Modern Girls on the Go Modern Girls on the Go GENDER, M O B I L I T Y, AND LABOR I N J A PA N Edited by Alisa Freedman, Laura Miller, and Christine R.Yano Stanford University Press Stanford,California Stanford University Press Stanford, California ©2013 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Modern girls on the go : gender, mobility, and labor in Japan / edited by Alisa Freedman, Laura Miller, and Christine R Yano pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8047-8113-8 (cloth : alk paper) — ISBN 978-0-8047-8114-5 (pbk : alk paper) Women—Employment—Japan—History—20th century Women—Employment— Japan—History—21st century Social mobility—Japan—History—20th century Social mobility—Japan—History—21st century Sex role—Japan—History—20th century Sex role—Japan—History—21st century Japan—Social conditions—20th century Japan—Social conditions—21st century I Freedman, Alisa, editor of compilation II Miller, Laura, 1953- editor of compilation III Yano, Christine Reiko, editor of compilation HD6197.M596 2013 331.40952—dc23 2012039001 ISBN 978-0-8047-8554-9 (electronic) Typeset by Bruce Lundquist in 10 /14 Minion Pro In memory of Yoko McClain (1924–2011) Contents List of Figures ix Preface: Modern Girls in a Global World xi Carol A Stabile You Go, Girl! Cultural Meanings of Gender, Mobility, and Labor Alisa Freedman, Laura Miller, and Christine R Yano PART I NEW FEMALE OCCUPATIONS Moving Up and Out: The “Shop Girl” in Interwar Japan 21 Elise K Tipton Elevator Girls Moving In and Out of the Box 41 Laura Miller Sweat, Perfume, and Tobacco: The Ambivalent Labor of the Dancehall Girl 67 Vera Mackie PART II MODELS AND MODES OF TRANSPORTATION “Flying Geisha”: Japanese Stewardesses with Pan American World Airways 85 Christine R Yano Bus Guides Tour National Landscapes, Pop Culture, and Youth Fantasies Alisa Freedman 107 v i i i C O N T E N T S PART III MODERN GIRLS OVERTURN GENDER AND CLASS The Modern Girl as Militarist: Female Soldiers In and Beyond Japan’s Self-Defense Forces 131 Sabine Frühstück The Promises and Possibilities of the Pitch: 1990s Ladies League Soccer Players as Fin-de-Siècle Modern Girls 149 Elise Edwards PART IV MODERN GIRLS GO OVERSEAS Miss Japan on the Global Stage: The Journey of Itō Kinuko 169 Jan Bardsley 10 Traveling to Learn, Learning to Lead: Japanese Women as American College Students, 1900–1941 193 Sally A Hastings 11 A Personal Journey Across the Pacific 209 Yoko McClain Bibliography 227 Contributors 253 Notes 257 Index 267 Figures Service in Japanese department stores, 1929 Yoko McClain arriving in Seattle, 1952 15 Mitsukoshi shop girls in uniform, 1921 30 “Elevator Girl Humor” illustration by Ogawa Takeshi, 1930 47 Takashimaya Elevator Girl Shinmura Miki 53 “Dance Hall” print by Kawanishi Hide, 1930 68 Cover illustration by Kitazawa Rakuten, 1925 73 First group of Japanese flight attendants, 1966 90 Japanese flight attendant Takahashi Fumiko 103 10 Participants in the first Hato Bus Contest, 1951 108 11 Bus Guide Kijima Arisa 116 12 A female service member on a disaster relief mission 133 13 Female service member on book cover 146 14 Shiroki Corporation corporate brochure 159 15 Beauty queen at a fashion show 180 16 Crown Prince Akihito Meets Miss Japan, 1953 184 17 Yoko McClain, family portrait 210 6 N OT E S TO C HAP TER 10 institution adopted early on, although the school began as the “Girls English Academy” and changed its name several times before it was recognized as a university after the war 3. These exact words are used by Yoko Matsuoka (1952: 101) 4. The experiences of the few Japanese women who traveled to Europe for education are beyond the scope of this study 5. Two biographies of Tsuda Umeko contain additional information about the girls who traveled with the Iwakura Mission (Furuki 1991b; Rose 1992) 6. Takeda Kin studied at Wellesley and Okami Kei at the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania 7. The four Japanese women who graduated from Mount Holyoke College in the 1890s were dependent upon ad hoc arrangements 8. Tsuda had welcomed Bacon to Japan to teach at the Peeresses’ School in 1888, and she had visited Bacon at Hampton Institute in Virginia in 1890 (Rose 1992: 79, 96) 9. Mrs Greene went to the United States in 1908, where she underwent surgery She returned to Japan in 1909 and died April 18, 1910 (Greene 1927: 335, 338–340) Fanny Greene remained in Japan until her father’s death in 1913 (Wellesley College Archives, Alumnae Biographical Files, Fanny Bradley Greene, 1894) 10. Florence Rhodes Pitman Gardiner (1854–1930), who lived near the school, was enlisted to teach three hours a week (Furuki 1991a: 403) Gardiner, who arrived in Japan as a single missionary in 1877, married James MacDonald Gardiner (1857–1925), an Episcopalian missionary in Japan from 1880 “Miss Schereschewsky” was undoubtedly a relative of Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewsky (1831–1906), an Episcopalian missionary to China who lived in Tokyo from 1897 until his death in 1906 (Takeuchi 1995: 83, 176–177) 11. Among them were Kawai Michi in 1904, Suzuki Utako in 1906, Kawashima Yoshiko in 1909, Hoshino Ai in 1912, Yamada Koto in 1916, Kasuya Yoshi in 1923, and Fujita Taki in 1925 12. A student at Tsuda from 1905 to 1907, Tsuji (Okonogi) Matsu went to the United States under the sponsorship of the Education Ministry She studied for two years at Wellesley College before going to Oxford University Returning to Japan in August 1910, she taught from April 1911 until her marriage in 1917 at the Tokyo Women’s Higher Normal School Beginning in September 1915, she also taught part-time at Tsuda Academy (Tsuda Juku Daigaku 1960: 141) That same year, Uemura Tamaki, the daughter of a prominent Tokyo clergyman, graduated from Wellesley College and soon thereafter began teaching at Tsuda (Haga 1993: 144) 13. Dogura Masa was educated at Dōshisha in Kyoto Her study at Bryn Mawr, from which she graduated in 1897, was sponsored by Mary Morris and her husband, Wistar (Kawai 1934: 134) 14. Mary M Haines (1860–1928) served at one point as a teacher at the Friends’ School in Tokyo She lived with her mother, Margaret Vaux Wistar Haines (1831–1917) and her sister Jane (1860–1937), Bryn Mawr class of 1891, and thus a classmate of Tsuda Umeko’s (Wyck House 2009) 15. Because Mary Morris’s daughter Holly died young, Mary Morris brought up Holly’s children, Margaret and Charles Wood NOTES TO CHAPTER 10 267 16. Camp Wohelo was founded in 1907 by Luther Halsey Gulick (1865–1918) and his wife Charlotte, who together founded Camp Fire Girls in 1910 It is not exactly clear why Mishima attended that particular camp, but the Gulick family had long-standing ties to Japan Luther Gulick’s brother Sidney was a Congregational missionary there from 1888 to 1913 On Sidney Gulick, see Taylor (1984) 17. A list of the recipients of the scholarship and their contributions to women’s education can be found in Uchida (2000: 200–201) Index Note: Page numbers in italic type indicate figures Abe Hiromi, 85–86, 99 Abe Masao, Golden Fugue, 260n13 Affective labor, 10 See also Emotional labor Agency, xii, Air girls, 5–6, 24 Airplane tours, 110 AKB48, 125 Akihito, Crown Prince, 169, 183, 184, 185–86 Akogare (longing), 101 “Akogare no Hawaii Koro” (song), 96 Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, 212, 216 Allison, Anne, 147 “Aloha ‘Oe” (song), 97 Always: Sunset on Third Street (films), 124 Ambassadors of Cute, 10–11 American Women’s Scholarship for Japanese Women (AWSJW), 196, 198, 207 Anderson, John, xi Anime, 43, 61, 64, 125, 126, 142, 145 Aoki Misako, 11 Appadurai, Arjun, 94 Appappa (summer dress), 11 Arab world, 187 Arafō (around forty), Archer Institute, 195 Architecture: of dancehalls, 69, 81; of department stores, 29 Asahi (newspaper), 13, 113 Bacon, Alice, 196, 198, 200, 266n8 Bacon, Leonard, 196 Bain, Donald, Coffee, Tea, or Me, 87, 260n2 Banet-Weiser, Sarah, 189 Ban Kaoruko, 202 Barbour, Levi L., 204 Bardsley, Jan, Barry, Kathleen, 92 Baseball, 153, 154 Beautiful girl figurines, 124 Beauty: beauty contestants and, 172, 188–89; bus guides and, 114; Japanese popular interest in, 188, 191–92; race and, 101–2; social mores concerning, 171, 188–89; universal standards of, 181 Beauty queens, 1, 169–92; appearance of, 172; contradictions facing, 171; cultural significance of, 169, 170, 173, 187; in Miss Universe contest, 174–82; and mobility, 169, 172; outfits of, 172–73, 179–80 Becker, Bill, 182 Beppu, Japan, 110 Berryz Kōbō, 63, 126–27 Blue Hawaii (film), 96 “Blue Hawaii” (song), 97 I N D E X Body, of beauty queens, 181–82, 187–88 Brenau College, 201 Brothels See Prostitution Bryn Mawr College, 195–96, 198–202, 204, 208, 266n13 Bubble economy, 58, 151–53, 191 Buddhism, 211 Bungei shunjū (journal), 191 Burikko (“fake child”), 56 Bus conductors, xiii, 107, 108, 110, 111, 127 Bus drivers, 111–12, 124, 127 Bus girls, 24, 107–9, 112 Bus guides, xiii, 2, 107–28, 108; appearance of, 114; commentary of, 111, 114; contradictory characteristics of, 108–9; cultural significance of, 108, 112–14; duties of, 111–12; elevator girls compared to, 127; on Hato buses, 112–14; history of, 107–8, 110; male, 110, 261n1; and modernity, 110–12; and national pride, 112–14; passengers’ relationship to, 108, 112, 117; public perception of, 117, 123–26; qualifications for, 110; representations of, 117–23, 262n8; and sexuality, 125; songs about, 123, 125–26; as subject of the gaze, 117–18; as tourist attractions, 114–15, 117; as toys, 123–25; training of, 114–15; uniforms of, 111, 113, 122, 124–25, 127; work ethic of, 108, 115, 117 Bus tours, 107–28, 113; commentary on, 111; cost of, 110; passengers on, 107; themes of, 110, 112–13, 115; of Tokyo, 112–14 Café waitresses, , 31–32, 36–37, 51, 71–72, 259n9 Carrier, James, 101 Catalina swimwear company, 175, 180 Catholic schools, 212 Central Review (journal), Chandler, Jeff, 175, 186 Chang, Leslie T., xiv “Cheesecake from the Skies” (song), 175–76 Cheng, Anne, 101–2 China, 212 Chinoiserie, 77 Chizuru Saeki, 185 Chūō kōron (Central Review) [journal], 26, 36 Clark, Robert, 219 Class: air travel and, 93–97; dancehalls and, 76–77; separation maintained by, 211 See also Middle-class women Clothing: beauty queens’ outfits, 172–73, 179– 80; modernity and, 32–33; undergarments, 35, 49–50; Western-style, 11, 32–33, 50, 71, 77, 120, 206 See also Uniforms Cobb, Lee J., 186 Cocktail generation, 89 Code switching, 60 Coffee, Tea, or Me (Bain), 87, 260n2 Cold War, 89, 174–75, 177, 183, 185 College students, 193–208; cultural education of, 198, 203–4, 208; earning graduate degrees, 205–6; Japanese educational opportunities for, 197; networks formed by, 207–8; opportunities for, 202–6; study abroad by, 194, 197–202, 204–8, 215, 218–22; Tsuda College’s influence on, 194, 197–202, 204–8, 215 Colonialism, 69, 77–79, 81–82 Columbia Rose, 123, 262n11 Columbia Teachers’ College, 203 Comic Times (magazine), 46 Communism, 185 Constitution, Japanese, 132, 170 Contact zones, 88 Cornell College, Iowa, 201 Corporate loyalty, of Pan Am employees, 85, 97–101 Cosmopolitanism, 1, 94, 105–6, 131, 171 Cotton, Joseph, 183 Crayon Shin-Chan (anime series), 43–44, 61–62 Cressey, Paul G., The Taxi-Dance Hall, 69 Cresswell, Tim, 9, 87 Cuteness, 10, 124 Daily Life Reform Movement, 27, 32, 35 Daimaru department store, 45 Dalby, Liza, 49 Dana Hall, Wellesley, Massachusetts, 205 Dancehall girls, xiii, 1, 67–82; appearance of, 67, 70, 77, 80; attractiveness of, 71; cultural significance of, 67, 72–74; earnings of, 70, 75; as Modern Girls, 67, 70–74, 77; motivations for becoming, 81, 259n8; in occupied Japan, 79–82; representations of, 67, 68, 70, 72, 74–77; and sexuality, 72; working conditions of, 75 Dancehalls: American, 68–69; architecture of, 69, 81; attraction of, 71–72; class and, 76–77; clients of, 69; colonialism and, 69, 77–79, INDEX 271 81–82; costs associated with, 70; cultural significance of, 68–69; gender and, 75–77; in occupied Japan, 79–82; social reform and, 74; Tokyo, 70–71, 74 Dating, 36 Dear Daniel, 124 Department store clerks See Shop girls Department stores: American, 48, 54; effect of displays in, 36; elevator girls’ importance to, 42, 54, 63; modernity of, 29; operating hours of, 31–32; ownership of, 31; public opinion on, 38; recruitment of women by, 29; and sexuality, 36–37 Desire See Longing Diet, 35 Dilts, Marion, 208 Disneyland, 113 Dōshisha, Kyoto, 266n13 Dogura Masa (later Countess Uchida), 198, 266n13 Dohhh Up, 127 Domestic workers, 51 Donna Reed Show, The (television series), 101, 261n13 Doves, 112–14 Dream Ladies soccer team, 156, 163 Dulles, John Foster, 185 Dyer, Richard, 171 Earlham College, 201–2 Ebara Natsuko, 198 Ebara Soroku, 198 Economic bubble, 58, 151–53, 191 Edo, Japan, 110 Edwards, Brian, 187 Edwards, Elise, 137 Eisenhower, Dwight, 175 Eiwa Girls’ School, Shizuoka, 199 Elevator Day, 46 Elevator girls, xiii, 1, 24, 41–65; attractiveness of, 48, 57; bus guides compared to, 127; and class, 48, 50–51, 56, 65; cultural significance of, 43, 63–65; history of, 46, 47, 48; job responsibilities of, 45, 52, 54; media representations of, 41, 43–44, 46; and modernity, 42, 64; motivations for becoming, 51, 59; nostalgia for, 63–64; public opinion on, 63; public perception of, 42–43, 51, 57–58; public vs private lives of, 41–46, 51, 58–65; role and performance of, 41–42, 51–58, 60, 64–65; and sexuality, 43; training of, 51–52, 54, 56–57; uniforms of, 42, 52, 54–56, 127; in United States, 45, 48; voices and language use of, 56–57, 60; working conditions of, 59–60 Elevator Nightmare (film), 44 Elevators, 46, 48 Elizabeth, Queen, 185 Elkinton, Joseph, 198, 200, 203 Emergent cosmopolitanism, 105–6 Emotional labor, 54, 93, 127 See also Affective labor Emperor, role of, 170 Engels girls, 5, 24 English language, 212–14 Enomoto Chikatoshi, 70 Equal Employment Opportunity Law, 9, 134, 158 Eroticism: of female soldiers, 141–45; of female workers, 4; of modernity, See also Sexuality Esquire (magazine), 181 Eugenics, 103 Exoticism, 73, 79, 80, 86, 89–90 Fantasy: beauty queens as subject of, 173; bus guides as subject of, 108, 123–25; stewardesses as authors of, 94–97; stewardesses as subject of, 86 FC Barcelona, 150 Female Service Members 2012 Calendar, 145 Female soldiers, 1, 132–48, 133; ambiguities and tensions faced by, 132–33, 147–48; characteristics of, 154; eroticism of, 141–45; and gender, 132–35, 137–39; history of, 134–35; and marriage, 139–41; and mobility, 134, 136, 139–41; motivations for becoming, 135–37, 153–54, 263n4; off-base expectations for, 139–40; in popular media, 143–47; recruitment of, 134, 137, 141–43; representations of, 135, 141–47; in SDF public relations/recruitment material, 141–43; uniforms of, 142–44; wages of, 139 Female workers and work: advantages of, for employers, 31; attractiveness of, 48, 57, 71; as comforting presence, 10, 14, 48, 92; conditions for, 9–10, 32, 158; contributions and significance of, 2–3, 7–8; dangers posed by, I N D E X 23; eroticism of, 6; gender roles for, 38–39; media representations of, 9; middle-class, 23–28; mobility of, 9–10; modernity and, 22–23; moral issues concerning, 37; motivations of, 259n8; professional, 24–27; scholarship related to, 12–14; and technology, 10, 14, 48, 92 Feminism, 26–27, 135, 181, 191 Feminist militarists, 133 Ferris School, Yokohama, 199 Filipinos, 50, 69 Fleming, Rhonda, 175, 186 Florida Dancehall, 70 “Flying geisha,” 86, 92–93 Franky, Lily, Tokyo Tower, 124 Friday (magazine), 157 Friends’ School, Tokyo, 266n14 Friends Service Committee, 219–20 Fujin kō ron (Women’s Review) [magazine], Fujiokai Shizuka, 11 Fujita Construction, 155 Fujita Taki, 197, 200–201, 206, 266n11 Fukui Kikusaburō, 198 Fukuoka, Japan, 110, 115 Fulbright Fellowship, 218 Furuhashi Hironoshin, 187 Gāru, 5, 44–45, 72 Gardiner, Florence Rhodes Pitman, 266n10 Gardiner, James MacDonald, 266n10 Gaze, the, 11, 117–18, 181–82 Geisha, 45, 86, 90, 92–93, 113 Gender: dancehalls and, 68, 75–77; elevator operators and, 48; female soldiers and, 132–35, 137–39; in the Jet Age, 88; soccer and, 157–60, 163, 264n8; stewardesses and, 86–87, 92 Gender roles: department stores and, 37; in labor force, 38–39; transgressions of, xi–xii, 8, 15, 23, 50; in young adulthood and marriage, 22, 27, 28, 95–96, 191 Geta (clogs), 120 Ghent, Kenneth S., 219 Ginza, Japan, 30, 32, 36 Girl culture, xii, xiv Girl Guides, 45 Girls and young women: characteristics of, as workers, 4; concepts of, 11; industrialization and, xiv; labeling of, 8; living arrange- ments of, 33, 96, 108, 118; loanword “girl” in Japanese culture, 44–45; modernity and, xi–xii, 1–9, 13–16, 71, 89 (see also Modern Girls); as objects of the gaze, 11; pre-modern, 8–9; rights of, 170–71; in SDF public relations/recruitment material, 141–43; stereotypes of Japanese, 86, 91–92; wages of, 29 See also Female workers and work; Modern Girls Girl Scouts, 45 Girls English Academy, Tokyo See Tsuda College Girl’s Friend (magazine), 118 Girls’ Higher School Law, 26 “Girls’ love” manga, 62 Glico chocolate, 64 Globalization, 153 Gloves, 111 Godzilla film series, 147 Goffman, Erving, 41 Going Up: I Am an Elevator Girl (video), 43 Goodman, Bryna, xiii “Good wife, wise mother” ideal, 22, 27, 33, 38 Gordon, Andrew, 259n10 Goucher College, 205 Government See Japan Gown competitions, 182 Grant, Cary, 183 Great East Japan Earthquake (2011), 2, 135 Great Kantō Earthquake (1923), 4, 30–31, 71, 110, 207, 210 Greene, Daniel Crosby, 196 Greene, Fanny, 197, 266n9 Greene, Mary Jane, 196–97, 266n9 Greenfeld, Karl, Speed Tribes, 44 Gulick, Charlotte, 204, 267n16 Gulick, Luther Halsey, 204, 267n16 Gulick, Sidney, 267n16 Gusterson, Hugh, 133 Haines, Jane, 199, 266n14 Haines, Margaret Vaux Wistar, 199, 266n14 Haines, Mary, 199, 200, 266n14 Hair nudes, 144, 264n12 Hakodate, Japan, 79 Halaby, Najeeb, 86 Hamaya Hiroshi, 70 Hampton Institute, Virginia, 200 Hansen, Myrna, 181 INDEX 273 Harajuku fashion queens, 11 Hart, Sophie Chantal, 202–4 Hartshorne, Anna C., 196–98 Hartshorne, Charles, 198 Hastings, Sally, 215 Hato Bus company, 112–15, 121–22, 124–25, 127, 262n12 Hato Bus Contest, 108 Hato Girl, 112–14 Hawaiian Nights (film), 187 Hawai’i fever, 96–97 Hawaii no Waka Daisho (film), 96 Hayashi Fumiko, 118, 121, 262n10 Health, 34–35, 156, 201 Hebdige, Dick, 145 Hello Kitty, 124, 262n12, 262n13, 262n14 Hello! Project, 125–26 Hideki Tōjo, 213 Hideko the Bus Conductress (film), 118–21 Hirano Chieko, 201 Hiratsuka Raichō, 26 Hirohito, Emperor, 183, 213, 216 Hochschild, Arlie, 54, 93 Hokkaido Development Bureau, 195 Home Ministry, 74 Honolulu, Hawai’i, 96, 260n7 Hoshino Ai, 197–203, 206, 214–16, 266n11 Hoshino Hanako, 205 Housewives, 22, 27, 33, 38 Huyck, Mrs., 207 Hyper Beautiful Girl-Type Military Magazine, 145 Hypergamy, 102 Ibuka Hana, 208 Ibuse Masuji, Miss Okoma, 118–20 Ichikawa Fusae, 34 Iguchi Tetsuya, 165 Iidabashi Dancehall, 70 Ikarosu publishing company, 145 Ikeuchi Dancehall, 70 Image-texts, 171–72, 265n2 Inazuma Eleven (television anime series), 126 Independence, 8, 26 Individuality, 153–54 Inoue Shōichi, 49–50, 187, 189 International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 193 Isetan department store, 30 Ishida Shizuko, 202 Ishikari Jirō, 34–35, 37 Ishimaru Masayuki, 158 Itō Kinuko, 169–92, 180, 184 Itō Nōe, 26 Ivy House, Germantown, Pennsylvania, 198–99 Iwakura Mission, 194–95 Japan: and air travel, 88; as child, 143, 264n11; and dancehalls, 79, 81; economic miracle of, 91; as female/feminine, 142–43, 171; occupation of, 79–82, 92, 170, 208, 217; postwar status of, 91, 100, 169–71, 183, 187; Sino-Japanese War (1937), 212; United States’ relations with, 170, 177, 185; and World War I, 202; and World War II, 74, 79, 112, 115, 213–16 Japan Air Lines, 90, 261n9 Japan Elevator Association, 46 Japanese Americans, 90–91, 178–79, 185, 220–21 Japanese Constitution, 132, 170 Japanese Road and Transportation Law, 112 Japanese Self-Defense Forces (SDF), 1, 10, 132–48; advancement in, 138–39; gender issues in, 132–35, 137–39; history of, 263n1; and modernity, 133–34; motivations for joining, 135–37, 263n4; officers in, 136–37; in popular media, 143–47; public relations of, 135, 141–43; recruitment for, 134, 137, 141–43 Japanese Women Working (Hunter, ed.), 13 Japan Ladies Soccer League (JLSL), 155–56 Japan League (J-League), 149, 153, 154, 156 Jazz Age, 89 Jet Age, 88, 89, 94, 98, 104–6, 108, 114 Jibun sagashi (self-discovery), 58, 60 Jiji manga (Comic Times) [magazine], 73, 73 J-League See Japan League Jodai Tano, 205 Jordan Schnitzer Museum, University of Oregon, 221, 223 Kaetsu Takako, 35 Kaizō (journal), 31 Kajimoto Masako, 140–41 Kamon Yōko, 142 Kasuya Yoshi, 197, 202–4, 206, 266n11 Kata training, 51 Kawabata Yasunari, Being a Woman, 113 I N D E X Kawaii culture, 124 Kawai Michi, 198–99, 201–2, 206, 208, 266n11 Kawanishi Hide, “Dance Hall,” 67, 68 Kawasaki Mizue, 139 Kawashima Yoshiko, 201, 266n11 Kayama Yuzo, 96 Keisen Jogakuen, 202 Kelsky, Karen, 207 Kewpie, 124 KidZania Tokyo, 127 Kijima Arisa, 115, 116, 128 Kim Jinsong, 260n14 Kimono, 32, 49–50, 179, 217 Kimura Yu, 11 Kinai Fumi, 204–5 King-O’Riain, Rebecca Chiyoko, 179 Kiraku-kan Dancehall, 70 Kirk, Abby, 199 Kiss girls (kisu gāru), 5, 44 Kitazawa Rakuten, 73, 74 Kitazawa Shūichi, 5, 21, 31, 33–34, 36 Kiuchi Ai, 205 Klein, Christina, 89, 177 Kobe, Japan, 79 Kobe College, 194 Kojima Akiko, 189–90 Kokka Dancehall, 70 Komatsu Eriko, 58, 60 Konoe Fumimaro, 213 Kon Wajirō, 7, 32, 70, 257n2; and Modernology, 7, 70–71, 75 Korea, 79, 260n14 Korean War, 170 Kristof, Nicholas, 56 Kumagai Saki, 149 Kuroda Kiyotaka, 195 Kurotani, Sawa, 101 Kuroyanagi Hiroko, 136 Kyoto, Japan, 30 Labor conditions See Working conditions Ladies Club (magazine), 188 Ladies League soccer, 1, 149–65; corporate involvement in, 151–52, 155–65; cultural significance of, 151–54; and gender, 157–60, 163, 264n8; history and development of, 150–51; nontraditional character of, 152–55, 157–60, 265n4; participation in, 265n3; popularity of, 149–50 Language: class and, 56–57, 91; English, 212–14; Japanese stewardesses and, 90–91 Lanman, Charles, 195 Latour, Bruno, 151 Lee, Leo Ou-fan, 78 Legs, 6–7 Leisure, of shop girls, 32 Levy, Indra, 206 Lewis, Eliza Adams, 198, 202 Life (magazine), 85–86, 91–92, 99 Lightning (film), 121–22 Lindsey, Benjamin Barr, Companionate Marriage, 36 Lolita type, 11, 62–63, 145 Long Beach Independent Press-Telegram (newspaper), 176–79, 181–82 Longing, 101, 145, 147 Love, Western notions of, 36 Macadam, Carrie, 197 MacArthur, Douglas, 79 MacCoy, Margaret, 200 MacCoy, W Logan, 200 Macdonald, Caroline, 197 Madame Butterfly (opera), 170, 179 Madeira School, McLean, Virginia, 201 Mademoiselle (magazine), 190 Maeda Hajime, Story of Working Women, Maids, 211–12 Mainichi (newspaper), 158 Mainichi Daily News (newspaper), 174 Manchukuo, 79 Manchurian repatriates, 173–74 Manga, 61–63, 124, 125, 145 Mannequin girls, 5, 24, 44 Marriage: age at, 22, 29, 108, 139; female soldiers and, 139–41; gender roles in, 22, 27; interracial, 222–23; of Itō Kinuko, 190–91; soccer players and, 160–61; and social mobility, 102; social mores concerning, 189; stewardesses and, 102–4, 261n11; Western notions of, 36; women’s preparations for, 22, 27, 28 Marx girls, Masako, Crown Princess, 212 Mascots, 10 Massey, Doreen, 23 Matsubara Yukue, 136 Matsuda Michi, 198 INDEX 275 Matsuoka Yuzuru, 209, 210, 211 Matsuzakaya department store, 46, 48, 63 Maxwell, Sally, 219 McClain, Yoko, 15, 16, 197, 209–25, 210; American Common Sense, Japanese Common Sense, 224; Handbook of Modern Japanese Grammar, 209, 224 McDonald’s, 41 McVeigh, Brian, 55 Media: elevator girls in, 41, 43–44, 46; female soldiers in, 143–47; Modern Girls in, 4–6, 9, 12, 26; sexism in, 143–45; urban living in, 29; women’s soccer in, 149–50 Media Factory, 13–14, 52, 115, 117, 257n6 Meiji Restoration, Mercury (newspaper), 80 Messi, Lionel, 150 Mibai Sugi, 205 Michiko, Empress, 212 Middle-class women: anxieties concerning, 23–24; elevator girls, 48, 50–51, 56, 65; employment of, 23–28; language and, 56–57, 91; maids of, 211; roles of, 22; shop girls, 37 Migration See Rural-to-urban migration Miller, Laura, 115, 188 Mills, Mary Beth, 22–23 Mills College, 201, 205 Mini Moni, 126 “Mini Moni Bus Guide” (song), 126 Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare, 156 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism, 48 Miscegenation laws, 222–23 Mishima Sumie (Seo), 80–81, 193, 202–4, 207–8 Miss Japan, 169–92 Miss Kirk’s School, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, 199–200 Miss Nisei Week Festival Queen competition, 178 Miss Universe contest, 169, 170, 172–82, 186–87, 189–90 Miss U.S.A contest, 178–79 Mitsui Company, 198 Mitsukoshi department store, 29, 30, 30, 211 Miyazawa Rie, 55, 58, 64 Mizutani Fūka, Melancholy of the Wolf, 62–63 Mobility: beauty queens and, 169, 172; contradictory characteristics of, 9, 87–88; of female workers, 9–10; of Modern Girls, 6–7; modernity and, 2, 4–9, 151; shop girls and, 21–22; soccer and, 151–52; soldiers and, 134, 136, 139–41; stewardesses and, 87–88, 105 Mochida Naoto, 191 Modan, Models, 174, 188 Modern Boy, Modern Girl (exhibition), 12 Modern Girl Around the World (Modern Girl Around the World Research Group), 12 Modern Girls: appearance of, 6, 74; attractiveness of, 31; characteristics of, 6, 71, 89, 131; clothing of, 11; dancehall girls as, 67, 70–74, 77; dangers confronting, 50; debates about, 24; influence of concept of, 7–8; legs of, 6–7; media representations of, 4–6, 9, 12, 26; mobility of, 6–7; morality of, 24, 33–34, 50; scholarship related to, 12–14; sexuality of, 24, 32; soccer players as, 151, 164; stewardesses as, 104–5; types of, 5, 24 See also Female workers and work; Modernity: girls/young women and Modern Girls and Colonial Modernity (Ruri, Hiroko, and Barlow, eds.), 12 Modern Girls around the World, 6, 12, 89, 131 Modernity: bus guides and, 110–12; clothing and, 32–33; dangers of, xi–xii, 6; department stores and, 29; elevator girls and, 42, 64; erotic character of, 4; girls/young women and, xi–xii, 1–9, 13–16, 71, 89; historical and cultural contingency of, xii–xiii; images of, 4–6; mobility and, 2, 4–9, 151; SDF and, 133–34; shop girls and, 24, 31; soccer and, 155; stewardesses and, 88–89, 100; working women and, 22–23 Modernology, 7; New Guide to Greater Tokyo, 70–71, 75 Moe yo! (Longing!) (book series), 145, 146, 147 Moga See Modern Girls Momoya Company, 117 Moon landing, 100–101 Morality: of Modern Girls, 24, 33–34, 50; of shop girls, 35; of Western culture, 32 See also Social mores Mori Arinori, 195 Mori Yoshiko, 202 Morning Musume, 126 Morris, Mary Harris, 196, 199, 200, 266n13, 266n15 Morris, Wistar, 266n13 I N D E X Moseley, Rachel, 171 Motherhood protection debate, 26 Motoda Mitsu, 205 Mount Holyoke College, 208, 266n7 Movies, American, 212 Movie theater usher cinema girls, 44 Murakami Ayame, 111 Murayama Yone, 202 Mutual Security Treatment Agreement, 185 Nadeshiko Japan, 1–2, 149–50, 164–65, 264n8 Nadeshiko League See Ladies League soccer Nagai Shigeko, 195 Nagaoka, Japan, 217 Nagasaki, Japan, 79 Nagasaki Shinbun (newspaper), 79 Naginata (martial art), 212 Nakamoto Takako, 259n10 Nakamura Chitose, 125 Nakamura Shizu, 202 Naoto Kan, 150 Nara, Japan, 115 Nara Kotsu Bus company, 115 Naruse Mikio, 117–22, 262n10 Nationalism, 213 Natsume Fudeko, 209, 211 Natsume Kyoko, 209–10 Natsume Sōseki, 209–10; Mon, 211; Sanshirō, New Carlton Hotel, Shanghai, China, 77–79 New Japan Tourism Company, 112 New woman, xii, 26 New Women’s Association, 26–27 New York Times (newspaper), 45 Nichigeki theater, 188 Nihonbashi, Japan, 30, 36, 48 Nihon Joshi Hodōdan (Girl Guides of Japan), 45 Niigata, Japan, 217 Nii Itaru, Nikkatsu Studio, 118 Nikkei Weekly (newspaper), 165 Nikko Securities, 155–57, 161–63 Ninomiya Tei, 208 Nippon Times (newspaper), 182, 183 Nishida Kitarō, 201 Nishijima Dai, 118 Nitobe Inazō, 198 Nomura Toshihiko, 74 Norihei Miki, 117 Nostalgia, 12, 63–64 Nurses, 25, 134 Ōi Fumi, 205 Ōta Saburō, “Café Waitress,” 259n9 Oberlin College, 205 Occidentalism, 101 Odakyū department store, 52, 63 Oe Mariko, 127 Office work, 25 Ogawa Takeshi, 46, 47 Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko, 111 Okada Mitsuko, 208 Okada Tsugi, 201 Okami Kei, 266n6 Okamoto Shinako, 200 Okinawa, Japan, 31 Okonogi Matsu, 199–200 Olympic Games (Tokyo, 1964), 91, 113 One-star girls (wan sutā gāru), One-yen taxi girls (entaku gāru), Ono Haruko, 202 Open-roof buses, 113 Orai (all right), 112, 117, 262n3 Orientalism, 186–87 Osaka, Japan, 30, 71, 74, 112 Osaka Hanshin department store, 56 Otaku (avid fans), 124 Otani Kyoko, 189 Otherness: of dancehall girls, 73; of the West, 101 Oxford University, 266n12 Ozu Yasujirō, 113–14 Pachio, Christina, 177 Pan American Alumni Association, 86, 97 Pan American World Airways, 1, 85–106, 175, 261n9, 261n12 “Pan Am smile,” 99, 261n12 Patriarchy, 4, 23, 49, 92 Pax Americana, 174–75 Pearl Harbor, 213 Peeresses’ School, 195 Pendleton, Ellen F., 203, 208 Pennsylvania Women’s Horticultural School, 206 Peopo, 10 Performance, of social roles, 41 Philadelphia Committee, 199–201, 203 INDEX 277 Philippines, 177 Popular music, 125–26 Pornography, 12, 125, 145, 264n12 Power, Tyrone, 212–13 Pratt, Mary Louise, 88 Pre-modern girls, 8–9 Presley, Elvis, 96 Prince Pickles, 10 Principia College, 265n1 Print club self-photography, 64 Private vs public personas, 41–46, 51, 58–65, 258n2 Professional working women, 24–27, 42, 50–51 Prostitution, 74, 81, 260n15 Pursers, 13 Race: air travel and, 93; beauty and, 101–2; dancehall girls and, 76–78; Japanese conceptions of, 76–77, 103; and Miss U.S.A context, 178–79; stewardesses and, 86, 92–93, 103–4 Rafu shimpo (newspaper), 178–79, 182, 189–90 Railways, 31 Raz, Aviad E., 52 Recreating Japanese Women (Bernstein, ed.), 13 Recreation and Amusement Association, 79, 260n15 Red Wave Society, 26–27 Reed, Donna, 101, 104, 261n13 Reform See Social reform Re-Imaging Japanese Women (Imamura, ed.), 13 Reischauer, Haru Matsukata, 265n1 Residential arrangements: independent living, 33, 96, 108, 118, 121; for soccer players, 161 Returnee women, 57 Rights, women’s, 170–71 “Rival” (song), 127 Robbins, Bruce, 105 Rogers, Mary Cecilia, xi Roseland Dancehall, 79 Rural-to-urban migration, 25, 29, 108 Ryōunkaku building, Asakusa, Japan, 46 Saburō, Okada, 36 Saigan, Ryōhei, Always: Sunset on Third Street, 124 Sailor uniforms, of schoolgirls, 11 Saishō Fumiko, 205 Saitama, Japan, 112 Sakai Yoneko, Sakanishi Shiho, 205 Salary girls, Salarymen, 42–43 Salvation Army, 35 Same-sex couples, 49, 161 Sato, Barbara, 12 Satō Kikue, 205 Satō Kumiko, 95 Satō Terumi, 143 Satō Yūka, 144 Schereschewsky, Samuel Isaac Joseph, 266n10 Schoolgirls, 11 Scientific management, 52 SDF See Japanese Self-Defense Forces Seitō (Bluestocking) [journal], 26 Seitō Society, 26 Sekizaki Yōko, 136 Self-cultivation, 27, 32 Self-Defense Forces See Japanese Self-Defense Forces Self-discovery, 58, 60 Self-reliance, girls’ desires for, 26 Seo Sumie, 202 Serena soccer team, 157–60, 159, 265n5 Service voice, 56 Service workers, 13; psychology of, 54; training of, 51–52, 56; voices of, 56, 60, 111, 114, 127; working conditions of, 259n9 Sexual harassment, 138, 158 Sexuality: of Arab world, 187; bus guides and, 125; dancehall girls and, 72; dangers of, 35, 37, 50; department stores and, 36–37; elevator girls and, 43; Manchurian repatriates and, 173–74; in media representations, 143–45; of Modern Girls, 24, 32; social mores concerning, 23, 35–37; stewardesses and, 87, 102; women’s liberation and, 87 See also Eroticism Shanghai, China, 68, 77, 77–79, 81–82 Shibusawa Naoko, 177 Shimamura, 182 Shimizu F.C., 155 Shimura Masahisa, 55 Shinjuku, Japan, 30–31, 36 Shinkansen Girl, 13 Shinmura Miki, Department Store Girl, 52, 53, 54, 56–57, 63 Shiomi, Robert H., 220–22 I N D E X Shiroki Industries, 156–59, 161–63 Shirokiya department store, 48–50 Shiseidō, Shiseidō geppo (Shiseido Monthly) [magazine], Shizuoka, Japan, 199 Shōhara Hide, 205 Shōji Miyuki, 43 Shop girls, 1, 3, 21–39, 30, 174; appearance of, 32–33; attractiveness of, 31, 37; characteristics of, 28–29; class background of, 37; contradictions facing, 37; leisure of, 32; and modernity, 24, 31; morality of, 35–37; motivations for becoming, 21–22, 25–28; as percentage of store employees, 30; public opinion on, 23, 28, 37; and sexuality, 36–37; wages of, 33; working conditions of, 32–35 Shūkan gendai (magazine), 144 Silverberg, Miriam, 6, 12, 104, 131, 164 Simmons College, 201, 202 Sino-Japanese War (1937), 212 Sky girls, Smith College, 206, 208 Soccer players, 1, 149–65; contradictions facing, 164–65; cultural significance of, 150–54, 164, 264n8; experiences of, 160–63; and gender, 157–60, 163, 264n8; and marriage, 160–61; media coverage of, 149–50; and mobility, 151–52; as Modern Girls, 151, 164; and modernity, 155; motivations for becoming, 164; numbers of, 265n3; wages of, 162; working conditions and economic prospects of, 161–65 Socialism, 26–27 Social mores: concerning beauty, 171, 188–89; concerning marriage, 189; concerning sexuality, 23, 35–37; and dancehalls, 70, 74; female soldiers and, 139–41; shop girls and, 23, 33–35 See also Gender roles; Morality Social reform, 26–27, 34–35, 74, 79 Social roles, 41–42 Sogō department store, 55 Soldiers See Female soldiers Star-texts, 171 Stashower, Daniel, xi Stead, W T., 37 Steak girls (sut?ki g?ru), Sterling, Marvin, 58 Stevens, Mary E., 198–99 Stewardesses, 1, 85–106; and class, 94–97; corporate loyalty of, 85, 97–101; cultural significance of, 91, 100, 104–5; and gender, 86–87, 92; marriages of, 102–4, 261n11; and mobility, 87–88, 105; as Modern Girls, 104–5; and modernity, 88–89, 100; motivations for becoming, 59, 94–97; public perception of, 88; and race, 86, 92– 93, 103–4; recruitment of, 261n8; role of, 92–93; and sexuality, 87, 102; training of, 90, 101–2; uniforms of, 93, 99–100; wages of, 96, 260n7 Stick girls (sutekki gāru), 5, 24, 72 Students See College students; Schoolgirls Study abroad, 193–208, 215, 218–22 Suicide, 48–50 Sunohara Masahisa, 118 Suzuki Utako, 198, 266n11 Swarthmore College, 265n1 Swimsuit competitions, 180–82 Tada Michio, Dancers and Drawers, 67, 78 Taft, Helen, 200 Taft, William Howard, 200 Tago Kazutani, 28 Taisho Chic (exhibition), 12 Taiyō (The Sun) [journal], 26 Takahashi Fumiko, 103, 103–4 Takamine Hideko, 118, 121, 262n9 Takashimaya department store, 5, 30, 37, 48, 52, 54, 63 Takeda Ayako, 201 Takeda Kin, 266n6 Takizawa Matsuyo, 202–3, 208 Tamura Satomi, 138–39 Tanaka Nobuko, 201 Tani Jōji (Hasegawa Kaitarō), 77 Tanizaki Jun’ichirō, Naomi, 7, 75–76 Tasaki Pearl Company, 156 Taxi dancing, 68–69, 72, 77–80, 259n7 Taxi girls, Taylorization, 52, 54 Teachers, 25 Technology, women as promoters of, 10, 14, 48, 92, 176 Teruoka Itsuko, 137 Thailand, 22–23 Tohoku Imperial University, 197 Tokubuchi Mariko, 13 INDEX 279 Tokyo, Japan, 4, 63, 70–71, 74, 110, 113–14, 121–22 Tokyo Bus Girl (film), 122–23 “Tokyo Bus Girl” (song), 123, 262n11 Tokyo Dance Research Institute, 70 Tokyo Disneyland, 113 Tokyo Electric Bureau, 109 Tokyo Elevator Girl (television series), 43, 55, 58–61 Tokyo Metropolitan Police, 10, 74, 112 Tokyo Motorbus, 109–10 Tokyo Sightseeing (documentary), 114 Tokyo Story (film), 113–14 Tomytec, 124–25 Torii Miyuki, 44 Tosaka Jun, 74 Tour buses, 109–10 Toyoharu, 77 Toyota, 10 Toys, 123–25, 262n14 Trading, 78–79 Train conductors, 124 Train pursuers, 124 Transportation, 10, 14 Travel: class and, 93–97; Cold War influence on, 89; Japan and, 88 Treaty ports, 78–79 Trotta, Vincent, 181 Tsubomi (magazine), 62 Tsuchido Shizue, 48–51 Tsuda College/University, 193–208, 209, 212–15, 266n12; name of, 265n2; rebuilding of, 207; and study abroad, 194, 197–202, 204–8, 215; Tsuda Umeko and, 194, 197 Tsuda Umeko, 194–203, 206, 266n8, 266n14 Tsuji (Okonogi) Matsu, 197, 202–3, 266n12 Tsukiji Ryōko, Tsunku, 125 Tsurumi Kazuko, 206 Twitter, 149 Uemura Tamaki, 197, 266n12 Ueno, Japan, 36, 46 Umeda, Japan, 56 Undergarments, 35, 49–50 Uniforms: of bus guides, 111, 113, 122, 124–25, 127; as commercial products, 55–56; of elevator girls, 42, 50, 52, 54–56, 127; of female soldiers, 142–44; functions and significance of, 10–12, 52, 55, 93; of shop girls, 30, 32–33; of stewardesses, 93, 99–100; of subcultures, 10–11; Western-style, 32–33, 50 Union Dancehall, 70 United Airlines, 98, 261n12 United States: beauty contests in, 174–80; beauty queens in, 169; and Cold War travel, 89; dancehalls in, 68–69; department stores in, 48, 54; elevator girls in, 45, 48; Japanese attitudes toward, 101, 170; Japanese college students in, 193–208; Japan’s relations with, 170, 177, 185; movies from, 212; occupation of Japan by, 208, 217; perceptions of, 97; and World War II, 213–14 See also entries beginning with Western Universal-International Studios, 175 University of Michigan, 202, 204–6 University of Oregon, 217–21, 223–24 Up-Front Agency, 125 Urban life: Modern Girls and, 2, 4–6, 11, 14, 23; modernity and, 4; rural-to-urban migration, 25, 29, 108; threats posed by, U.S Department of State, 222 Values See Morality; Social mores Varga Girl, 181 Vargas, Alberto, 181 Vassar College, 195, 197, 201 Veils, 52 Voices, of service workers, 56, 60, 111, 114, 127 Wages: of bus guides, 110; of dancehall girls, 70; dancehall girls, 75; of factory workers, 259n10; of models, 174, 188; of shop girls, 33; of soccer players, 162; of soldiers, 139; of stewardesses, 96, 260n7; women’s vs men’s, 29, 110, 139, 165, 259n10 Waitresses See Café waitresses Wakeman, Frederic, 78 Walking stick girls See Stick girls Watanabe Kieko, 190 Watanabe Yuri, 201–2 Weed, Lilla, 203 Wellesley College, 193, 196–97, 199, 202–4, 208, 266n6, 266n12 Wells College, 205 West Australian (newspaper), 79–80 Western culture: colonialism and trading, 77–79; immorality of, 32; Japanese attitudes toward, 76, 101, 170, 212; love and marriage I N D E X in, 36; Pan Am training of stewardesses in, 101–2; soccer in, 155 Western modernity, 24 Western-style clothing, 11, 32–33, 50, 71, 77, 120, 206 Westmore, Bud, 175 Wet nurses, 210–11 Wheaton College, 205 Whitney, Clara, 196 Williams, Rosalind, 36 Woman (magazine), Woman’s History of Shō wa, 191 Women See Girls and young women Women’s liberation movement, 26–27, 87 Women’s magazines, 29, 171, 188, 190 Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, 196, 266n6 Women’s Studies, 191 Wood, Charles, 266n15 Wood, Holly Morris, 266n15 Wood, Margaret, 266n15 Working conditions: corporate reforms of, 156; for dancehall girls, 75; for shop girls, 32–35; for women workers, 9–10, 32 Working women See Female workers and work World Cup soccer, 149, 153 World War I, 22, 28, 29, 202 World War II, 74, 79, 107, 110, 112, 115, 173, 213–16 World Young Women’s Christian Association, 197 Xi Shangzhen, xiii Yajima Hiromi, 55 Yamada Koto, 201, 266n11 Yamagataya department store, 31 Yamaguchi Michiko, 206 Yamakawa Kikue, 34 Yamakawa Sutematsu, 195, 196 Yamamura Kōka, 77, 79 Yamamuro Gunpei, 35 Yanagi Miwa, Elevator Girl series, 57–58 Yankee Pasha (film), 175, 183, 186–87 Yano, Christine, 51, 108, 175, 176, 179 “Y.M.C.A.” (song), 142, 264n10 Yokō Dekao, 50 Yokohama, Japan, 71, 79, 199 Yoko Matsuoka, 265n1 Yokomitsu Riichi, Shanghai, 77–78 Yomiuri Women’s Soccer Club, 155 Yonako Umeko, 200 Young Lady (magazine), 190 Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), 197, 201, 202, 204, 206, 208; Tokyo Association, 208 “Youth Bus Guide” (song), 126–27 Yukawa Hideki, 187 Yumiko Ohara, 56 ... still ongoing processes of “modernization” make invaluable contributions to feminist scholarship in an international frame Modern Girls on the Go importantly helps to internationalize our understanding... cultural contingency of what we consider to be modern, ” underscoring the processual, uneven, and incomplete nature of modernity and modernization Rather than understanding the modernity of these... dancehalls and the conditions of possibility for dancehall girls from cities in the United States and Europe to Japan and Shanghai Modern Girls on the Go also reminds readers of the historical and