Theology on the Menu Food – what we eat, how much we eat, how it is produced and prepared, and its cultural and ecological significance – is an increasingly significant topic not only for scholars but for all of us Theology on the Menu is the first systematic and historical assessment of Christian attitudes to food and its role in shaping Christian identity David Grumett and Rachel Muers unfold a fascinating history of feasting and fasting, food regulations and resistance to regulation, the symbolism attached to particular foods, the relationship between diet and doctrine, and how food has shaped inter-religious encounters Everyone interested in Christian approaches to food and diet or seeking to understand how theology can engage fruitfully with everyday life will find this book a stimulus and an inspiration David Grumett is a Research Fellow in Theology at the University of Exeter He is author of Teilhard de Chardin: Theology, Humanity and Cosmos (2005), De Lubac: A Guide for the Perplexed (2007) and of articles and book chapters on theology and food, modern French Catholic thought, science and religion and biblical interpretation Rachel Muers is Lecturer in Christian Studies at the University of Leeds She is the author of Keeping God’s Silence: Towards a Theological Ethics of Communication (2004), Living for the Future: Theological Ethics for Future Generations (2008) and of articles and book chapters on theological ethics and feminist theology Rachel Muers and David Grumett are joint editors of Eating and Believing: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Vegetarianism and Theology (2008) A new generation of British theologians is taking the debate over diet to the highest levels of scholarly and moral reflection, and Grumett and Muers are leading the way Rather than trying to score points or pick fights, they demonstrate how food lies at the intersection of the spiritual and the material, and they offer their readers the tools, including the historical context, to make eating one of the primary tasks of thinking This is now the book to read in seminary and college courses in moral theology, or simply to deepen your own practice of thoughtful eating Stephen Webb, Wabash College, USA In this outstanding book David Grumett and Rachel Muers offer us something quite original Despite their own different moral positions on relevant issues, the authors have produced a seamless common text that is invariably informative about the complexities of Christian attitudes over the centuries, sometimes amusing but always challenging Without doubt they have succeeded in putting food on the menu of important unresolved theological issues that merit further consideration David Brown, University of St Andrews, UK In this sweeping study of the practice and interpretation of Christian dietary choice from antiquity to the contemporary period, Grumett and Muers illuminate the web of common impulses and deep ambiguities surrounding food abstinence, especially vegetarianism The choice not to eat animal flesh, while associated in Christain tradition with snctuty, discipline, spiritual purity, and liturgical rhythms, also incites suspicion of heresy, pagan and Jewish sympathies, and non-communal elitism The authors demonstrate through analysis of scripture, ritual, historical food practices and controversies, that the Christian menu signifies understandings of creation, animals and humans as created beings, sacrifice, and the place of the body in religious identity Teresa Shaw, author of The Burden of the Flesh: Fasting and Sexuality in Early Christianity Theology on the Menu is a rich exploration of the diversity and complexity of Christian attitudes toward meat, fasting, and broader dietary issues Drawing on an eclectic range of historical and scriptural sources, Grumett and Muers have used food as a fruitful entry point for the study of lived religion Theologians, historians, and anyone interested in religious foodways will find their work valuable and thought-provoking Peter Harle, University of Minnesota, USA Theology on the Menu Asceticism, meat and Christian diet David Grumett and Rachel Muers First edition published 2010 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk © 2010 David Grumett and Rachel Muers All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Grumett, David Theology on the menu : asceticism, meat, and Christian diet / David Grumett and Rachel Muers p cm Includes bibliographical references and index Food–Religious aspects–Christianity Nutrition–Religious aspects– Christianity I Muers, Rachel II Title BR115.N87G78 2010 220.80 6132–dc22 2009032028 ISBN 0-203-86349-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0-415-49682-9 (hbk) ISBN10: 0-415-49683-7 (pbk) ISBN10: 0-203-86349-6 (ebk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-49682-7 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-49683-4 (pbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-86349-7 (ebk) Contents Acknowledgments Preface vi vii Eating in the wilderness Food in the ordered city 17 Secularizing diet 36 Fasting by choice 53 Clean and unclean animals 72 Community, orthodoxy and heresy 89 Sacrifice and slaughter 107 Christian food, heavenly food, worldly food 128 Concluding reflections: practices, everyday life and theological tradition 142 Notes Select Bibliography Index 150 184 199 Acknowledgments This book was made possible by a grant from the Arts and Humanities Research Council Our research project, titled ‘Vegetarianism as Spiritual Choice in Historical and Contemporary Theology’, ran from 2006 to 2009 and was based at the Universities of Exeter and Leeds We acknowledge with gratitude the AHRC’s support, including practical advice offered by staff members during the grant period Christopher Southgate was a research associate on the project during its first year, and his intellectual contribution and companionship have been invaluable throughout Mark Wynn, as co-investigator in the project’s final year, has been a much valued conversation partner The Department of Theology at the University of Exeter and the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Leeds have provided stimulating intellectual environments for our research, and we are grateful to colleagues for this As part of the project, we convened an interdisciplinary colloquium and a seminar series at the University of Exeter The papers from these events have already appeared in Eating and Believing: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Vegetarianism and Theology, eds Rachel Muers and David Grumett (New York and London: T&T Clark, 2008) We are most grateful to all participants, both those who presented papers and those who contributed to the discussions, who have helped to advance our thinking in ways too numerous to list We especially thank David Clough for sustained interest and support, and John Wilkins for helping us to forge interdisciplinary connections David Brown offered extensive, careful and insightful comments on a draft manuscript, and it has been a pleasure to work with Amy Grant and Lesley Riddle at Routledge Preface At the opening of the second book in his classic course in Christian ethics, The Instructor, Clement of Alexandria stridently condemns the consumer society of late antiquity Denouncing elaborate menus, he protests that some people ‘dare to call by the name of food their dabbling in luxuries, which glides into mischievous pleasures’ Such persons, ‘surrounded with the sound of hissing fryingpans, and wearing their whole life away at the pestle and mortar’, are ‘all jaw, and nothing else’, partaking of ‘luxurious dishes, which a little after go to the dunghill’.1 Among the skills of cookery, Clement singles out for special criticism the ‘useless art of making pastry’ which, he contends, vitiates the tastebuds and imperils moral discretion To justify his protestations, Clement offers many examples of foodstuffs responsible for luxurious immorality: lampreys from the Sicilian Straits, eels of the Maeander and kids found in Melos; mullet from Sciathus, mussels of Pelorus and oysters of Abydos; sprats of Lipara and the Mantinican turnip; the beetroot of the Ascraeans, cockles of Methymna, turbot from Attica and thrushes of Daphnis; dried figs of Greece, Egyptian snipes and Median peafowl Worse still is that gluttons, not content with such exotic fare, ‘alter these by means of condiments’ and ‘gape for sauces’ That such an eminent theologian, known better for his Christian Platonist apologetics, should spend time and energy targeting practical matters of diet might seem strange Why does he so? Partly due to pastoral concern for the moral and physical health of his Christian flock Clement states firmly that Christians must, when choosing food, eschew all culinary temptations They should ‘reject different varieties, which engender various mischiefs, such as a depraved habit of body and disorders of the stomach’ His attack also seems to be motivated by other concerns, such as the construction of a distinctive Christian identity, and a belief in moderation shared with classical ethicists Furthermore, he objects to the time, energy and travel required by quests to extend menus and recipe books From the perspective of everyday material life, Clement’s concern with the foods people eat is reasonable and even commendable They contribute much to human pleasure, memory, labour and sociability With this in mind, it is perhaps modern theologians and Christian ethicists who need to justify their failure to take proper account of the theological importance of everyday eating More attention is given to issues that few Christians have to address regularly, such as viii Preface abortion, war, nuclear weaponry and euthanasia, than to a topic which might help them live more faithful daily lives and witness such lives to others.2 The importance of food to human beings is memorably encapsulated in Ludwig Feuerbach’s aphorism that people are what they eat But its attribution serves to expose some of the potential pitfalls it presents for Christians The idea could be accepted as part of a speculative immanentism according to which humankind’s conception of God is also no more than a projection of needs and desires, whether material or spiritual But when first presenting his thesis in the course of reviewing a book on nutrition by the physiologist Jacob Moleschott, Feuerbach appears to have been motivated by a desire for rational social and political reform, showing the absurdity of organizing society according to abstract principles that ignore the basic fact that humans need food to live As a result of this oversight, a high proportion of the population had been consigned to poverty.3 The idea also features in a later essay on sacrifice In this discussion, Feuerbach presents sacrifice as human feeding of the gods with human food, thus helping to establish the reciprocity of the relationship between representations of humanity and divinity, in which humans, by selecting foods to sacrifice, offer up their own self-image to God, who is therefore a reified image of humanity composed of the foods that humans eat.4 For Feuerbach, human life is characterized by the unending appropriation of objective reality into the subjective body, which suggests that humanity, while always dependent on matter, can never fully assimilate that matter nor be reduced to it.5 As we complete this project, we are also aware that food, although gaining its importance from its status as a basic ongoing material human need, is implicated in a range of social and political issues We hear frequently about the harmful effects of intensive farming and global trade injustice, and in the West about rising levels of obesity, cancer, heart disease and anorexia Discussion of these is punctuated by news of another health scare resulting from infected farm animals or contaminated food, and protests about the domination of local farmers, food suppliers and consumers by supermarkets and agribusiness Furthermore, there is increasing awareness that current global patterns of food production and consumption, especially of meat, are ecologically unsustainable Livestock farming is responsible for about per cent of total carbon dioxide emissions, but 37 per cent of methane and 65 per cent of nitrous oxide, as well as 68 per cent of all ammonia emissions Citing these figures, a United Nations report by leading scientists has stated that, worldwide, livestock are a bigger cause of climate change than road transport.6 These are all good reasons for theologians to be concerned about food and to consider what distinctive contributions they might offer to debates about food Because of this wider social and intellectual context, a significant part of our project will be interdisciplinary But Christian theologians also have much to learn from their own tradition A common impression is that food practices, abstentions, rules and taboos are features of other religions, but in historical perspective the idea that they are absent from Christianity is completely untrue A key aim of this study will therefore be to recover and rearticulate distinctively Preface ix Christian dietary practices and to consider how these unsettle the current terms of dietary debates Notwithstanding Clement’s accusations, there is much in the history of Christian food practices which affirms the goodness of eating and the activities surrounding it, such as the requirement in the Rule of Benedict that the cellarer look on all the monastery’s cooking utensils ‘as upon the sacred vessels of the altar’.7 But even a fairly straightforward text like Benedict’s Rule opens to the attentive reader a strange food world Its key prohibition of the flesh of quadrupeds does not map conveniently onto classic modern vegetarian categories, and reminds us that there is no Christian tradition of abstention from fish Yet vegetarianism is now becoming a looser and more diverse commitment with multiple definitions coexisting.8 In this context, Christians have an opportunity to contribute their own understandings of the concept The term ‘vegetarianism’ is, nevertheless, conspicuously absent from our title This is partly because it is, for want of a better expression, a bit of a mouthful But there are more substantive reasons for avoiding the term It was developed only in the mid nineteenth century and is therefore of limited usefulness for understanding a tradition stretching back at least two millennia and for speaking out of that tradition Instead, we would identify the key loci continuing through our study as asceticism and meat: the call to dietary moderation set against a background of discomfort with extreme self-denial, and a persistent awareness of the problematic nature of meat This study is about practices and reasons for practices In the course of the research, various little-known facts and histories have been unearthed and analyzed Moreover, well-known figures and ideas have been viewed from nonstandard perspectives We began work well aware of the range of explanations advanced by previous scholars for the food rules of the Hebrew Bible and continued concern in the New Testament with issues surrounding food and eating Assessing the relative importance of these explanations has been part of our work, but we have also seen the continuing impact on dietary practices of discourses about heresy and orthodoxy, both within Christianity and in Christian polemics with Judaism and Islam Drawing on a wide range of material, we not seek to present a single normative view of ‘Christian diet’ We do, however, unfold a history which we invite Christians and others to inhabit, based on the conviction that food and eating are much neglected topics in Christian theology and cannot remain so So this book is not intended to promote any particular set of dietary rules As it happens, although both its authors generally avoid meat, neither is strictly vegetarian We do, however, wish to show that when Christians have engaged with food issues, including vegetarianism and its antecedents, they have been concerned with a far wider range of issues than simply animal welfare We wish to return these issues to the theological agenda as well as to situate meat abstention and meat eating in historical context Although some past attitudes are now little more than relics, even a practice such as animal sacrifice can offer valuable insights for the present day, because some of its founding assumptions Select Bibliography 193 Meens, Rob, ‘Eating animals in the 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diet’, in England’s Sea Fisheries: The Commercial Sea Fisheries of England and Wales since 1300, eds David J Starkey, Chris Reid and Neil Ashcroft (London: Chatham, 2000), pp 36–44 Woolman, John, The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman, ed Phillips P Moulton (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1971) Worden, Blair, The Rump Parliament, 1648–53 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1974) Young, Frances M., Sacrifice and the Death of Christ (London: SPCK, 1975) Zwingli, Huldrich, ‘Liberty respecting food in Lent’, in The Latin Works (3 vols; Philadelphia, PA: Heidelberg Press, 1912–29) Index abattoir 122, 125–26, 127 abbot 18, 19, 37, 38–39, 41, 42, 44 Abel 110, 117 abomination 73, 138 Abraham 110, 118 Acts 56, 78, 97 Adam 2, 10, 11, 50 Adamnan 79–80 Adams, Carol 70, 123, 133 Ad-Damîrî 85 Advent 22–23, 43, 44 Aelfric of Eynsham 83 Agde, Council of 103 aggression Agobard of Lyons 82, 103 Ahab akrides Albertus Magnus 23, 35, 52 Alcott, William 67 Alexander, Cecil Frances 122 Al-Ghazali 103–4 alienation 123 Al-Jahiz 77 All Saints 41 allegory 81–84 almonds 27, 60 Altman, Donald 70 Ambrose of Milan 45, 75 American Vegetarian Society 63 Ammon 12 Anastasius, Pope ancestors 114 anchorites 1–16 Anderson, Bruce 70 angelic state 11 Anglican Church 70 Anglo-Catholicism 66 animals 5, 16, 24, 47, 56, 73–75, 78, 85, 86, 91–92, 94, 119, 125–26, 132–33, 134, 135 Anna Annunciation 24 Anselm of Canterbury 95 antelope Anthony of Egypt 3, 6, 8, Antiocus IV 101 anti-vivisection 63 apples 15 Aquinas, Thomas 51, 52, 135 Aristotle 49, 51, 85 Arius 30 Armenia 109–10, 113, 122 Aryans 102 asafoetida 92 Ascension Day 24 Ash Wednesday 25, 26 ass 16, 82, 104 assimilationism 49–52 Assumption 41 Assyria 76 Athanasius 11, 25, 112 atonement 114, 116 attention 70, 121 Augustine 30, 45, 60, 84, 85, 89–94, 97, 116, 130, 139 Augustine, Rule of 41, 48–49, 134–35 bacon 38, 101 Bacon, Francis 63, 99 Barinthus 15 Barker, Margaret 121 Barnabas 81–82 barnacle geese 75 Barth, Karl 119–20 Basil of Ancyra 19 Basil of Caesarea 14–16, 39, 57, 85, 95–97 Basil, Rule of 65, 139 bat 74, 82, 85 Battle Creek Sanatorium 68–69 200 Index beans 19, 41, 65, 67, 90, 112 beaver 75 beef 100, 102, 117, 123 bees 85, 86 Beeton, Mrs 117 beetroot vii Benedict XII 43–44 Benedict, Rule of ix, 18, 36–46, 53, 59, 75–76, 89, 98 Benjamin 6, 20 Bernard of Clairvaux 99 Bernard of Gui 99 Berry, Ryan 70 Bible Christian Church 63–65, 66–67, 89 birds 74, 77, 82, 98, 114 birth 115, 136 bishops 40, 44, 56, 70 blackbird 44 blessing 6–7, 16, 58, 78, 113 blood 50, 64, 75, 76–78, 79–80, 81, 101, 102–3, 108, 109, 112, 115, 118–22 body 49–52; see also health Boehme, Jacob 61 Boniface 111, 131 Book of Common Prayer 23 Booth, William 64, 65 Bourdieu, Pierre 49 bovine spongiform encephalopathy 78, 87 Braga, Council of 97 bread 2, 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 18, 19–20, 28, 37, 61, 65, 67, 90, 94, 96, 99, 109, 119 breakfast cereals 67–68 Brendan of Clonfert 15 Britain 111, 116–17, 122, 126, 135–36 British Vegetarian Society 63, 64 Britt, Samuel 114 Brotherton, Joseph 64 Brown, Callum 70 Bulgaria 112 Bury 38 Bushell, Thomas 99–100 Buthrescae 137 butter 27, 28, 55–56 buzzard 77 Bynum, Caroline Walker 34–35, 50 cabbage 5, 60 Cain 117 Cairo 78, 87 cake 68, 92 Calvin, John 30, 56, 135 camel 76, 77, 82, 104–5 Canterbury 44 capers capitalism 17, 86, 87 capon 44, 47 Carnival 26 Carthusian Rule 13, 40, 43 carving 122 Casiday, Augustine 95 Cathars 85, 95, 99, 138 cats 80, 132 cawagium 38 Cecil, Richard, 59 celebrity cellarer ix, 18 chameleon 77 Charlemagne 23, 30 Charles II 31, 59 charlock 13 Chartists 63 Chartres, Richard 70–71 Chaucer, Geoffrey 46 cheese 13, 41 Chesterton, G.K 49, 52 Cheyne, George 60–61, 68 Chicago 123 chicken 56, 60, 76, 80; see also capon chickpeas 84 children 18, 33–34, 42, 43 choice 18, 129–30, 140–41, 149 Christian Vegetarian Association 70 Christmas 22, 24, 28, 41, 97, 98 church 22, 29, 30, 32, 35, 42, 53, 58, 59–60, 63, 70, 96–97, 99, 112, 113 Cistercian Rule 40, 43 city 1, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 108, 131 Clark, Stephen 121 Clement of Alexandria vii, 67, 85, 117 Cluny 38 Cocchi, Antonio 63 cockfighting 25 cockles vii cock 116 cod 26–27 cold 9, 19, 23, 33–34 Colliander, Tito 69 Collop Monday 25 commandments 147 Commonwealth 57–59 competition 12, 13, 19, 32 concentration camps 102 condiments vii, 10, 45 Congregationalism 66 conie 44 Constantinople 3, 79 Constantius 108 consumption 86–88 Index contamination 138, 139 cooking vii, ix, 13, 27, 45, 90, 113, 132, 148 Coptic Christians 78, 80 Corinthians 92, 130, 139 cormorant 74 Cornaro, Luigi 60, 68 cornflakes 67 cornmeal counterculture 2, 86, 105–6, 122, 137–38 courses 44 covenant 73, 74, 76, 79 Cowherd, William 63–64 cows 114 crab cakes 48 cracker biscuit 67 crane 44 creation 73, 135, 138, 143 Creuzfeldt-Jakob disease, new variant 78 crime 12, 15 crocodile 6, 77, 135 cross 118–20 crow 80 crucifixion 117, 118–20, 122 Crusades 104 cucumber 90 cuttlefish 38 dabh 126 dairy 22, 24, 25, 27, 28 Daniel 2, 58 Darré, Richard Walter 102 dates 13 David Deacon, Thomas 60 death 45, 54, 57, 66, 80, 94, 116, 117, 122–24, 125, 130, 133, 137, 138; see also slaughter debt 15 deer 79, 96 defence 29, 30 delicacies 21, 31, 56 desert 1–8, 11–12, 16, 24 desire 4, 8, 9, 22, 34, 62; see also lust desserts 44 Deuteronomy 76–77, 78 Dioscorus distraint 32 doctrine 13, 36, 89–106 dogs 51, 80, 132 Dominic, 48–49, 99 Dorotheos of Thebes Dorrellites 66 doughnuts 25 Douglas, Mary 73, 138–39 201 dove 76, 109 dried fruit 27 dry 9, 19, 23, 67 eagle 77 East Syrian Church 76 Easter 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 42, 97, 98, 101, 109, 120 ecology 71, 87, 129, 130, 138, 139 Eden 10, 129, 136–37 education Edward VI 28 eel vii, 38, 41, 84 Effros, Bonnie 46 eggs 25–26, 28, 45, 80 Egypt 1, 2, 3–4, 9, 19, 21, 39, 80, 89, 92, 94, 111, 112, 117 elderly 13, 18, 37, 42, 43, 62 Eleazar 101 Eli Elias 5, 112 Elijah Elijah’s Manna 68 Elizabeth I 28 Ely 38 ember days 23, 40, 44 emergency 31 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 69 enclosure 117 England 22, 26, 43, 143, 144 Ephrata cloister 66 Epiphanius 59 Epiphany 25, 97 Esau 2–3, 94 eschatology 58, 120, 137–38, 139, 144 Essenes 66 Ethiopia 104, 112 Etzlerists 63 Eucharist 5, 28, 32, 34, 63, 81, 110, 112, 119, 120 Eucherius of Lyons Eustathius 6, 96 Eustochium 95 Eutyches 94 Evagrius of Pontus 4, 10–11 evangelicalism 65 Eve 2, 10, 11 excess 86 explanation 145, 146, 147 extensity 142–43, 144, 147 Fabre-Vassas, Claudine 84, 101 face 57, 95 Fall 129, 134, 136–37 202 Index famine 9, 14, 30, 46, 69, 80 fasting: Christian 3–11, 12, 14, 19, 23, 25, 28–31, 34, 39, 57–59, 61–62, 69, 70, 92, 96–97, 99, 135, 139, 144; Jewish 2, 4; Muslim 104 fat 103 Faustus 93 fear 108, 138–41 fellowship sacrifice 118 feminism 116, 130, 136 Ferrari, Leo 93 Ferrier, John Todd 66 fertility 7, 34, 73, 85, 115 Feuerbach, Ludwig viii figs vii, 91 Findikyan, Michael 113 fire 113, 120 Firey, Abigail 82 fish ix, 22, 26, 29, 31, 38, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51, 55, 60, 63, 65, 74, 75, 81, 85 fishing 85 Fleury 38 Fleury, Claude 60 flexibility 18, 20, 21, 36, 49, 93, 129, 139, 145 Flood 16, 56, 60, 78, 85 Food of Eden 68 Ford, Henry 123 fornication 9–10 Foucault, Michel 22, 31–32, 33 fowl vii, 76 fox 82, 99 France 11, 21, 22, 46, 103, 110, 122 Francis of Assisi 46–49, 52, 96 Francis, Rule of 48 Francis Xavier 100 Freud, Sigmund friars 27 Friday 23–24, 28, 29, 39, 41, 44, 59 Froschauer, Christoph 54, 57 fruit 4, 6, 13, 18, 19, 65, 90 frying 27 funerals 28 fur 5–6 Furia 33 Gabriele, Prophetess 66 Galen 18–19, 23, 33–34 game 76, 96, 98 Gangra, Council of 96–97 garlic 112 gay rights 63 Gedaliah Gelasius, Pope 97 gender 20, 22, 33–35, 43, 52 generativity 145–46 Genesis 135 George 112 Georgia 112 Georgoudi, Stella 112–13 Gerald of Wales 44, 75 Gerasimos 16 Germany 22, 66, 111, 126, 131 Gibson, Edmund 70 gift 42–43, 46–48, 86, 87, 113, 119, 135, 139 Gilbert of Poitiers 40 Gildas 79 Girard, René 118 gluttony vii, 9–11, 20–21, 45, 92, 94, 101, 108 Gnosticism 4, 13, 66, 100 goat 41, 79, 96, 109 Golden Manna 68 Good Friday 28 goose 56, 60 Govett, Robert 100 Graham, Sylvester 67 Grandin, Temple 125–26 granola 67 Gratian 108 grazers Greece 112–13, 118, 131 greed 48 Gregory III 79–80, 131 Gregory XV, Pope 100 Gregory the Great 2, 11, 25, 42, 111 Gregory the Illuminator 109 Gregory of Nyssa 118 Gregory of Tours 23 Grimm, Veronika 33, 35, 91, 94 growth 50, 51 guests see hostpitality guilt 56, 108, 118–19 haddock 44 Hagen, Ann 80 halal 121, 126 ham 66, 101 hamburgers 38, 70 Hannah Hardy, Daniel 142–43 hare 56, 76, 77, 85, 96 harmony 15, 23–24, 26 harvest 13 hawk 77 health vii, 6, 10, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 33–34, 42, 61, 65, 67, 68–69, 137 Index heat 9, 19, 23, 33–34 Hebrews 118 Hegessipus 78 Helenus Hellarios Henisch, Bridget 27 Henry II 45 Henry VIII 28, 89 hens 25–26, 80 Herbert, George 60 herbs 5, 13, 37, 90, 92, 109 heresy 28, 30, 71, 94–95, 97, 99, 105, 126 Hero of Diospolis Heron 19 heron 74 herring 27, 38 Hezekiah Hindus 100 holiness 73 Holocaust 123–24 Holy Cross Day 23 Holy Spirit 76, 97 honey 2, 3, 86 hoods 13–14 Hooker, Richard 29–30 hope 138–41 horse 104, 131–32 hospitality 14, 20, 39–41, 42, 46–48, 52, 55, 65, 95, 96, 103, 113, 129, 139 hot cross buns 28 Hugh of St Victor 50 humours 19, 23, 33, 35 Hungary 105 hunting 39, 53, 96, 117 hyena 16, 85, 135 hygiene 80, 87, 122 hyssop 4, 120 Iamblichus Iceland 131 idolatry 93, 127, 130, 131, 133–34, 139, 140 Ignatius of Antioch 30 illness 6, 12; see also sick incarnation 17, 49, 143 India 49, 100, 134 infirmary 41 inquisitions 94–97, 99 insects 74, 77, 98, 135 intensity 142–43 Iona 79 Ireland 31, 32–33, 75, 79–81, 138 Irenaeus of Lyons 30 Isaac 118 203 Isaiah 7, 110 Isidore Israelites 2–3, 25, 30, 58, 73, 74, 76, 81, 84, 87, 111, 119, 120, 121 Italy 46, 115 Jackson, James Caleb 67 Jacob 2, 33 James 24, 78 Jerome 2, 30, 33–34, 95, 135–36 Jerusalem 4, 78–79, 101, 107–8 Jesuits 100 Jesus Christ 2, 23–24, 25, 30–31, 32, 34, 37, 39–40, 47, 55, 58, 66, 81, 82, 84, 85, 91, 94, 97, 101, 104, 114, 118–20, 124 Jews 82–84, 87, 101–3, 104, 108, 109–10, 131, 135 Joel 62 John 81, 120 John the Baptist 2, 3, 89 John Cassian 11, 19–20, 25, 39–40 John Chrysostom 21, 34 John Dory 84 John the Hermit John of Lycopolis Jonathan Jordan 112 Jordanes 16 Judas Iscariot 23, 84 Julian of Eclanum 90 Julian of Speyer 48 Kellogg, John Harvey 67–68 Kellogg, William Keith 67–68 Kerala 100 Khalil, Issa 119 kid vii kitchen 39 kite 77 Knowles, David 41 kosher 68, 102, 121, 126 labour 12, 18, 41 lamb 60, 102, 109, 110, 115, 120 lamprey vii, 38 lard 68, 103 lark 44 Law, William 59, 61 law 28, 31, 54, 55 leech 80 leftovers 13, 77–78, 92 Lent 5, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26–27, 28, 30–31, 42, 43, 44, 53, 54, 71, 101, 102, 104 204 Index lentils 2, 41, 65, 92, 94 lettuce 90 Levinas, Emmanuel 147 Leviticus 64, 73, 74, 76–77, 78, 110, 138 Lewis, Dio 68 Liberia 114, 118 light 90, 92 Lineham, Peter 64 lion 3, 16, 76 liturgy 22, 109–15, 120–21, 142; see also Eucharist livestock viii, 24, 29, 60, 74, 79, 83–84, 100, 109, 117, 124, 125–26 lizards 77, 135 locusts 2, 3, 135 Lollards 27–28, 53 Long Parliament 31, 57 Lubac, Henri de 84 Luke 2, 47, 113 Lull, Ramon 83–84 lust 8–11, 20, 29, 56, 57, 94; see also desire Luther, Martin 55–56, 116 luxury vii, 4, 6, 49, 117 Macarius of Alexandria 5, 16, 51 Maccabees 83, 101 Macedonia 115 McGowan, Andrew 131 MacIntyre, Alasdair 142 Maimonides 77 maloah Manichaeism 13, 84, 89–94, 97, 98–99, 135 manna 2, 68, 137 mannouthia Mardi Gras 25 Mark 25, 50, 81 marriage 9–10, 15, 22, 34–35, 135 Marseilles 19 martyrdom Mary 84 marzipan 27 Master, Rule of 25, 97, 105, 139 matal 109–10, 118, 121–22, 139 Matthew 3, 47, 50, 81, 112 Maundy Thursday 101 Maze Prison 32 mead 92 mealtimes 5, 14, 20, 21, 22, 38, 39–40, 42, 68, 73 meat ix, 4, 5, 9, 16, 17–18, 22–26, 28, 33–34, 35, 36–39, 40, 41, 44, 48, 49, 53, 60, 63, 64–65, 68, 71, 75, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 105, 107, 110, 112, 113, 122, 124–25, 129, 130, 132–33, 136 medicine 21, 24, 52, 56–57, 135 Megalius of Calama 90 melagria Mellitus 111 melon 90 Men and Religion Forward Movement 69 menstruation 85, 104 Mernoc 15 metaphor 7, 86, 116 Metcalfe, William 66, 67 Methodism 61, 64, 70–71 mice 77, 80 Miles, Eustace 69 milk 5, 42, 60, 86, 93, 119 Milis, Ludo 27 Mir space station 115 misericord 37–38, 41 moderation 12–13, 14, 18–21, 36, 47, 61, 104 moist 9, 19, 23 Moleschott, Jacob viii monasticism 4, 7, 9–16, 17, 22, 32, 36–46, 75, 92, 94, 96, 139, 144 Monday 23, 43 Moneta of Cremona 99 Montanism 30 Monte Cassino 98 More, Thomas 137 Moses 2, 81 Moses, Abba 19–20 Mothering Sunday 27 Mpophomeni 114 mucus 50 Muhammad 103, 104 mullet vii, 38 multiplication 50, 51 muscular Christianity 69 mushrooms 92 Muslims 85, 100, 103–5, 126 mussels vii mutton 41, 102 Myers, B.R 134 Nachmanides 76 navy 29, 144 Nazirites 75 Neoplatonism 61 Nerses Shnorhali 109–10 New Age 70, 105, 133 Newton, John 57–59, 89 Nicholson, George 63 Noah 56, 79, 84, 110 Index Norbert of Xanten 44 nutrition viii, 65, 67, 94, 145 nuts 15, 27 oatmeal 65 obedience 13, 16, 28, 39, 58, 120, 147 obesity viii, 43, 71 offence 54–55 oil 4, 5, 14, 27, 90 olives 5, 13 Olympios 10 omelette 84 onion 64, 84, 112 Or Order of the Cross 66 Origen 3, 95 Orthodox Churches 69, 71, 80, 120–21 orthodoxy 98, 99, 139 osprey 77 ostrich 74 Ouseley, Gideon 66 Owenites 63 owl 77, 82 ox 82, 111, 116 oysters vii Pachauri, Rajendra 129 Pachomius 12–14 pacifism 116–17 paganism 104, 108–9, 111–12, 113, 131, 132, 133 Palestine 1, 5, 19, 39, 92, 112 Palm Sunday 84 pancakes 25 Paphnutius Paraskevi 112 partridge 44 pastry vii, 28, 67 Patrick 32–33 Patterson, Charles 123 Paul 2, 34, 42, 55, 92, 97, 116, 135, 139, 140 Paulinus 115 peanut butter 68 peas 65 penance 25, 28, 55, 58, 61, 62, 79–81 Pentecost 20, 23, 24, 40, 97 pepper 45, 92 Perky, Henry D 67 perspiration 50 Peter 54 Peter Lombard 50 Pharisees 55 pheasant 44 205 Philadelphia 66 Philo 4, 82 philosophers 3, 18, 49–52, 90, 147 Piers Plowman 24, 35, 45 pig 13, 65, 73, 77, 80, 82, 91, 93, 101, 117; see also pork pike 38, 44, 60 Pinetum 99 pittance 43, 46 Pityrion Plato 117 ploughing 24, 74 Plutarch 60, 115, 116 Pollan, Michael 134, 136 pomegranate 120 pork 13, 60, 66, 67, 73, 83, 100, 101–2, 104; see also pig Porphyry 60, 114 Possidius 92 Post, C.W 68 poultry 24, 25, 65, 98 praise 107, 111, 113, 115, 120, 135, 139 prayer 1, 48, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62 predation 60, 76–78, 79, 80, 125 pregnancy 55, 62, 104 Premonstratensians 44 Presbyterianism 67, 69 Priscillian 97 prophecy 31–33, 58, 105, 144 Provence 102 Prudentius 108–9 Psalms 2, pulses purgatory 51 Purification of Mary 24 Puritanism 57, 99 Pythagoras 60 Pythagoreans 7, 63, 95 quadruped 74, 98 Quaker Oats 68 Quakers 63 quantity 5, 18, 20, 21, 46 rabbis 4, 68, 85, 121 rabbit 60, 65 rail transport 67, 124 Ramadan 104 raven 77 raw foods 5, 65 recipes 148 reconciliation 114, 119–20, 139 redistribution 29, 44, 62, 113, 114, 130, 139 refectory 37–38, 41, 44–45, 129 206 Index Reformation 17, 30, 46, 53–57, 89, 143 reincarnation 66, 90, 99 repentance 57, 120 reptiles 81 resemblance 42 resurrection 42, 50–51, 97, 101 Revelation 57, 104 Reynolds, Philip Lyndon 49–50 rice 92, 112 rights 91, 107 ritual 109–15, 125, 142 roasting 25, 45, 110, 120 Robinson, Fred 33 rock badger 76 Roman Catholic Church 69, 70, 80 Romans 34, 42, 92, 140, 146–47 Romanus 37 Rome 131 roots 3, 15 Rosenzweig, Franz 147 Rouen 56 Rousseau, Philip 96 Rousselle, Aline 21–22 Rubenson, Samuel 3, 4, 12 Rufinus 99 rumination 77, 83–84, 93 sacramentality 62 sacrifice viii, 3, 107–16, 119, 126–27, 130–31 saffron 27 saints festivals 23–24, 41, 42–43, 109 Salford 63 Salomonsen, Jone 114 salmon 38, 60 salt 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 37, 60, 101 salvation 26, 90, 137 Salvation Army 64–65 Samuel 2, 110 Sarapion 12 Saturday 14, 23, 24, 28, 44 sauces vii, 45 Saul 2, sausages 54, 66, 124–25 Scandinavia 22 scarcity 24, 87, 117 Scotland 26, 66 scripture 2–3, 4, 54, 58, 64, 66, 71–84, 135, 146 seasons 17, 21, 22–24, 26, 27, 31, 57 Second Book of Homilies 28–29 Seneca 131 Sepoys’ Revolt 31, 100 Servais of Lairuelz 44 Seventh Day Adventism 68, 69 sex 8–11, 15, 22, 26, 32, 33, 34, 67, 85, 94 Shakers 67 Shakespeare, William 116 Shaw, Teresa 34, 95 shechitah 121–22, 126 sheep 109, 116 shellfish 9, 27, 38, 74 shochet 121 Shrovetide 25 sick 13, 14, 18, 37, 41, 52, 62, 98 sign language 38 simnel cake 27 simplicity 14, 20–21, 29, 65, 67, 68, 96 Sinclair, Upton 123 sin-offering 118 skate 84 slaughter 24, 56, 68, 80, 102, 105, 107, 108, 112–13, 115–16, 119, 120–27, 132 slavery 57–59, 132, 138 snipe vii snyte 44 Socrates 117 Sodom Soler, Jean 74 Song of Songs 86, 99 soul 51–52, 91, 97 soup 64 South Africa 114 Southgate, Christopher 137 Spain 102, 105 spices 68, 112 spiritualism 65, 66 spittle 50 sprats vii Spurgeon, Charles 63 Stephen the Libyan Stevens, Henry 117 stew 2, 112–13, 114 stockfish 27 Stoicism 91 stomach 50 strong 55, 92–93 stork 74 strong 140 sturgeon 38 substitution 119–20 suffering 90, 91, 119, 120, 121, 126, 130, 133, 138 Sufism 103–4 sugar 132 Summa Magistri 43 sunbathing 63 Sunday 5, 20, 25, 41, 43, 92, 94, 96, 97 Index supersessionism 77, 84 supper 18, 22, 38, 42 sustainability viii, 65, 71, 130, 139 swan 44, 45 Swedenborg, Emanuel 64 sweetness 27, 86 Symmachus, Pope 97 Syria 1, 5, 39, 78, 103, 109, 112, 135 Taylor, Jeremy 57 Tearfund 71 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre 71 Templars, Rule of the 41 Temple 2, 4, 7, 84, 107–8, 121 tench 44 Tertullian 2–3, 9, 30, 59 thanksgiving 54, 95–96, 108, 111, 115, 119, 135, 139, 140 Theodore of Canterbury 79–80 Theodosius 108 Theon Theonas 20 Theophilus of Alexandria theosophy 65 Therapeutae thrushes vii Thursday 41, 43 Timotheus of Gaza 85 tithe 25, 26 Toledo 97 tomato 112 transformation 6, 15–16 travel 37, 39–40, 132 tree 118 trichinosis 73 tripe 45 Troeltsch, Ernst trout 38 truffles 92 Tuesday 41, 43 turbot vii, 26 turkeycock 44 Turner, Bryan 113 turnip vii Twigg, Julia 65, 137 Unitarians 63, 66 United Church of Salvation 114 United Reformed Church 69 United States 68, 70, 87, 117, 122, 125 Ursacius 99 207 Valentinian 108 veal 41, 60, 102 vegetables 5, 13, 18, 19, 33, 42, 45, 60, 65, 91–92, 94, 96, 97, 112, 131 vegetarianism ix, x, 1, 5, 49, 53, 63–71, 76, 99, 100, 105, 106, 116, 118–19, 127, 128–29, 130, 133–34, 136–37, 138, 144, 145 Vialles, Noélie 122 Vienne, Council of 40 vinegar 14, 120 violence 116, 117, 118, 133, 134 viper 135 virgins 19, 34 virtue 11, 19, 56, 61, 116, 142 visitation 43 visitors see hospitality vocation 147 Voragine, Jacobus de 23 vulture 51, 77 war 116–17, 132 water 5, 6, 9, 28, 90, 99 weak 55, 92–93, 131, 140 weasel 77, 80 Webb, Stephen 105, 118–19 Weber, Max 17, 27 Wednesday 23, 28, 29, 31, 39, 44, 57 welfare ix, x, 5, 115, 121, 124, 125 Wesley, John 59–63, 68, 89 Wesley, Susannah 60, 61–62 West, Rebecca 115–16, 117 Westminster Abbey 38 wheat 5, 7, 90, 112 White, Sister Ellen 68 Whitfield, George 59 Whitgift, John 29 will 69 Winchester 38, 45 wine 7, 34, 81 winter solstice 23 wisdom 136 witchcraft 93 woodcock 44 worms 135 xerophagy Zabaleen community 78, 87 Zacharius 112, 131 Zwingli, Huldrich 54–55 ... Minnesota, USA Theology on the Menu Asceticism, meat and Christian diet David Grumett and Rachel Muers First edition published 2010 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN... intersection of the spiritual and the material, and they offer their readers the tools, including the historical context, to make eating one of the primary tasks of thinking This is now the book... were divided from one another, there was no division in their converse, or counsel, or affection And their only victuals were apples and nuts, and roots of such kinds of herbs as they found.122 In