bank, World Development and Heston et al, Penn World; budget data from Annual Statistical Series; aid data from USAID, US Overseas Loans)149 Fig 8.2 Exchanges of the US–Jordan hierarchy, 1952–2010 157 Fig 11.1 Exchanges of the US–Egypt hierarchy, 1955–2010 217 xi .. .US Assistance, Development, and Hierarchy in the Middle East Anne Mariel Zimmermann US Assistance, Development, and Hierarchy in the Middle East Aid for Allies Anne Mariel Zimmermann... Middle East, and therefore less influence over US aid to the region (which stands in contrast to Latin America, where US commodity firms and financial institutions had large investments in the late... praises of the US Egypt relationship, including the US Agency for International Development s (USAID) support of physical infrastructure and economic reforms, and the expedited passage of US military