M A K I N G U P T H E DI F F E R E N C E Casanova-final.indb i 3/28/11 1:20:44 PM B O O K T W E N T Y- F I V E LO UA N N AT K I N S T E M P L E W O M E N & C U LT U R E S E R I E S B O O K S A B O U T W O M E N A N D FA M I L I E S , A N D T H E I R C H A N G I N G RO L E I N S O C I E T Y Casanova-final.indb ii 3/28/11 1:20:48 PM M A KIN G UP TH E DIFFER EN CE Women, Beauty, and Direct Selling in Ecuador E R Y N N M A SI DE C A S A NOVA UNIVER SIT Y OF TEX A S PRESS Casanova-final.indb iii Austin 3/28/11 1:20:48 PM The Louann Atkins Temple Women & Culture Series is supported by Allison, Doug, Taylor, and Andy Bacon; Margaret, Lawrence, Will, John, and Annie Temple; Larry Temple; the Temple-Inland Foundation; and the National Endowment for the Humanities Copyright © 2011 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition, 2011 Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to: Permissions University of Texas Press P.O Box 7819 Austin, TX 78713-7819 www.utexas.edu/utpress/about/bpermission.html ∞ The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO ○ Z39.48-1992 (R1997) (Permanence of Paper) L I B R A R Y O F C O N G R E S S C A T A L O G I N G - I N - P U B L I C A T I O N DA T A Casanova, Erynn Masi de, 1977– Making up the difference : women, beauty, and direct selling in Ecuador / Erynn Masi de Casanova — 1st ed p cm — (Louann Atkins temple women & culture series ; bk 25) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-292-72386-3 (cloth : alk paper) Direct selling—Ecuador Women—Employment—Ecuador Women—Ecuador—Economic conditions Cosmetics industry— Ecuador I Title HF5438.25.C3646 2011 381′.456685509866—dc22 2011000794 ISBN 978-0-292-73483-8 (E-book) Casanova-final.indb iv 3/28/11 1:20:50 PM for hen ry & for m a r i ly n a n d “big fr a n k” Casanova-final.indb v 3/28/11 1:20:51 PM THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK C ON T E N T S Preface ix Acknowledgments xvii Introduction: Avon Ladies in the Amazon? PA RT I Gender Relations: Women, Men, and Work ch a p t er Multiplying Themselves: Women Direct Sellers Managing Productive and Reproductive Work 25 ch a p t er Men Make a Difference: Opposers, Supporters, 52 and Drivers PA RT I I The Look: Images of Beauty, Professionalism, and Success ch a p t er How Products Sell Themselves: Picturing Gender, Race, and Class in Yanbal’s Catalogs 89 ch a p t er Embodying Professionalism: Constructing the Yanbalista Image 116 ch a p t er The Picture of Success: Prizes and Status in the Direct Sales 138 Organization PA RT I I I Direct Selling in Context: Careers and Consumption ch a p t er What Would They Be Doing If They Weren’t Selling Beauty Products?: Women’s Work Experiences in Context 157 ch a p t er Buying Beauty: Flexible Payment and Expanding Consumption 179 Conclusion 201 Appendix: A Few Words About Research Methods References 209 221 Index 229 Casanova-final.indb vii 3/28/11 1:20:51 PM THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK PR E FAC E “ I A M F R OM E L G UA S MO , and I’m not embarrassed to say so,” began María Bustamante, as she stood in front of a gathering of women direct sellers in Guayaquil, Ecuador, to make an announcement El Guasmo is Guayaquil’s most well-known poor neighborhood, located at the extreme southern end of the city Although the infrastructure of El Guasmo has improved greatly since my fi rst visit to the area in 1999, with many newly paved streets and small palms planted in the median, and fewer open sewage ditches, the neighborhood still lags behind other areas of the city María, who sells products for a direct sales company called Yanbal,1 lives on one of El Guasmo’s many unpaved streets; her home, like countless others, does not have running water in the kitchen She lives on the same block as a few other sellers from her group, and very near her grown son and daughterin-law and their two young children Before joining Yanbal, María was a housewife, though she had completed a few years of college before her children were born Getting together enough food to feed the family is a challenge for many families in María’s neighborhood About one-third of Guasmo residents earn below the monthly minimum wage, which was $200 per month in 2008 Although unemployment is high (12 percent for those aged eighteen through twenty-nine), more than a third of women (36.6 percent) are employed This high rate of female participation in the paid labor force, relative to that of other neighborhoods, may be correlated with the high proportion of female-headed households: more than 30 percent of homes in El Guasmo are led by women Many women are active in informal selling, making up part of the 55 percent of neighborhood residents involved in informal employment.2 (Informal employment is understood here as that which is generally not regulated by the state, includes no legal protections, and is not based on a formal contract between employer and employee.) 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Casanova-final.indb 227 3/28/11 1:22:55 PM 228 MAKING UP THE DIFFERENCE Ward, Kathryn, ed 1990 Women Workers and Global Restructuring Ithaca, NY: ILR Press Weismantel, Mary J 2008 “Cities of Women.” Pp 359– 370 in The Ecuador Reader: History, Culture, Politics, ed C de la Torre and S Striffler Durham, NC: Duke University Press Weiss, Wendy 1997 “Debt and Devaluation: The Burden on Ecuador’s Popular Class.” Latin American Perspectives 24 (4): 9– 33 Whitten, Norman E 1981 Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador Champaign: University of Illinois Press Whitten, Norman E., and Diego Quiroga 1998 “‘To Rescue National Dignity’: Blackness as a Quality of Nationalist Creativity in Ecuador.” Pp 75– 99 in Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean, vol 1, ed N E Whitten and A Torres Bloomington: University of Indiana Press Williams, Christine L 1992 “The Glass Escalator: Hidden Advantages for Men in the ‘Female’ Professions.” Social Problems 39 (3): 253–267 ——— 1995 Still a Man’s World: Men Who Do “Women’s Work.” Berkeley: University of California Press Wilson, Ara 1999 “The Empire of Direct Sales and the Making of Thai Entrepreneurs.” Critique of Anthropology 19: 401– 422 ——— 2004 The Intimate Economies of Bangkok: Tomboys, Tycoons, and Avon Ladies in the Global City Berkeley: University of California Press Wilson, Tamar Diana 1998 “Approaches to Understanding the Position of Women Workers in the Informal Sector.” Latin American Perspectives 25 (2): 105–119 Wolkowitz, Carol 2006 Bodies at Work London: Sage The World Factbook “Ecuador.” 2008 Washington, DC: U.S Central Intelligence Agency https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ec.html Yanbal N.d A triunfar Yanbal Video Casanova-final.indb 228 3/28/11 1:22:55 PM I N DE X Acker, Joan, 16, 18, 27, 47, 52 Adair, Vivyan C., 137 advertisement(s), 11, 25, 91, 95, 99, 101– 103, 106–107, 109–110, 112, 115; jobs, 162, 177, 206 Afro-Ecuadorians (blacks), 5, 100 Agadjanian, Victor, 54– 55, 80, 83, 85 age discrimination See discrimination in employment aging, 110 Amway, xvi, 10, 21, 22 Appadurai, Arjun, 193 appearance, 5, 19, 62, 80, 100, 101, 103, 106, 112, 113, 115, 117, 119–126, 129–136, 147, 191, 205–206, 217; and class, 12, 63, 95, 99, 116–118, 124, 126–129, 133, 135, 137, 205– 206; and dress, 12, 129; feminine, xiv, 12, 117–118, 129, 132, 136; transformation of, 120, 127–128, 135 See also dress; image Argentina 13, 22, 97, 137, 142, 177 Ariel de Vidas, Anath, 18, 119, 154, 158, 177, 181, 184, 199 arreglada (“well-groomed”), 118, 119, 122, 124, 126, 129, 131 Ávila, Ernestine, 38, 159 Avon, xvi, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 63, 76, 154, 171, 181, 190, 192, 210 Avon Lady, vii, 1, 117 awards: gala ceremony, 138, 143–145 Babb, Florence, xviii, 26, 137 Bank Muñoz, Carolina, 116, 137 bargaining, 179 Barrio del Seguro, x Barron, James, 154 Bastión Popular, ix–x, xi, 160 beauty, vii, xiv, 13, 93, 103, 104, 107, 109, 110, 112–113, 118, 119–120, 121, 132, 133, 135, 144–145, 179, Casanova-final.indb 229 201, 209, 210–211, 215, 217; commodification of, 12; consultants, xii, 13, 19, 30, 34, 47, 70, 71, 103, 121, 126, 131, 183, 186, 196, 210; ideals, 100–101, 209; products, vii, 95, 99, 118, 126, 129, 157, 167, 171 beauty pageants, 108–109, 144–146, 210 beauty queens, 144–145, 210 See also Bolivia, Miss; Ecuador, Miss; Universe, Miss “beauty specialists club,” 107 Beckerman, Paul, 7, Bedoya, Ritha, 7, 26, 28, 30, 40, 50, 54, 84, 157, 159, 179 Belmont, Fernando, 13–14, 106 Benería, Lourdes, 4, 14, 15, 22, 26, 27, 28, 51, 53, 154, 158, 159, 194, 203 Benton, Lauren A., 14 Bettie, Julie, 118 Biggart, Nicole W., 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 29, 30, 47, 50, 52, 65, 83, 139, 148, 150, 152, 154, 207, 218 billboards, 94, 107, 108 Binford, Leigh, 194 Blum, Virginia L., 118 Bolivia, Miss (Desirée Durán), 106 See also beauty pageants; beauty queens BONIL, xviii, Bordo, Susan, 115 Bourdieu, Pierre, 118 breadwinner(s), 77, 81, 159; male, 43, 54, 58, 59, 60, 74, 75, 81, 189; women as, 159 Brigss (Mantilla), Betty, 30, 37, 39, 41, 42, 47, 49, 61, 67, 68, 92, 103, 118, 122, 128, 164, 165, 214 Briones, Ana María, 42– 46, 48, 49, 58, 60– 61, 90, 118, 129, 150, 162, 164, 170, 177, 214 Brodie, Stewart, 10, 29, 168, 170 Bruce, Judith, 28, 53, 54, 82 Burbano de Lara, Felipe, 20 3/28/11 1:22:56 PM 230 MAKING UP THE DIFFERENCE “burnt out,” 7, 48 Bustamante, María, ix, 36, 47, 124, 146, 149, 213 Butler, Judith, 205 buying, vii, xv, 12–13, 53, 65, 67, 83, 91, 114, 126, 149, 168, 174, 179– 181, 190–191, 199, 210, 215 See also consumption Cahn, Peter S., 10, 11, 12, 21, 136, 139, 152, 178, 181, 199 campaign launch, 47, 57, 89, 93, 114, 129, 146 Candelario, Ginetta E.B., xvi Caplovitz, David, 199 “care work”/care, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 26, 28–29, 35, 38, 45, 47, 48, 80, 159, 204 career goals, 46, 142, 157, 173–174 Carrillo, María Cristina, 165 Castanias, Richard P., 22 Castells, Manuel, 14 catalog See Yanbal: catalog Catholicism, 106, 109 Cepeda, Angie, 107–108 Cerbino, Mauro, 118, 136 Chant, Sylvia, 85, 177 Charismatic Capitalism (Biggart), 10, 16 child care, 27, 29, 30, 33, 35, 37– 40, 43– 44, 47– 49, 51, 60, 74, 79, 160, 169 children, ix, xii, xvi, xix, 12, 17, 18, 25, 28– 32, 34– 51, 53, 54, 60– 61, 64– 65, 71, 74, 75, 82, 94, 97, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 147, 158, 165, 169, 171, 173, 204, 216 Chiriboga, Cinthia, 118, 136 Chossudovsky, Michel, 193 Christmas, xii, 1, 11, 47, 62, 79, 85, 89, 110, 114, 124, 125, 132, 133, 149, 169, 191, 212 CIA World Factbook: Ecuador, 6, 95, 106 class See social class Clic, 115 clients, x, xi, xv, 5, 33, 34, 35, 39, 55, 57, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73–74, 80, 81, 84, 90– 91, 93, 99, 103, 109, 113–114, 115, 123, 126, 130, 132, 135, 136, 148, Casanova-final.indb 230 149, 161, 167, 168, 171, 176, 177, 180–192, 194–199, 204, 205; gender of, 17, 53, 188–189; Yanbal survey of, 189–191, 215–216 clothing See appearance: and dress; dress; fashion Cohen, Colleen Ballerino, 100 Cohen, Lizabeth, 94 cojudo (“sucker”), 185, 196, 199 Colgate Palmolive, 13 Collins, Jane L., 215 Colombia, 5, 13, 20, 98, 107, 122, 142, 152, 177 CONAMU, 84 consolidated areas, x, 159–160, 176, 212 consultants See beauty: consultants consumers: consultants as, 64, 128, 132, 152, 191–192; goals of, 174, 176 See also clients; consumption consumption, vii, xv, 2, 12, 52, 62, 94, 99, 113, 146, 148, 174, 179, 182–183, 189, 191–197, 204, 205, 206, 211, 215, 216; flexible, 115, 179–183, 191, 193–199, 204; imported goods, 194– 197; shopping centers, 33, 76, 193, 199, 213 See also buying; payment content analysis, xiv, 94, 211, 215 Contreras, Elizabeth, 66, 72–74, 149, 185–186, 188 coordinator(s), 19, 56– 57, 77, 84, 120, 136, 147, 169 “coping,” 7, 29, 48, 50 Correa Delgado, Rafael, 1– 3, 8, 20, 195, 207 Correa, Karen, 13 cosmetics, ix, xi, xiv, 3, 5, 12, 14, 17, 19, 21, 27, 52, 53, 78, 121, 133, 135, 136, 158, 175, 201, 203, 209 See also beauty: products Crain, Mary M., 118 credit, 85, 96, 179–180, 199; cards 62, 95, 194; increasing access to, 194; layaway (plan acumulativo), 194; pagaré (“I.O.U.”), 192 See also Yanbal: credit policies cultural norms, xv, 4, 15, 30, 31, 39, 46, 53, 72, 81, 83, 94, 113, 117, 135, 152, 3/28/11 1:22:56 PM INDEX 175, 184, 203–205; and appearance, xiv, 117, 119, 132 Dávila, Arlene, 105 de la A, Érica, 36, 59– 60, 68, 69, 74, 164–165, 171, 176 Delgado, Ramona, 34, 47, 162, 172– 173, 184 “degrees of informality,” 15, 22, 153, 154, 214 developing world/developing countries, xiv, 9, 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 49, 50, 51, 54, 82, 131, 158, 171, 179, 182, 201, 202, 204 direct sales: academic literature on, 10– 12, 29– 30, 21–22, 52; as an employment alternative, 14, 17, 21, 79, 157, 159, 162–163, 165–166, 171, 175– 176, 202, 207–208; and gender, 14, 21, 52, 53, 77, 78, 80, 188–189, 202– 203; global expansion of, 10, 13, 21; history of in Ecuador, 13–14 See also direct selling organizations (DSOs) direct selling organizations (DSOs), vii, xii, xiv, xv, xvi, 5, 10–13, 15, 21, 22, 27, 50, 66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 90, 93, 114, 117, 127, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 147, 148, 150, 153, 154, 165, 166, 171, 174, 175, 176, 177, 181, 182, 183, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192, 195, 197, 199, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207, 214, 215, 217, 218; as family, 11, 22, 44, 47, 124, 153, 207, 218; gendered, 16–20, 52, 55; men’s involvement in, 52– 53, 78–79, 83; multi-level marketing organizations/network DSOs, 10– 11, 21, 218; turnover rate, 11 directors See sales director(s) discrimination: in employment, xv, 137, 157–158, 161–164, 175–176, 177, 206 dollarization, 7, 20 domestic employees/domestic workers, paid, xiv, 26, 37, 38, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 65, 128, 131, 160, 164, 167, 187, 201, 204 Casanova-final.indb 231 231 domestic violence, 56, 62, 84, 207 domestic work/domestic responsibilities, unpaid, xiv, 15, 17, 18, 26, 28, 30, 39, 49, 51, 61, 159, 163, 207 Dreby, Joanna, 38 dress, 12, 100, 105, 112, 118–127, 132– 137; “executive”/“professional,” dress, 118, 121, 126, 129, 130, 135, 136; uniforms, 122–123, 130–131, 137 See also appearance: and dress; fashion DSOs See direct selling organizations (DSOs) Duarte, Isis, 49 Duneier, Mitchell, x Dwyer, Daisy, 28, 53, 54, 82 Ebel See L’Bel Ecuador, 20, 48, 100–102, 105–106, 109, 111–114, 118–119, 141, 209, 212, 216–217; direct selling in, xiv, 4, 5– 8, 11, 13–14, 29, 46, 108, 192, 202, 210–211; economy of, x, xv, 4, 5– 8, 9, 20, 22, 26–28, 53– 55, 72, 80, 83, 90, 95– 97, 115, 157, 161, 163–166, 179–180, 182, 184, 193– 200, 202, 204, 206, 214; feminist/ women’s movements in, 8, 84; history of, 5– 8; and migration, xiii, 9, 13, 77, 165–166, 174, 217; national politics, 1– 3, 5– 8, 20, 199 Ecuavisa 96 education, x, 4, 82, 83, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 166, 167, 174, 175, 176, 177, 203 El Comercio, 199 El Cóndor, 41 El Guasmo, ix, x, 32, 33, 35, 36, 64, 65, 71, 126, 150, 160, 172, 213 El Universo, 2, 3, 9, 96 Elson, Diane, 15, 26, 81, 159 employment, x, 9, 14, 21, 48, 49, 50, 53, 83, 116, 158, 159–161, 164–165, 176, 194, 201, 204, 206, 208; barriers to, 158, 161, 175; formal, x, 8, 16, 39, 54, 77, 80, 83, 117, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 163–167, 170, 174, 175, 194, 201–203, 207, 212; informal, 3/28/11 1:22:57 PM 232 MAKING UP THE DIFFERENCE employment (continued) ix–x, xv, 8– 9, 14, 27, 117, 159, 160, 161, 166, 201, 212; of men, 39, 54– 55, 62, 72, 81, 82, 203; options for, 29, 81, 157, 158, 159, 162–164, 168, 174, 176, 202–203, 208, 212; parttime, xv, 14, 30, 163, 175, 206; previous employment/work histories, xv, 157–158, 166–169, 175; segregation by sex, 161, 174, 206; selfemployment/ entrepreneurialism, 14, 80, 137, 158, 160–161, 167, 177, 207; temporary work, 158, 201, 203; underemployment, 9, 21, 48, 54, 174; unemployment, ix, x, 7, 9, 21, 28, 46, 54, 131, 137, 157, 159, 160–161, 168, 174, 175, 212 See also discrimination: in employment; employment, women’s employment, women’s, xiv, 22, 26, 39, 54, 55, 83, 85, 157, 159, 160, 174, 177, 203; formal, 9, 14, 16, 26–28, 49, 54, 77, 83, 117, 126, 157, 158, 161–167, 170–171, 174–176, 201, 202, 206, 207, 208; informal, 10, 14– 16, 22, 25, 26–28, 30, 49, 51, 117, 131, 137, 154, 158, 163, 165–168, 174–175, 177, 187, 191, 201, 202, 206, 207, 208, 214 Encuesta del Sistema de Información Social (ESIS), xvi, 159–161, 164, 176, 212 England, Paula, 22, 27, 50 English names/terms, 101, 111, 115, 154 EntreNos, 107, 146, 149 entrepreneurialism See employment: self-employment/entrepreneurialism Ecuador, Miss, 134, 146, 210 See also beauty pageants; beauty queens Erazo, Viviana, 95, 112 Escobar, María Teresa, 3, 14 ESIS See Encuesta del Sistema de Información Social (ESIS) Esteva, Gustavo, 50, 199 “false consciousness,” 131, 202 family, ix, xi, xiii, 12, 17, 25–27, 29, 31, 34, 36, 40, 41– 42, 44, 45, 48, 49, Casanova-final.indb 232 53– 54, 56, 58, 61, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 81, 83, 93, 96, 98, 141, 143–144, 152, 154, 159, 160, 166, 169–170, 173, 176, 183, 201, 204, 207, 209–210, 214, 216–217; budget, 54, 58; selling to, 181, 187– 188, 191, 199 See also children; husbands/male partners; marriage; pregnancy; work and family Fapohunda, Eleanor R., 85 fashion, 94, 103, 108, 111, 120, 126, 136, 215 See also dress Feldman, Shelley, 14 femininity, 4, 12, 27, 31, 108, 109, 126, 127, 128, 136, 137, 175, 176, 203, 205, 206, 210, 211 See also appearance: feminine feminism/feminist: research/scholarship, 4, 9, 12, 14–15, 16, 28, 205; movements, 8, 27 “feminization of labor,” 16, 26 “feminized” occupations, 27 Fernández-Kelly, María Patricia, 9, 26, 158 “First World,” 9, 199 Floro, María S., 6, 22, 51, 53, 54, 85, 154, 157, 194 Folbre, Nancy, 14, 28 foreignness, xii, xiii, 21, 58, 111, 113– 114, 133–134, 216–217 formal labor market, 15, 78, 125, 151, 158, 161, 163, 164, 170, 171, 212 formal retail sector, 5, 194 formal sector/economy, x, xv, 8, 10, 15, 16, 26, 27, 49, 77, 83, 160, 166, 176, 203, 206 Freeman, Carla, 9, 14, 16, 26, 28, 51, 126, 131, 135, 136, 137, 158, 193, 205 Friedan, Betty, 27 Friedemann-Sánchez, Greta, xvi, 16 García de Proaño, Ligia, xi, xiii, 3, 25, 35, 42, 66, 67, 76, 83, 89, 124, 180, 213, 215, 217 gender, xiv, xv, 4, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21, 27, 39, 49, 55, 58, 77, 78, 80, 83, 89, 110, 3/28/11 1:22:57 PM INDEX 111, 117; inequality, 39, 46, 48, 53, 204, 206, 207; norms, 4, 20, 30, 31, 39, 46, 48, 53, 72, 79, 81, 83, 117, 128, 132, 135, 152, 159, 175, 203, 205; relations, vii, xiv, 46, 49, 53, 61, 79, 189, 203, 205, 208; roles, 4, 12, 19, 20, 30, 39, 43, 45, 48, 49, 58, 59, 64, 65, 70, 74, 75, 77, 81, 110, 152, 159, 166, 203, 204, 207; stereotypes, 3, 17, 27, 39, 106, 112, 166, 169, 189; “strategy,” 4, 75 See also husbands/ male partners gendered economic strategies, 4, 20, 48, 53, 61, 63, 70, 74, 77, 81, 83, 117, 135, 159, 170, 175, 203, 205, 206, 207 gendered organizations, 16–17, 20, 27, 47, 52, 78, 203 Gestión, gift(s), xiv, 11, 53, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 133, 154, 191, 192, 210, 215 globalization, xv, 8–10, 27, 193, 204, 208 Goetschel, Ana María, Goldenberg, Mirian, 127 González, Marjorie, x, 30, 32, 38– 39, 49, 72, 75–76, 132, 150, 168, 171, 187 gringa, xiii, xiv, 133 Guasmo See El Guasmo Guayaquil, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 19, 25, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 57, 60, 62, 65, 67, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 90, 92, 97, 100, 102, 107, 108, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 127, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 147, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 181, 185, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 199, 203, 207, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218; el centro (downtown), x, xi, 33, 35, 58, 126, 130, 132; labor market in, 158, 161, 211–212; neighborhoods, ix, x, xi, xvi, xviii, 7, 32, 35, 37, 41, 44, 48, 54, 73, 85, 108, 118, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 147, Casanova-final.indb 233 233 150, 158, 159–161, 166, 171, 174, 176, 179, 186, 190, 193, 204, 212, 213, 216 Hale, Charles R., 105 Halpern, Adam, 5, 100 “hanging on,” 7, 48 Herrera, Gioconda, 28, 53, 54, 165, 194 Hochschild, Arlie Russell, 4, 25, 27, 31, 36, 37, 183 Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierette, 38, 159 Hopkins, Barbara E., 10 household, 7, 12, 14, 18, 22, 26, 29, 30, 31, 40, 50, 53, 54, 56, 58, 69, 83, 84, 85, 95, 162, 170, 175, 176, 178, 194, 196, 203, 207; female-headed, ix, 160; income, 28, 39, 43, 46, 55, 59, 62, 67, 69, 81– 82, 96, 171, 175, 207; survival strategies, 14, 26, 54, 81, 96, 158, 165, 179, 201 “housekeeping allowance,” 82 housewife/housewives, ix, 30, 65, 131, 166, 168, 169–170, 186, 188, 211; stereotypes about, 137, 169–170, 175 See also gender housework, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36– 40, 43, 48, 51, 57, 160, 167, 169 See also domestic work/domestic responsibilities, unpaid Hoy, 14 Hurel (Molina), Diana, 31, 36, 62– 66, 75, 76, 131, 173, 187 husbands/male partners, x, xi, xv, 3, 12, 25, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 54– 61, 65– 66, 77, 81– 85, 89, 123, 144, 149, 150, 153, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 183, 184, 185, 188, 192, 207, 209, 210, 213, 214, 217; “drivers,” vii, 52, 55, 76, 78, 83; and jealousy (celos), 57, 59– 60, 63, 66, 71, 72, 84, 189; “opposers,” vii, 43– 46, 52, 54– 67, 70–72, 74–76, 81– 82, 83, 84, 85, 176, 186, 189; “supporters,” vii, 52, 55, 66–71, 74; transformation of, 54, 70–76 3/28/11 1:22:58 PM 234 MAKING UP THE DIFFERENCE Ibarra (Ruiz), Gioconda, 37– 38, 40, 68– 70, 74, 91, 119, 126 ICE See Impuesto a los Consumos Especiales ILO See International Labor Organization image, vii, xiv, 17, 83, 116–127, 129–130, 134–137, 143, 185, 202, 205; selfimage, 43, 209 See also appearance imports, 34, 177, 194–197 Impuesto a los Consumos Especiales (ICE), 1– 3, 113, 115, 174, 177, 180, 195–198 income, x, xv, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 39, 40, 43, 45, 46, 48, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 95, 96, 98, 119, 130, 135, 152, 154, 158, 159, 160, 161, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 177, 182, 186, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 201, 203, 205, 206, 207, 213; multiple sources of, 14, 82, 157, 157, 158, 171, 173, 176 independent contractors, 19, 21 indigenous people, 5, 100, 104–105, 118, 125, 136, 137, 209 INEC See Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos informal retail sector, 194 informal sector/economy, x, 8, 14–15, 26, 28, 30, 51, 159, 160, 166, 174, 178, 194, 203 informal sellers/selling, ix, 163, 165, 168, 175, 193, 194, 202 infrastructure, ix–x, 161, 176, 206 Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC), x, xvi, 5, 54, 159, 160, 212 International Labor Organization (ILO), 9, 14, 27, 28 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 7, interviews, xvi, 22, 31, 36, 42, 43, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58, 63, 64, 67, 78, 81, 82, 84, 106, 115, 132, 141, 157, 161, 163, 166, 167, 168, 169, 173, 175, 180, 188, 199, 211, 213–218 Casanova-final.indb 234 Jamaica, 122, 137, 146 jewelry, x, 83, 91, 93, 94, 99, 104, 115, 118, 120–121, 135, 144, 169, 171, 209; engagement rings/wedding bands, 99 Johnson & Johnson, 13 Jokisch, Brad D., 5, 9, 165, 194 Jolly, Richard, 201 kin networks, 18, 49, 188, 204 Kyle, David, 5, 165, 194 L’Bel, 14, 190 La Alborada, 186, 193 labor market, 27, 28, 137, 157–159, 166, 168, 174–175, 206, 212; formal, 15, 78, 125, 151, 158, 161, 163–164, 170–171, 175, 212 See also Guayaquil labor trajectory See employment Lan, Pei-Chia, 11, 16, 21, 22, 218 latinidad, 94, 105–107, 109 Latino/Latina, 100, 105–107, 109, 114, 216 layaway See credit Lind, Amy, 7, 8, 14, 26 López, Marjorie, 37– 38, 60, 66, 72–75, 169 Loscocco, Karyn A., 50, 51, 53, 84 Los Sauces, 147, 179 Los Vergeles, 73, 160, 186 Luciano, Lynne, 115 Lutz, Catherine A., 215 luxury, 2, 3, 95– 99, 113, 146, 152, 174, 180, 193–195, 197 machista, 43, 60, 76 Mahmood, Saba, 205 makeup, x, 45, 62, 80, 94, 99, 101–103, 107–109, 111–112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 120–124, 127–129, 131–137, 148, 199, 206, 209 See also beauty: products; cosmetics; products Mall del Sol, 57, 193 Mall del Sur, 193 malls See shopping centers Manabí, 60, 128, 210, 217 manual, 121 3/28/11 1:22:58 PM INDEX Mapasingue, 160 maquiladoras, 10, 21, 22, 27, 158 marianismo, 109–110 marriage, xv-xvi, 19, 53, 59– 60, 69, 71, 73, 165, 189, 216; common-law marriage (unidas), 53, 60, 69, 171 See also family; husbands/male partners Martin, Philip, 194 Martínez (García), Érika, 31– 32, 36, 56, 61, 131, 133, 186, 213 Mary Kay, 11, 13, 21, 142 masculinity, 4, 112 See also gender; men material conditions, xiv, xv, 4, 15, 20, 27, 31, 46, 48, 53, 81, 99, 113, 117, 128, 129, 135, 152, 158, 159, 175, 181, 184, 203–205 Medved, Caryn E., 159 meetings See Yanbal: meetings Meisch, Lynn A., 104, 165 men, vii, xiv, 7, 16, 17, 18, 19–20, 21, 28, 35, 37, 39– 40, 46, 49– 50, 51, 52– 83, 84, 85, 90, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 106, 111, 112, 115, 119, 134, 135, 137, 151, 157, 158, 161, 176, 177, 184, 188–189, 195, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 212, 214, 217, 218; See also breadwinner(s): male; employment: of men; gender; husbands/male partners; sellers: male Menoscal, Jacinta, 60– 61, 84, 91, 150 Messier, John, 6, 54, 85, 157 mestizo, 5, 100, 101, 104, 105, 118, 136 Mexico, 7, 11, 13, 21, 51, 84, 97, 177, 178, 181 migration, 5, 9, 14, 38, 41, 97, 158, 165, 194; internal, 158; to Spain, 5, 9, 13, 41, 49, 165; to U.S., xiii, 5, 9, 34, 97, 173; remittances, 194 Miller, Daniel, 94, 100 Mills, C Wright, 45 Miño, Fausto, 143 Moghadam, Valentine M., 26, 27 Mohanty, Chandra Talpade, 4, 27–28, 50, 199 “moments of empowerment,” 19–20, 203 Mose Brown, Tamara, xvi, 51, 216 Casanova-final.indb 235 235 Moser, Caroline, 6–7, 14, 20, 22, 28–29, 48, 50, 178, 179, 201 motherhood/mothers, xiii, xv, xvi, 20, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 47, 48, 49, 51, 58, 60, 65, 68, 72, 74, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 94, 97, 109– 111, 115, 144, 148, 158, 159, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 175, 188, 206, 212, 213, 214, 217; “good mother,” 51, 159, 175, 204; ideal mother, 48, 49, 109–111, 159; redefi ned, 159, 170, 204; researcher as mother, xiii, xvi, 51, 216; single mothers, 25, 37, 41, 42, 120 Mother’s Day, 97, 109–110, 114 multi-level marketing organizations See direct selling organizations (DSOs) multinational corporations See transnational/multi-national corporations multiple roles, 26, 40, 48, 201, 204, 207 Mummert, Gail, 83 National Institute of Statistics and the Census (INEC) See Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos neighborhoods See Barrio del Seguro; Bastión Popular; consolidated areas; El Cóndor; El Guasmo; Guayaquil: neighborhoods; La Alborada; Los Sauces; Los Vergeles; Mapasingue; unconsolidated areas Nencel, Lorraine, 126 neoliberal economic policies, 14, 21, 28 network direct selling organizations See direct selling organizations (DSOs) New York City, xiv, 84, 97– 98, 217 novela See telenovela O’Dougherty, Maureen, 98, 199–200 Oriflame, 14, 190 Palma (Pico), Maryuri, 36, 58– 59, 62, 64– 66, 68, 77, 120, 130, 146, 150, 151, 168, 169, 183, 213–214 pan-Latino, 105, 109, 114 Paredes (Márquez), Vanessa, 33–34, 38, 67, 68, 72, 84, 150, 172, 214 3/28/11 1:22:59 PM 236 MAKING UP THE DIFFERENCE participant observation, 55, 141, 211, 216, 217 participants (in research), xi, xv, xvi, 45, 84, 160, 161, 165, 177, 190, 199, 206, 211, 212–213, 217, 218 part-time work See employment: part-time “passing,” 132–133, 216–217, 219 payment (of orders by clients), 181–187, 191; arrangements, xv, 181–183, 186– 187, 191–192, 194, 197–198, 204, 205, 216; collecting, 33, 34, 60, 63, 68, 69, 73, 80, 85, 130, 168, 181–187, 188, 190–192, 198, 199, 215; down payment, 182, 185; flexible payment arrangements, vii, 5, 115, 179, 181– 183, 188, 191–192, 194–195, 197– 198; by installment, 181, 185, 188, 191, 199, 204 Pazmiño (Beltrán), Narcisa, ix–xi, 34– 35, 38– 39, 91, 130, 149, 166, 168, 196, 214 Peiss, Kathy, 21, 94, 95, 101, 112, 215 Pequeño Bueno, Andrea, 104, 118, 125, 215 Pérez-Alemán, Paola, 14 perfume/cologne, x, 1– 3, 5, 17, 21, 64, 67, 68, 80, 89, 91– 92, 99, 106, 109– 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 143, 148, 174, 177, 180, 188, 195–197, 206, 209 Peru, 5, 13, 14, 15, 19, 27, 136, 137, 168, 176, 177 Piller, Ingrid, 219 Pitkin, Kathryn, 7, 26, 28, 30, 40, 50, 54, 84, 157, 159, 179 Pitts-Taylor, Victoria, 113 Policentro, 41, 76, 193 politics, 1– 3, 7– 9, 20, 68, 105, 115, 136, 147, 212; Yanbal’s influence, 1– 3, 148 See also Ecuador: national politics pool pattern/common fund, 69, 82, 85 Portes, Alejandro, 14 Poster, Winifred, poverty, x, 4, 6, 9, 22, 26–28, 44, 50, 54, 95, 118, 127, 129, 136, 157, 158, 160–161, 174, 179, 186, 199, 202, 204, 206 Casanova-final.indb 236 Prakash, Madhu Suri, 50, 199 pregnancy, xii–xiii, xvi, 29, 30, 38, 75, 216 Pribilsky, Jason, 165 “price game,” the (“el juego de los precios”), 174, 180, 181, 197, 204 Prieto, Mercedes, princesa, 144 prizes, vii, xii, xv, 11, 20, 65, 67, 76, 79, 81, 89, 92, 114, 122, 138–154, 197, 210, 214, 217; cars, 21, 25, 30, 74, 75, 117, 132, 138–139, 142, 143– 145, 146, 148, 152, 165, 170, 174, 209; Christmas turkey, 150–152, 153; household items, 149–150; luxury items, 98, 142, 146, 148, 152; products, 128, 149; unofficial, 89, 122, 140, 143, 152; weekly, 146, 148–149, 152 Procter & Gamble, 13 products, vii, ix, x, xi, xvi, 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 30, 34, 35, 39, 42, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 75, 78, 79, 81, 83, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98–103, 105, 109, 111–115, 119, 120, 123, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 148, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 161, 167, 171–174, 176, 177, 180– 185, 187–192, 195–198, 199, 200, 205, 209, 210, 211, 214, 216, 217; engagement rings/wedding bands, 99; foundation makeup, 101–103, 114; samples, 91– 93; how they “sell themselves,” vii, 79, 89, 90, 93, 113 See also beauty: products; cosmetics; jewelry; makeup; perfume/cologne professionalism, vii, 21, 42, 90, 116–118, 120, 123–128, 130–131, 135, 153, 202, 205 See also appearance: and dress; dress Protestantism, 70, 73 public transportation, x, 160 Quiroga, Diego, 100 Quito, 2, 5, 19, 35, 36, 40, 50, 84, 109, 128, 137, 141, 142, 147, 162, 170, 174, 177, 178, 212, 213, 217, 218 3/28/11 1:22:59 PM INDEX race/ethnicity, vii, xiv, 12, 33, 51, 89, 93, 94, 100, 103–105, 107, 113, 118, 125, 136, 162, 201, 205, 206, 211, 215, 216, 217 See also skin color racialized images, 104–105, 125, 206, 209 Radcliffe, Sarah H., 6, 8, 84 Rahier, Jean Muteba, 100 reciprocal relationships, 44, 204 recruiting, 10, 11, 20, 21, 22, 30, 37, 46, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 68, 75, 76, 77, 98, 114, 117, 118, 120, 122, 123, 126, 127, 130, 134, 135, 138, 139, 141, 143, 145, 146, 148, 152, 153, 169, 175, 177, 201, 202, 209, 210, 213, 218 reflexive analysis, 216 “refugees,” 168, 170 Reich, Jennifer A., xvi reina, 144 religion, 70, 73, 106, 109 See also Catholicism; Protestantism remittances See migration reputation, maintaining (quedar bien/quedar mal), 184–185 research methods, vii, x, 115, 209–219 resistance, 174–175, 213 Richtel, Matt, 179, 182 Riocentro Sur, 193 Rodríguez, Lilia, 7, Roldán, Martha, 82, 83, 203 role models, xiii, 141, 147 Root, Regina A., 118 Rothstein, Frances Abrahamer, 14 sabido (swindler), 185, 196 Safa, Helen I., 26, 54, 81, 203 sales director(s), xi, xii, xiii, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 18, 19, 25, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 101, 103, 107, 108, 109, 113, 114, 115, 116–117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, Casanova-final.indb 237 237 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191, 195, 196, 197, 199, 205, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218; master directors, 144; mother/grandmother director(s), 3, 11, 16, 20, 41, 42– 44, 47, 64, 77, 93, 115, 140, 187, 218; “star” directors, 146–148, 152 sales interactions, 17, 181, 184, 189, 195, 198, 204 See also consumption; payment (of orders by clients); selling Salime, Zakia, Salzinger, Leslie, 9, 16, 26, 53 samples See products: samples San Marino, 193 Santa Cruz, Adriana, 95, 112 second shift, 28 See also Second Shift, The Second Shift, The (Hochschild), 4, 27, 31 See also second shift self-discipline, 48 self-employment See employment self-presentation, 5, 34, 117–120, 122– 123, 127–129, 205 See also appearance; image Seligmann, Linda J., xv, 15, 26, 51, 54, 55, 136, 137, 158, 168, 176, 177 sellers, direct, vii, ix, xi, xv, 2, 20, 25, 47, 50, 52, 56, 85, 117, 126, 131, 135, 137, 159, 167, 175, 177, 178, 181, 194, 199, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, 215, 216; helpers, unofficial, 15, 18, 80– 81, 153–154, 167, 214; informal, ix, 163, 165, 168, 175, 187, 193, 194, 202; male, 52, 54– 55, 78– 80, 85, 124, 150, 165, 166, 168, 184; in the market (vendedoras), 15, 26, 125–126 See also beauty: consultants selling: to family, 187–188, 191; process, 181, 198 See also direct sales; sellers “selling beauty,” 119–121 sexuality, 19, 106–107, 109–112, 115 shopping centers, 33, 76, 193, 199, 213 See also Mall del Sol; Mall del Sur; Policentro; Riocentro Sur; San Marino 3/28/11 1:23:00 PM 238 MAKING UP THE DIFFERENCE Sierra (Andean region), 5, 100, 104, 143–144 skin color, 33, 50, 94, 100, 101–103, 113, 114 See also race/ethnicity Sklair, Leslie, Smith, Dorothy E., 16 social class, vii, xiv, 4, 12, 21, 22, 26, 32, 41, 42– 44, 50, 51, 63, 65, 82, 83, 89, 93, 94, 95–100, 111, 113, 116–120, 123–130, 134–137, 141, 151, 153, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163–164, 175, 176, 186, 193, 194, 195–198, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 211, 215, 216; disguising class, 120, 127, 129, 135; middle class, 41, 42– 44, 51, 63, 65, 83, 98, 99, 113, 118, 119, 123– 124, 125, 126–127, 128, 129–130, 135, 136, 137, 153, 158, 162, 176, 193, 194, 200, 204, 205; social mobility, 51, 127–129, 135, 153; upper class, xiv, 44, 51, 83, 95–100, 113, 118, 123, 153, 176, 194; working/ lower class, 32, 44, 82, 119, 123, 127– 129, 136, 163, 186, 193 social movements, See also feminism/ feminist: movements social networks, xi, 4, 22, 44, 47, 130, 190, 198, 212–213, 216 See also kin networks social reproduction See “care work”/ care; domestic work/domestic responsibilities Solimano, Andrés, 7, Solís (Nevárez), Daniela, 32– 33, 68– 69, 124, 183, 186–187, 188 Spain, 6, 13, 105, 165 sports, 112 “stairway of success,” 143 Standing, Guy, 16 Stanworth, John, 10, 29, 168, 170 Stoeltje, Beverly, 100 “strategic partner,” 41, 74, 76, 78, 83 structural adjustment (policies/programs), 7, 20, 26, 28, 202 support networks, 26, 37– 39, 49, 50, 74, 218 survey, 14, 84, 180, 190–192, 199, 211, Casanova-final.indb 238 215–216, 219 See also Encuesta del Sistema de Información Social (ESIS) Sutton, Barbara, 118, 135, 136, 137, 177 Tabb, William K., Taylor, Rex, 30 telenovela, 107, 120; viendo novellas (watching soap operas), 169–170, 172 testimonies, 77, 118, 122, 139, 146 Thailand, 21, 22, 137, 174, 181 “Third World,” time management, vii, 25, 31– 32, 35– 36, 39, 40, 41, 48, 175 Torres, Alicia, 165 Torres (Zambrano), Nancy, 55– 56, 59, 120, 162, 164, 170 training, xii, 11, 36, 42, 44, 46, 47, 65, 72, 84, 117, 121–123, 143, 177, 180; materials, xiv, 11, 30, 33, 51, 70, 71, 77, 91, 98, 101, 109, 118, 120–122, 139, 144, 146, 182 transnational/multinational corporations, xi, 4, 9–10, 13, 16, 21, 22, 26, 90, 137, 158, 196 travel, 37, 44, 46, 97, 105, 193; international/luxury, 97– 98, 111, 113, 142; within city, x–xi, 62, 97, 186 trigueña, 101, 102 See also skin color “triple burden”/”triple shift,” 28, 48 Tugend, Alina, 179 Tupperware, xvi, 10, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 30, 66, 83, 154, 177, 181 Tutivén, Carlos, 118, 136 Twine, France Winddance, 5, 100 typical day, xi, 31– 35, 47 UEES See Universidad Espíritu Santo unconsolidated areas, 159–160, 176, 212 underemployment See employment: underemployment UNDP See United Nations Development Program unemployment See employment: unemployment unidas See marriage: common law uniforms See dress: uniforms Unique See Yanbal 3/28/11 1:23:01 PM INDEX United Nations, 84 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 1, 20 United States, xiii, 9, 10, 13, 20, 21, 22, 28, 33, 36, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 84, 93, 98, 100, 105, 106, 111, 113, 115, 122, 131, 133, 138, 142, 154, 166, 179, 182, 193, 199, 206, 208, 215, 216, 217, 218 See also migration: to U.S Universe, Miss, 108–109 See also beauty pageants Universidad Espíritu Santo (UEES), 190, 212, 216 Velasco, Pamela, 13 Venezuela, 8, 13, 34 Vera (Marín), (Mary) Belén, 36, 68, 93, 120, 187, 199, 213 Vincent, Susan, 10, 17, 19, 22, 52 Vistazo, 13, 14 Ward, Kathryn, 28 Watson, Robert, 17, 22, 106, 138, 182– 183, 188, 196–197, 199, 213 Weismantel, Mary J., 199 Weiss, Wendy, 6, 7, 14, 20, 158, 178 Westwood, Sallie, whiteness, xiv, 90, 100–104, 106, 113– 114, 125, 133–134, 136, 209, 217 See also race/ethnicity; skin color Whitten, Norman E., 100, 104 Wilk, Richard, 100 Williams, Christine L., 54, 55 Wilson, Ara, 10, 11, 18, 21, 22, 52, 115, 117, 137, 139, 150, 152, 153, 158, 174, 181 Wilson, Tamar Diana, 83, 168 Wolkowitz, Carol, 116, 117, 205 work, women’s, vii, 3, 4, 14–16, 26, 29– 31, 39, 54, 55, 59, 60, 66, 78, 150, 159, 177; women workers, 9, 27, 31, 36, 50, 56, 126, 131, 135, 163, 205, 207 See employment, women’s work and family, 20, 28, 29, 31, 35, 47, 206; balance, 25, 30, 31, 43, 46– 47, Casanova-final.indb 239 239 49, 50, 51, 204; confl ict, 12, 25–26, 28, 30, 36, 38, 40, 46, 48, 49, 53, 204, 208 Wotruba, Thomas R., 10, 29, 168, 170 Yanbal: catalog, vii, ix, xiv, 11, 12, 17, 33, 53, 55, 61– 62, 67, 70, 79, 80– 81, 84, 89–115, 116, 124, 126, 147, 167, 180, 188, 195, 196, 205, 209, 210, 215; corporate headquarters, 4, 147, 213; corporate staff, xii, 44, 78, 132, 139, 141, 147, 161, 192; credit policies, 85, 183, 192; history in Ecuador, 13–14; image of Yanbal company, 13, 93; meetings, xi, xii, 11, 18, 19, 34, 36, 42– 45, 47, 56, 57, 60, 64, 65, 66, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80, 89, 92, 93, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 128, 129, 131, 132, 139, 141, 146, 147, 167, 169, 189, 213, 214, 217, 218; national convention, xii, 122, 138–152, 165, 170, 196, 197, 211, 214; political influence, 1– 3, 148; website, 90, 93, 94, 106, 114, 146 See also Yanbal Ecuador Yanbal Ecuador, 1, 4, 13, 17, 18, 22, 53, 92, 106, 138, 139, 141, 146, 147, 153, 165, 180, 182, 188, 192, 195–198, 199 See also Yanbal Yanbalista(s), vii, xi, xiv, 26, 30, 35, 40, 43, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 62, 64, 66, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 92, 109, 113, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 133, 136, 138–139, 141, 144, 146, 149, 153, 158, 159, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 171, 174, 175, 181, 182, 184, 187, 189, 197, 205, 207, 213; organizational worldview, 56, 120, 127 youth products, 94, 95, 101, 103, 111– 112, 115 See also Clic Zambrano, Carlos, 79– 81, 85, 91, 124– 125, 136, 168, 184 Zambrano (Burgos), Tania, 56, 59, 71– 72, 213 3/28/11 1:23:01 PM ... meetings, presentations, and prizes; setting up and running laptop computers and projectors during meetings; and assisting during meetings in various ways When not in the office, I attended meetings... work The idea implicit in his statement is that these women are not supporting their families but just contributing a little something, making up the difference between the family’s income and. .. Masi de, 1977– Making up the difference : women, beauty, and direct selling in Ecuador / Erynn Masi de Casanova — 1st ed p cm — (Louann Atkins temple women & culture series ; bk 25) Includes bibliographical