Oil and nation a history of bolivias petroleum sector

Oil and Nation Energy and Society Brian Black, Series Editor Titles in the Series Oil and Nation: A History of Bolivia’s Petroleum Sector Stephen C Cote Oil a nd Nat ion A History of Bolivia’s Petroleum Sector Stephen C Cote West ­Virginia University Press Morgantown 2016 Copyright 2016 West ­Virginia University Press All rights reserved First edition published 2016 by West ­Virginia University Press Printed in the United States of Amer­i­ca 24 ​23 ​22 ​21 ​20 ​19 ​18 ​17 ​16 ​2 ​3 ​4 ​5 ​6 ​7 ​8 ​9 ISBN: cloth 978-1-943665-46-4 paper 978-1-943665-47-1 epub 978-1-943665-48-8 pdf 978-1-943665-49-5 Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress Cover design by Than Saffel Cover image by Than Saffel contents Introduction  ix Discovery: The Sucre Pioneers   Standard Oil and the Reshaping of Eastern Bolivia   30 Oil and the Chaco War   62 Oil and Nation   92 Oil and the Revolutionary State   121 Fall and Rise of the Oil State   140 Notes  155 Bibliography  183 Index  195 -1— 0— +1— 562-65182_ch00_7P.indd vi 09/20/16 10:06 am Figure 1.  Bolivia, administrative divisions (Washington, D.C., Central Intelligence Agency, 2006) Courtesy of the U.S Library of Congress Geography and Maps Division G5321.F7 2006 U5 Figure 2.  Bolivia, physical landscapes (Washington, D.C., Central Intelligence Agency, 2006) Courtesy of the U.S Library of Congress Geography and Maps Division G5320 2006 U5 int ro du c t ion In May 2006, Bolivian president Evo Morales renationalized his Andean country’s gas and oil reserves He named the decree Heroes of the Chaco, invoking the indigenous soldiers of the Chaco War of the 1930s, who defended Bolivia’s petroleum fields from advancing Paraguayan troops Morales declared to the nation and the world, “For more than 500 years our resources have been pillaged This has to end now.”1 As the country’s first indigenous president, Morales understood the historical connections between Bolivia’s natu­ral resources, Bolivian nationalism, and indigenous identity politics He exploited historical constructions and memories of the Chaco War, of per­sis­tent economic de­pen­ dency, and of the long indigenous strug­gle for basic rights and dignity to build the po­liti­cal capital necessary to demand more from the hydrocarbon sector to fund his economic and social goals Hydrocarbons (oil and natu­ral gas) hold special significance to Bolivians ­today, as they are one of a cluster of commoditized natu­ral resources, along with ­water and coca, that both galvanized social movements to overthrow the neoliberal regime of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in the Gas War of 2003 and set the stage for the historic election of Evo Morales in 2005 I watched the Gas War unfold when I was a gradu­ate student earning my master of arts at the University of Connecticut I became captivated by the images of indigenous peasants and miners leaving their homes and work to encircle the La Paz basin to protest a proposed natu­ral gas pipeline The pipeline was not yet ­under construction, but Bolivians w ­ ere out in the streets facing down their military Dozens lost their lives I learned how the pipeline protest was part of a larger historical strug­gle to protect 186 Bibliography información oral ante el H Senado, solicitada al canciller Dr. Alberto Ostria Gutiérrez Tarija: Tipografía “Antoniana,” 1940 ABNB Chesterton, Bridget María, ed The Chaco War: Environment, Ethnicity, and Nationalism New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2016 Church, George Earl “Northern Bolivia and President Pando’s New Map.” Geo­graph­i­cal Journal 18, no (August 1901): 144–153 Condarco Morales, Ramiro Zarate, El “Temible” Willka: Historia de la rebelión indígena de 1899 La Paz: Imprenta “Renovación,” 1983 Confederación Socialista Boliviana Programa de acción socialista La Paz: Imprenta “Renacimiento,” 1935 ABNB Coronil, Fernando The Magical State: Nature, Money, and Modernity in Venezuela Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997 Costa du 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Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1921 Scott, James Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the ­Human Condition Have Failed New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998 Seiferheld, Alfredo M Economía y petróleo durante la guerra del Chaco: Apuntes para una historia económica del conflicto paraguayo-­boliviano Asunción: Instituto Paraguayo de Estudios Geopolíticos e Internacionales, 1983 ABNB Siekmeier, James The Bolivian Revolution and the United States, 1952 to the Pres­ent College Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2011 Silverberg, Robert The Golden Dream: Seekers of El Dorado Athens: Ohio University Press, 1967 Slater, Candace Entangled Edens: Visions of the Amazon Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 Solberg, Carl Oil and Nationalism in Argentina: A History Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1979 Bibliography 193 Standard Oil Com­pany of Bolivia Confiscation: A History of the Oil Industry in Bolivia New York: Standard Oil Com­pany of Bolivia, 1939 SLSC 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Donna Lee The Friendly Liquidation of the Past: The Politics of Diversity in Latin Amer­i­ca Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000 Vargas Salgueiro, Augusto YPFB: Entre nacionalistas y liberales, ¿capitalización? . . . ​La Paz: Los Amigos del Libro, 1996 Walker, Charles The Tupac Amaru Rebellion Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014 Wilkins, Mira “Multinational Oil Companies in South Amer­i­ca in the 1920s: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ec­ua­dor, and Peru.” Business History Review 48, no (1974): 414–446 Wood, Bryce The Dismantling of the Good Neighbor Policy Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985 194 Bibliography YPFB Bolivia y the Standard Oil Com­pany: El juicio contencioso y contencioso-­administrativo seguido contra el Estado Sucre: Editorial Charcas, 1938 ABNB —­—­— Conferencia de prensa dictada por el Sr. Juan Luis Gutiérrez Granier, presidente del directorio de YPFB, La Paz, 21 de Noviembre de 1952 La Paz: Editorial e Imprenta Artística, S.A., 1952 ABNB —­—­— “Estadísticas petroleras de Bolivia,” Boletín del Instituto Sudamericano del Petróleo 2, no (December 1947): 703 BAC —­—­— La conquista del petróleo La Paz: YPFB, 1951 —­—­— Libro de oro de YPFB, 1936–1996 La Paz: YPFB, 1996 —­—­— Memoria anual 1954 La Paz: YPFB, 1954 APDSC —­—­— “Plan de trabajos de Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos.” Boletín del Instituto Sudamericano del Petróleo 2, no (October 1947): 594–601 BAC —­—­— Recopilación de tratados internacionales las repúblicas de la Argentina, Brasil y Paraguay sobre petróleo La Paz: YPFB, 1944 ABNB Zulawski, Ann Unequal Cures: Public Health and Po­liti­cal Change in Bolivia, 1900–1950 Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007 index Acre War (1903), 7, 32 agrarian reform, xvi, 93, 95, 131–134, 139, 144; eastern lowlands, 84, 179n45; Guatemala, 178n37 See also National Revolution of 1952 Aguila Doble concession, 68–69 Alandia Pantoja, Miguel, 138–139 Alexander, Robert, xv, 134–135, 179n57 Amazon Basin, xix, 6–8, 23–24, 32, 70, 152; oil in, 18, 22, 50 anticlines, xix, 49 Argentina, 10, 17, 23–24, 31–33, 37, 40, 46, 48, 57, 59, 67, 70, 90, 97, 130, 152, 163n23; role in the Chaco Peace Conference, 105–106, 135; role in the Chaco War, 64–66, 70, 74–75, 78–79, 84–86, 88–89, 95; state oil company, 25, 98 (see also Mosconi, Enrique; Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales); YPFB relations, 94, 99, 101, 106–108, 127, 137–138, 147 autonomy movements See regionalism (internal) Ayala, Eusebio, 87, 99 Aymara, xiii, xviii, 7–9, 75, 134, 138 Backus, Jacobo, 21, 38, 40, 51–53, 165n74 Banzer Suárez, Hugo, 147–149 Barbie, Klaus, 149 Barrientos Ortuño, René, 145–146 Bassler, Harvey, 6, 32–33, 36 Bermejo, 31–32, 38; pipeline controversy, 89–90, 109–110; Standard Oil camp, 31, 33, 46–47, 562-65182_ch02_7P.indd 195 49, 102–103; YPFB camp, 106–108, 127–128 Boland, Percy, 22, 160–161n65 Braden, Spruille, 12, 28, 35–37, 40, 162–163n23, 169n35 Brazil, 24, 30, 85–86, 98; Acre War, 7, 32, 65; Chaco Peace Conference negotiations, 105–108; natural gas exports to, 152 Busch, Germán, 93, 99, 138, 147, 178n32; president, 101, 104–105, 108–109, 120; role in the Chaco War, 83 Calvo, Carlos, 10, 26, 111–112, 158n27 Camatindi, 45; Standard Oil camp, 49, 82; YPFB camp, 102–103, 107, 127–128 cambas, xii, 4, 15, 157n7 Camiri: refinery, 79–80, 82, 99, 101; Standard Oil camp, 49, 56–58; YPFB camp, 102–103, 107, 114, 117, 119, 125, 127–128, 137 Catavi, 123, 130–131; mine massacre (1942), 115–116, 122 Chaco Boreal, xxii, 1, 64, 69–71, 85, 106 Chaco War, xiii–xv, xxi–xxiii, 17, 62, 70, 75, 77–78, 83–84, 91, 99, 111, 118; battles, 73–74, 81–83; border dispute, 64–65, 67, 68, 70–72; conspiracy theories of, 69, 84–91; involvement of the highland indigenous, ix, 91, 93; literature of, xiv, 62, 84; role of Standard Oil, 78–81, 88–90, 95 09/20/16 10:08 am —-1 —0 —+1 196 -1— 0— +1— Index Chaco War peace conference, 104–106, 108, 112, 162n23, 169n35 Chaco War peace treaty, 70–71, 83 Chaco War veterans, 62, 92–93, 96–97, 115, 121 See also Legion of Ex-Combatants Chile, 18, 24, 32, 36, 54–55, 98, 148, 167n114; Chaco War involvement, 75, 86; Operation Condor, 148–149 (see also Operation Condor); pipelines to, x, 137, 146, 151; War of the Pacific, xviii, 2–3, 5, 7, 41, 64–65, 85 Chiriguanos, xviii, 31, 48, 156n20 Chuquisaca, department of, 2; oil concessions, 9, 14, 18, 25, 50, 53; Standard Oil operations, 41, 44, 47–49 coca, ix, 13, 59, 116, 137 cocaine, 148–149 Cochabamba, 119, 133, 150; oil concessions, 52, 68, 143 (see also Aguila Doble concession; Gulf Oil); refinery, 117, 126–127, 137 Código Davenport, 142–143, 146 collas, xii colonization of the eastern lowlands, x, 3–4, 24, 32–33, 91, 93, 97, 119 COMIBOL See Corporación Minera de Bolivia Confederación Socialista Boliviana, 96 Conservative Party, xviii–xix, conspiracy theories, 62, 69, 79–80, 84–91, 95–96, 111 Corporación Minera de Bolivia (Mining Corporation of Bolivia, or COMIBOL), 130–131, 136 Costa du Rels, Adolfo, 10–12, 53, 158n22 Cuéllar, Manuel, 1, 3–4, 13, 29, 42; medical doctor, 1–2, 5, 12, 119; oil 562-65182_ch02_7P.indd 196 concessions, xx, 4–5, 9–10, 12, 15, 50, 53 Cuéllar y Cia., Deterding, Henri, 17 Eberly and Stebinger, 36, 38 Eisenhower, Milton, 134 Elder, Guillermo, 99, 173n22 El Dorado, 6, 7, 13–14 Export-Import Bank, 114–115, 127, 132–133 Farquhar, Percival, 12, 16–17 Fawcett, Percy, 7, 13, 20 Federación Sindical de Trabajadores Mineros de Bolivia (Federated Union of Mine Workers of Bolivia, or FSTMB), 122 Federalist Revolution (1899), xix, 8–9, 158n19 Finot, Enrique, 87, 105–106, 111–112 Foianini Banzer, Hugo, 22, 67, 99, 100–101, 104, 114, 137 Fortín Campero, 32, 45–46, 89 Frente Popular de Potosí, 98 García Meza Tejada, Luis, 149 Gas War of 2003, ix, 151–152, 164n46 Genuine Republicans, xix, 76 Geographical Society, Sucre, 4–5 Good Neighbor policy, 87, 109, 112–113 Gran Chaco See Chaco Boreal Great Depression, xxi, 23, 52, 54, 61, 67, 72, 74, 80, 99, 140 Guaraní, 13, 24, 47–48, 58, 73, 83–84, 127, 153 See also Chiriguanos Guevara, Ernesto “Che,” 144 Gulf Oil, x, 142–148, 178n32 09/20/16 10:08 am Index Hayman, Charles, 10, 27, 158n22 Hertzog Garaizábal, Enrique, 121–122, 127 Hoppe, Ivar, 32–33, 38, 59 hydrocarbons, ix, x, xiii, xxiii, 116, 139, 145, 150–154; cracking, 107; exports, 106, 137, 146 Incahuasi Petroleum Syndicate, 9–10, 12, 27 indigenismo, 97 Instituto Médico Sucre, 2, 5, 12, 119 Iturralde, Abel, 41–42, 112 kerosene, xx, 5, 21, 125 Kundt, Hans, 76–77, 80, 91 La Paz, xix, 43, 65, 67, 92, 103, 117, 129, 147, 151–152; capital of Bolivia, 9, 22, 26; Chaco War era, 76–77; oil concessions in, 18, 20, 50–51; regionalism (see regionalism (internal)), xii, xxiii, 30, 60 Lavadenz, Jorge, 104, 115, 117 Lavadenz Reyes, Luis, 15–18, 21, 25, 28, 42, 100, 104, 115, 160n53 League of Nations, 12–13, 65 Lechín Oquendo, Juan, 122–123, 129–130, 134 Legion of Ex-Combatants (LEC), 96–98, 125 See also Chaco War veterans Ley de Reserva Fiscal (1916), 19–21, 27, 35 Liberal Party, xviii–xix, 9, 24, 32, 40, 121–122 Long, Huey, 86–88 López, Pedro, 33, 41, 54, 112 Macharetí, 6, 10, 48, 50, 58, 82, 104 malaria, 15, 33, 59, 78, 119 See also tropical diseases 562-65182_ch02_7P.indd 197 197 Marof, Tristán, 88, 95, 115, 172n86 Mendoza, Jaime, 70, 119, 169n23 Mennonites, 70, 83 Mexico, 23–24, 54, 92–94, 96, 98, 101, 113, 133, 138 military socialists, x, 100, 108–109, 123, 138 See also Busch, Germán; Toro, David mining sector, xvi, xviii, 3, 16, 18–20, 25–28, 31, 39, 55, 100, 122, 141–142, 145 See also silver; tin missions (Roman Catholic), 4, 31, 48, 50, 83 Morales, Evo, ix, xii, 152–154 Mosconi, Enrique, 98, 107 Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), 96, 115–116, 122, 125, 128–129, 145, 149–150; Nazi putsch claim, 113–114; 1949 revolution, 123; revolutionary state, 121, 129–136, 138–142 (see also National Revolution of 1952); Villarroel government, 116–117 (see also Villarroel, Gualberto) Muñoz Reyes, Jorge, 99 National Indigenous Congress (1945), 94, 116 nationalizations: oil, ix–x, xvi, xxii, 19, 95–96, 100, 109–113, 123, 133, 146–148, 152–153; tin, 116, 121, 130–131, 133, 139 National Revolution of 1952, xiv–xv, xxii–xxiii, 62, 96, 121, 128–136, 139, 144, 147, 178n32, 180n75 (see also Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario) natural gas, ix, xxiii, 136, 145–148, 150–153, 168n18 See also hydrocarbons Navarro, Gustavo See Marof, Tristán Nazis, 113–114, 135, 149 09/20/16 10:08 am —-1 —0 —+1 198 Index neocolonialism, xviii, 6, 23, 90, 93 neoliberalism, ix–x, 149–152 oil nationalism, xx–xxi, 60, 62, 107, 122, 151 oil nationalists, xxii–xxiii, 54, 81, 99, 146 Operation Condor, 147–148, 178n32 Ovando Candía, Alfredo, 145–147, 178n32 -1— 0— +1— Pando, José Manuel, 9, 32 Paraguay, 30, 40, 56, 91, 99, 104–105, 108, 118; border dispute, 1–3, 64, 67; role in the Chaco War, 65, 68, 69–75, 77–89; YPFB relations, 106–107 Partido de Izquierda Revolucionario (PIR), 116 Patiđo, Simón, 12, 53, 72, 131 Paz Estenssoro, Víctor: MNR leader, xv, 115–116, 122, 128, 148; president, 129, 136, 141, 144, 149–150 Paz Zamora, Jaime, 150 peasants, ix, xiv, xvi, 121–122, 124, 129–132, 135, 139 See also agrarian reform; National Indigenous Congress (1945); pongueaje Peñaranda, Enrique, Chaco War general, 72, 76–77, 81–82; president, 113–116, 120 Peru, 20, 22, 54, 64, 75, 80, 98, 146 Petroleum Law of 1920, 28, 38, 40 Petroleum Law of 1921, 40 pipelines, 31, 51, 80, 86, 124, 146, 151; clandestine, 89–90, 109–110 (see also Bermejo); plans for, 27–28, 79, 106–108, 114, 127; protests over, ix–x, 151; YPFB projects, 117–119, 126–127, 133, 135, 137, 146–148 pongueaje, 97, 116–117, 132 562-65182_ch02_7P.indd 198 positivism, 5, 23 Potosí, xvii, 3, 31, 50, 52, 98 Prudencio Bustillo, José, 5–6, 15 Quechua, xiii, xviii, 1, 7–8, 75, 78 Quiroga Santa Cruz, Marcelo, 146–147, 149 rainy season of the Chaco, xix, 3, 16, 20, 32, 69 Razón de Patria (RADEPA), 97–98, 116 refineries, 21–22, 51, 90, 106–107, 124, 138–139, 146–147; Standard Oil refineries, 49, 58, 79, 80–82, 99, 140, 173n22; YPFB refineries, 101, 117, 119, 126–128, 133, 135, 137, 148 See also names of camps and cities regionalism (internal), xii–xiii, xvi, xxiii, 31, 55, 61, 67, 124, 132, 147, 153–154 Republican Party, xix, 30, 40, 125 resource curse, xi Revolution of 1952 See National Revolution of 1952 Reyes Molina, Ernesto, 5, 9–11, 15 Richmond Levering & Company, 28, 35–42, 44, 46, 112 Rockefeller Foundation, 118–119 rosca, xiv–xvii See also tin barons rotary drilling, 102–103, 124, 137 Royal Dutch Shell, 17, 88, 142 rubber, xviii, 7, 25, 32 Saavedra, Bautista, 8, 40, 42, 52, 55–56, 68, 140, 142 Saavedra Lamas, Carlos, 105–106, 108 Salamanca, Daniel, 67–68, 71–73, 75–76, 79–82, 93, 99, 140, 169n23 Sanandita: refi nery, 79, 81, 101; Standard Oil camp, 49; YPFB 09/20/16 10:08 am Index camp, 102, 104, 106–108, 125, 127–128 Sanchez de Lozada, Gonzalo, ix, 150–152, 164n46 Santa Cruz de la Sierra: city, xii, 10–11, 15, 35, 44, 57, 148, 158n24; department, 14, 17, 25, 41, 44, 49, 118; development xii, 19, 21–22, 56–57, 67, 91, 106, 127, 133, 145, 148; oil and gas revenues, 123; regional divisions, xii–xiii, xxi, 30–31, 147 Siles Reyes, Hernando, 52, 55–56, 65, 67, 73, 140 Siles Zuazo, Hernán, 129, 135, 149 silver, xvii–xix, 3, 9, 26, 31 Sindicato del Petróleo de Sucre, 9–10, 12, 50, 53–54 social Darwinism, 5, 8, 23 Solón Romero, Walter, 138 Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), xxi, 33, 35–39, 40–42, 80, 109–114, 124, 127, 142 Standard Oil Company of Bolivia, 33, 52–54, 65–66, 86–88, 102–104, 118–119, 125–126, 140, 164n41, 172n90; camps, 31, 47–50, 56–58, 89; Chaco War, xiv, 69, 71, 78–82, 86–89, 95 (see also Chaco War; conspiracy theories); conflict with the state, xxi, 55–56, 60, 68–69, 79–80, 89–90, 109–115; contract (1922), 36, 40–42, 52, 54–56, 59, 107; development of the east, xiii, 35, 43–49, 56–57, 60, 128; nationalization of, x, xi, xxii, 69, 93–95, 98, 100–102, 105, 133 (see also nationalizations) Suárez, Pedro, 7–8, 16–17 sub-Andes, xix–xx, 3–4, 22, 31, 35, 47, 50, 83 Sucre, 15, 19, 106; capital of Bolivia, xix, 1, 9; elite, 2–5, 9; refi nery, 126–128 562-65182_ch02_7P.indd 199 199 Tarija, Department of, 14, 25, 31–32, 38, 41, 44–45, 49, 107, 123, 127, 136, 151 See also Bermejo; Sanandita Tejada Sorzano, José Luis, 82, 92 Thesis of Pulacayo, 122 tin, x, xv, xvi, xix, xxi–xxii, 12, 24–26, 52, 67, 116, 136, 154; colonial economy, xviii (see also Potosí); exports to the United States, 113, 115, 122, 129, 142; nationalization of mines, 93, 121, 130–131, 133; production, 122 tin barons, xvi, 12, 26, 72, 75, 92, 116, 129, 131, 134, 154 See also Patiđo, Simón; rosca tin miners, xiv, 115–116, 144; role in the National Revolution of 1952, xv, xxii, 121–123, 129–130, 135 Toro, David, 52–53, 92–93, 99–101, 108, 138 Torres, Juan Jose, 147–148, 178n32 Treweek, Atanasio Pryor, 9–11, 158n22 tropical diseases, xiv, 70, 74, 77–78, 118, 126 See also malaria; yellow fever United States, 23, 26, 40, 67, 84, 95, 116, 119, 126–129, 138, 146–148, 152; Bohan Commission, 113; Chaco War and Peace Conference, 64, 86–87; Cold War, 121–122, 131, 133–135, 141, 144, 178n37; Department of State, 37, 87, 105, 109, 112–113; Revolution of 1952, xxii, 131–135, 139, 141–142; Standard Oil, 109, 112–115 Velasco, Miguel H., 21–22 Villa Montes, 11, 45, 57, 81–83, 106 09/20/16 10:08 am —-1 —0 —+1 200 Villarroel, Gualberto, 130, 134, 147, 178n32; death, 94, 117; president, 94, 114, 116–118, 120, 125–126 War of the Pacific See Chile Water War (2000), 150 Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF, Argentina), 70, 98–99, 104–105, 133 Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB), xv–xvi, xxii–xxiii, 91, 103–104, 106–107, 114–115, 117–118, 120, 124, Index 125–128, 133, 136, 139, 140–143, 146–147, 153; banzerato, 148–149; camps, 102; energy independence, xi, xxii, 137; exports, 137; foundation of, x, 93–94, 98–101; neoliberalism, 150–151; partnerships, 105, 136, 148; production levels, 102, 118, 120, 125–126, 128, 137, 143–145; social mission, 120, 123, 128, 137–138 yellow fever, 33, 78, 118–119 See also tropical diseases Zárate Willka, Pablo, -1— 0— +1— 562-65182_ch02_7P.indd 200 09/20/16 10:08 am ... Chaco, a grassy and xx Oil and Nation wooded savanna classified as dry tropical forest that crosses the borders of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina.24 The sandy and clay soils of the Bolivian... Pioneers   Standard Oil and the Reshaping of Eastern Bolivia   30 Oil and the Chaco War   62 Oil and Nation   92 Oil and the Revolutionary State   121 Fall and Rise of the Oil State   140 Notes  155... po­liti­cal and social consequences, including the Chaco War, the nationalization of Standard Oil, and the Revolution of 1952 Oil production also had environmental consequences xii Oil and Nation