Industrial applications of natural fibres : Structure, Properties and Technical Applications

In the past, when synthetics became used as alternative construction materials instead of metals, a lot of damage happened to different components. This resulted in a very negative estimation of the performance of synthetics. Soon it became clear that metals could not simply be replaced by synthetics and the designer had to learn how to deal with these new materials. This time of apprenticeship was injurious to the image and the reputation of synthetics, and as a consequence similar developments have to be avoided, if new materials like natural fibres are to be technically applied in the future. Thus, knowledge of structure and properties as well as interconnection with shaping is necessary for material selection. The main argument against the industrial use of natural fibres is often that the quality of the fibres depends on the year in which they were grown. It is nevertheless possible to obtain fibres of consistent quality, as well as reliable data, enhancing the predictability of the properties of natural fibre products by using a quality management system that starts for plant fibres at the cultivation stage and that is based on reproducible proof of origin and harvesting parameters. This document will combine the different steps of processing, from agriculture, fibre separation and fibre processing to the manufacture of the final product. Each step will be linked to the fibre properties, the possibilities to characterise them, and how the different natural fibres will influence the product properties.

P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres Structure, Properties and Technical Applications Edited by ă ă JORG MUSSIG Department of Biomimetics, Hochschule Bremen – University of Applied Sciences, Bremen, Germany A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come Wiley Series in Renewable Resources Series Editor Christian V Stevens, Department of Organic Chemistry, Ghent University, Belgium Titles in the Series Wood Modification: Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes Callum A.S Hill Renewables-Based Technology: Sustainability Assessment Jo Dewulf & Herman Van Langenhove Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass James H Clark & Fabien E.I Deswarte Biofuels Wim Soetaert & Erick J Vandamme Handbook of Natural Colorants Thomas Bechtold & Rita Mussak Surfactants from Renewable Resources Mikael Kjellin & Ingegăard Johansson Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres: Structure, Properties and Technical Applications Jăorg Măussig Forthcoming Titles Thermochemical Processing of Biomass Robert C Brown P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres Structure, Properties and Technical Applications Edited by ă ă JORG MUSSIG Department of Biomimetics, Hochschule Bremen – University of Applied Sciences, Bremen, Germany A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come This edition first published 2010 C 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our 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damages arising herefrom Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Industrial applications of natural fibres: structure, properties and technical applications / edited by Jăorg Măussig p cm (Wiley series in renewable resources) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-470-69508-1 (cloth) Plant fibers–Industrial applications Animal fibers–Industrial applications I Măussig, Jăorg TS1540.I528 2010 677dc22 2009049249 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-470-69501-1 Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come Dedication In recent years, natural fibres have become increasingly popular for use in industrial applications, e.g as reinforcement for plastics This approach is also of growing interest in light of the discussion about sustainability and environmental issues These aspects are commonly not included in the regular university education for engineers and natural scientists This book will examine the value-added chain of natural fibres in order to bring more detailed information about this complex topic to students as well as to industry and research The book will enable the reader to gain a fundamental understanding of the sometimes complex transformation of a natural fibre to final technical product This book is dedicated to professional industrial researchers working in production processing (from fibre separation to the final product – textiles and composites), in fibre characterisation and in standardisation and harmonisation, to academics researching in the field of technical applications of natural fibres, as well as to postgraduates on specific courses and research projects in the above areas P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come Contents Series Preface Preface xi xiii Foreword xv List of Contributors xvii List of Illustrators xxiii PART I BACKGROUND Historic Usage and Preservation of Cultural Heritage Fenella G France What Are Natural Fibres? 2.1 Chemistry of Plant Fibres Danny E Akin 2.2 Natural Fibres – Function in Nature Michaela Eder and Ingo Burgert 2.3 Types of Fibre Jăorg Măussig and Tanja Slootmaker 11 13 23 41 Economic Aspects 3.1 Grades and Standards Axel Drieling and Jăorg Măussig 3.2 Technical Applications of Natural Fibres: An Overview Nina Graupner and Jăorg Măussig 49 51 3.3 73 Natural Fibres in Technical Applications: Market and Trends Stephan Piotrowski and Michael Carus 63 PART II VEGETABLE FIBRES Flax – Structure, Chemistry, Retting and Processing Danny E Akin Hemp Cultivation, Extraction and Processing Stefano Amaducci and Hans-Jăorg Gusovius 89 109 P1: OTE/OTE/SPH FM P2: OTE JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 22:37 Printer: Yet to come viii Contents Jute – A Versatile Natural Fibre Cultivation, Extraction and Processing Md Siddiqur Rahman 135 Abac´a – Cultivation, Extraction and Processing Friedhelm Găoltenboth and Werner Măuhlbauer Sisal Cultivation, Processing and Products Rajesh D Anandjiwala and Maya John 163 Coir – Coconut Cultivation, Extraction and Processing of Coir Chitrangani Jayasekara and Nalinie Amarasinghe 10 Cotton Production and Processing Muhammed Rafiq Chaudhry 181 197 219 PART III ANIMAL FIBRES 11 Mulberry Silk, Spider Dragline and Recombinant Silks Anja Gliˇsovi´c and Fritz Vollrath 12 Wool – Structure, Mechanical Properties and Technical Products based on Animal Fibres Crisan Popescu and Franz-Josef Wortmann 237 255 PART IV TESTING AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT 13 14 15 16 17 18 Testing Methods for Measuring Physical and Mechanical Fibre Properties (Plant and Animal Fibres) Jăorg Măussig, Holger Fischer, Nina Graupner and Axel Drieling SEM Catalogue for Animal and Plant Fibres Tanja Slootmaker and Jăorg Măussig Combined (In Situ) Methods Ingo Burgert and Michaela Eder DNA-Analytical Identification of Species and Genetic Modifications in Natural Fibres Lothar Kruse Cotton/Worldwide Harmonisation Axel Drieling and Jean-Paul Gourlot Flax – ASTM Standardisation and Harmonisation Danny E Akin 269 311 337 345 353 371 PART V APPLICATIONS: CURRENT AND POTENTIAL 19 Composites 19.1 Historical, Contemporary and Future Applications Tuomas Hăanninen and Mark Hughes 19.2 Design, Material Properties and Databases Erwin Baur and Frank Otremba 383 385 19.3 407 19.4 Natural Fibre Composite Processing: A Technical Overview Tim Huber, Nina Graupner and Jăorg Măussig Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymers in Automotive Interior Applications Eugen Prăomper 397 423 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 524 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index automobile industry (Continued ) design 397–8 flax 373–5, 424–5, 427–8, 430–1, 436 hemp 110, 129, 424–5, 427–8, 430–1, 436 jute 155, 157, 159, 424–5, 427, 430–1 sisal 190, 191, 424, 430–1 technical applications 63–4, 67–8, 75, 77–9, 82–3 baby hemp 113, 117, 122, 123 Bacillus sp 101, 142 bacterial cellulose (BC) 462, 463, 470, 472–4 bacterial diseases 95, 101, 142, 227 abac´a 170, 171 bagasse 26, 301, 388, 451, 452–3 chemical composition 304 geometric properties 300 physical characteristics 302 bags 63, 64, 84, 110, 156–7, 190 jute 135, 149, 155–7, 326 bailing jute 154 Bakelite 386 bales and baling 270 cotton 187, 190, 356, 358, 360, 369 hemp 116–17, 119, 123–6, 127 sisal 187, 190 balloting coir 200, 204–5, 215 bamboo 26, 28, 42, 300, 301, 302, 204 banana (Musa sp.) 31, 76, 175, 193, 300–2, 304–5 see also abac´a Bangladesh 222, 328–9, 515 jute 56–7, 75, 136–7, 139–44, 326 bank notes and currency 78, 83, 163, 178 bast fibres 24–8, 30, 42, 56, 69, 93–4 chemistry 14, 15, 18, 19, 20 composite applications 389, 390, 391 composites 417, 437, 448, 449 deformations 337–8 flax 90–1, 93–4, 95, 99, 101–3, 372–3, 375–6 hemp 110–14, 117, 121–4, 127 insulation 484–5, 500 jute 138–9 mechanical properties 30, 272, 274, 279, 283–4, 285 mixed with tussah silk 317 SEM 325, 326, 333 technical applications 73–4, 79, 80, 83 batching jute 148, 149 bats 165 beaming jute 152–3 behaviour towards moisture 273, 305 Belgium 372 Benin 357 best management practices (BMPs) 510, 514, 517, 518 bico fibres 485, 487, 494 binder fibres 485, 487, 492, 495 binderless panels 451–3 bio-based resins 451 biodegradability 18, 83, 443–4 cellulose nanocomposites 459, 472–3 composites 67–8, 388, 393, 439, 443–4, 445 coir 80, 198, 210, 212, 216 cotton 219, 233 durability 443–4 geotextiles 80, 512, 514, 516, 520 hemp 116 jute 135, 137, 157 biological retting 139–40 biomedical applications 243–4, 251, 473 biopolymer composite motivation 445–6 biotech cotton 220, 227–8, 231, 232 blankets 135, 137 blowing insulation 65–6 bolls of cotton 223–4, 225–6, 228–30 boric acid 496 Borneo 163 boron 224 Brazil 227, 228, 439 sisal 60, 76, 78, 181, 185–7, 193, 332 breaker drums 202–3 breaking load of coir 211 Bremen Cotton Round Test 367–8 bristle coir 47, 57–8, 197, 202–9, 211, 213, 216 SEM 334 technical applications 78, 82 brooms and brushes 213 coir 57, 197, 200, 202, 206, 212–14 brown coir 57, 58–9, 197, 205, 210, 213–13, 334 building and construction 63, 66, 81, 450, 489–90 coir 198 composite applications 386, 388, 389, 391, 393 geotextiles 512, 514, 517, 518, 520 hemp 110, 129 insulation 481–3, 488–91, 500, 504, 506–7 sisal 190, 191 wool 265 Burkina Faso 55, 227–8, 354, 357 byproducts 80–1 cacao 169 caddis fly (Trichoptera) 238 calcium 20, 93, 98, 167, 169, 225 calendering jute 154 calibration 354, 359–61, 363, 366–7, 369, 375 mechanical property testing 270, 283, 305 Calotropis gigantea 42 cambium 90–2, 112 camel hair 75, 300, 318, 345, 350 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index Cameroon 357 Canada 77, 198 cancer 475 cantala 42 carbon dioxide 84, 160, 388, 408, 445 automobile industry 435, 436 insulation 481, 482–3, 484, 501, 504 carding 271, 149–50, 274, 287 hemp 123–4, 127 jute 75, 149–50, 151 sisal 190 Caribbean Islands 164, 181, 185–6 caroa (Neoglaziovia variegata) 31 carpets 63, 64, 193, 255 jute 137, 152, 155–7, 159 cases 409 cashgora 75 cashmere 43, 75, 257, 276, 288, 320 DNA 345–6 SEM 311, 318, 320, 321, 336 cassava (Manihot esculenta) 137 castor oil 439, 440, 451 castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) 238, 439 cavity damping 488 cell culture for silk 244, 251 cell walls 23, 27–8, 35, 41, 391, 461 chemistry 13–16, 18, 19, 21 coir 210 flax 92, 94, 99 hemp 112, 116, 122 mechanical properties 32–3 micromechanical tests 337, 339, 341 SEM 322, 326, 328, 334 sisal 189 size and shape of fibres 25–6 stress 33–5 cellulases 15, 18 flax 96, 97, 99–102 cellulose 7, 23, 35, 28–9, 66, 93–4, 460–1 cell walls 27–8 chemistry 13–15, 16, 18, 21, 210, 303–4 coir 209, 210 composites 385–6, 391–3, 407, 437, 438–9, 453 composites in automobile industry 427–8 cotton 41 crystalline 13–14, 27, 34, 460–1 flax 91, 92, 93–4, 95, 100–2 geotextiles 514–15, 516 insulation 484–5, 490, 493, 496, 502–3 jute 159 mechanical properties 32–3, 273, 285, 296, 297 micromechanical testing 337–41 nanocomposites 459–75 SEM 321 sisal 188, 190–1 stress 33–4 structure 28–9 cellulose acetate (CA) 448, 449, 459, 463 cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) 459, 461, 468–70, 472 cellulose nanowhiskers (CNW) 462–3, 465, 467–8 cellulose whiskers 462–3, 465, 470, 471–2, 474 cereal straw 304, 509–10, 512–17, 519–21 Central America 181, 183, 185 century plant 183, 185 Chad 355 Chaetomium sp 142 charcoal 200 chelation and chelators 18, 97, 98, 99, 101 chemical analysis 3, 5–6, chemical retting 96–7, 98, 139, 140 chemomechanical treatment 464–5 China 81, 83–4, 386, 451, 510 coir 198 cotton 74, 220–1, 222, 226, 227 flax 76, 372 hemp 77 jute 57, 136–7 kenaf 75–6 sisal 76, 181, 185–6, 332 chitin 392, 462 chitosan 392, 473 cigarette papers 78, 83, 163, 178 Cladosporium sp 96 clamping length 285, 293–4 classification and grading 51–61, 269–70, 271, 272, 354–8 abac´a 54, 59, 173–4, 176–8 coconut 47 coir 54, 57–9, 202, 205, 207 cotton 52–4, 55–6, 61, 353, 354–8, 365–7, 369 flax 46, 54, 56, 371–2 jute 54, 56–7, 142–5, 146–7 sisal 54, 60, 181, 182–5, 187–8 wool 52, 54, 60–1, 264, 318 cleaner drums 202–3 cleaning 52, 102–4 abac´a 176, 177 coir 204, 213 cotton 231, 354, 365 flax 102–4, 375, 377 hemp 124, 125, 126–7, 128 kenaf 328 silk 242 sisal 60, 187–8 cocoons 42, 44 525 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 526 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index coconut (Cocos nucifera) 25, 26, 47, 57–9, 198–200, 452–3 geotextiles 509, 512, 513, 516 insulation 485 intercropped with abac´a 169–70, 178 technical applications 73, 77 see also coir coffee 169 coir (Cocos nucifera) 25–6, 28, 47, 77, 197–216 automobile industry 197, 214, 423–4, 426, 428, 434–5 behaviour towards moisture 305 characteristics 206–12 chemical composition 304 classification and grading 54, 57–9, 202, 205, 207 composites 192, 198, 214, 215–16, 413 decortications 58 DNA 345 geometric properties 300 geotextiles 57, 80, 197, 200, 211, 214–16, 509–21 insulation 198, 200, 216, 482–5, 488, 490–1, 500 mechanical properties 31, 210–12, 274, 286–93, 297, 301 micromechanical tests 340 mixed 57, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208–9, 211 omat 57, 201–2, 205–9, 211, 216, 288, 334 physical characteristics 302 price 81–3 SEM 333–5 technical applications 63, 65–7, 73, 75, 77–80, 84 twisted 78, 82, 288, 335 types of fibre 41, 42, 44, 47 uses 197, 200, 212–16 see also bristle coir; brown coir; mattress coir; white coir coir pith 200, 202–5, 207, 214, 451–3 chemical composition 210 Colombia 55, 185–6, 227 colour 270, 272, 280, 407, 417 abac´a 176, 177, 178 coir 206, 207 cotton 53–6, 231, 354–5, 356, 358, 363–5, 367 flax 371, 373–4, 376, 377 grading 52–3, 54, 60 jute 140, 142, 144 sisal 60, 187–8 composites 25, 385–94, 407–18, 437–54 abac´a 178, 413, 416 automobile industry 423–36 coir 192, 198, 214, 215–16, 413 cotton 220, 233, 385, 392, 408, 446, 451 design 397–406 flax 91, 95, 104, 373, 437–8, 445–6, 448–50 hemp 110–11, 116, 128–9, 386, 389–91, 393, 448–51 jute 135, 157, 159 mechanical properties 271, 279, 287 SEM 322, 332, 336 silk 251 sisal 181, 190, 191–3, 332 technical applications 64, 67–9, 77, 78–80, 83–4 wool 262 compost 501, 510, 513, 516 compression 33–4 compression moulding (CM) 78, 408–9, 415, 437 automobile industry 423–6, 428, 430, 432 composite processing 408–9, 410–11, 413, 415 design 397, 402–4 sisal 191–2 compressive creep 498 contour filling 510 copper 20, 146 copra 77, 197, 198, 199, 205 cork 482 corn 169, 228, 482 cosmetics 110, 243, 393 Cote d’Ivoire 357 cotton (Gossypium sp.) 24, 26, 28, 74, 210, 219–33 automobile industry 423 behaviour towards moisture 305 cellulose nanocomposites 460 chemistry 15, 16, 18–21, 210, 303 classification and grading 52–4, 55–6, 61, 353, 354–8, 365–7, 369 colour 53–6, 231, 354–5, 356, 358, 363–5, 367 composites 220–1, 230–3, 385, 392, 408, 446, 451 diameter 208 diseases 227 DNA 345–6, 351 flags 4, 8, 345 flax 92–4, 98, 101, 103–4 genetic modification 346, 349, 351 geometric properties 299 geotextiles 80, 515 harmonisation 353–69, 371, 374, 377 insect pests 225, 226–7 insulation 482, 484–5, 490, 493, 500 jute 137, 145, 146–7, 155 mechanical properties 31, 271–9, 286–90, 293–4, 296–7, 301 mixed with tussah silk 317 physical characteristics 302 price 81, 219, 232, 346 SEM 329–31, 336, 360 single fibre versus collective 365 stalks 462 technical applications 63, 65–6, 73–5, 78–9, 80, 874 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index types of fibre 41, 42, 44, 46–7 yield 219–20 cowpea 169 creek banks 517–18, 520 cress 80, 520 cryocrushing 463–4 CSITC 367–8, 369 Cuba 185–6 culture 3–9 curaua 301, 302, 304 cuticles 16, 20, 188 flax 90–3, 95, 98, 101–3, 375–6, 377 wool 259, 260 cutin 92 cutting jute 154 Czech Republic 77, 119, 372 D-1 machine 202, 204, 205–6 damping jute 154 databases 402, 403 date palm 301, 302 decking 64, 67, 388–90, 417 decorative trim 426 decortication 280 abac´a 173, 175, 176 coir 197, 202, 203–4, 205, 206 hemp 116, 121–2, 123–6, 127 jute 140 sisal 186–7 defibreing machine 202, 203, 204–6 deformations 337–41, 496–7 degradation 3–5, 8, 16, 18 flax 92–6, 98–100 see also biodegradability demolition 500 denaturation 348 density 272, 285–6, 296–7, 493, 496, 502 jute 144 design 397–406 design catalogues 398–9, 400–1 design rules 399 detergents 110 devolatisation 416 dew retting 95–6 flax 89, 92, 94–9, 103, 372, 373–4, 377 hemp 116, 122, 123 dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) 141 diameter 25–6, 273, 292–3, 403–4, 464–5 coir 208–9 insulation 490, 491 kenaf 328 sisal 333 Dia-stron 285 527 dicotyledenous plants 24, 42, 299, 301–3, 305 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 469 dimensioning 397, 398 direct long-fibre thermoplastic (D-LFT) process 415–16 dislocations 32–3, 35, 337–8 disordered flax processing 372, 377 disordered hemp 111, 117–20, 122, 123–8, 129 display 3, 6, 8–9 distributions of properties 273, 275–7, 287 DNA 311, 320, 321, 324 extraction 347–8, 351 identification 345–51 synthesis 349 drawing jute 150–1 drying 175–6, 178, 200, 204 durian 169 dust loading 500 dyes and dyeing 4, 8, 16 cotton 331 jute 154–5 silks 242, 243–4 wool 264 dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) 469–70 dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) 470 dynamic stiffness 495, 499 East Africa 60, 164 EcoCor 427, 428, 431–3 Ecuador 59, 74, 76, 163–4, 178 EDTA 18, 96–7, 98, 100, 101 Egypt 6, 95 cotton 220, 230, 231 elastomers 181, 408, 424 electrical applications 473–4 electroformed nanofibre 463 electronanofibre formation 463 elongation 210, 294–6, 301, 360, 361, 468 endoxylanases 15 energy absorption 425 energy dissipation 246 energy of rupture 6–7 energy-saving 482, 483 England 124 entanglement bonding 487 environmental concerns 3, 5–9, 63, 67, 69, 391–4, 510 cellulose nanocomposites 475 insulation 482–3, 504 environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) 338–9 enzyme retting 97–102 flax 373–4, 377 hemp 111, 114, 122, 123 jute 140, 142 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 528 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index enzymes 14–15, 16, 18–20, 33, 347–9 cellulose nanocomposites 460, 472, 475 flax 92, 93, 97–102 hemp 276, 298 Epicoccus nigrum 96 Eri silk 238 erosion control 135, 509–21 coir 197, 215, 216 erosion control blankets (ECBs) 512 erosion control meshes (ECMs) 512 erosion control nets (ECNs) 512 Escherichia coli 248 Ethiopia 221, 224 Europe 78–9, 389–90, 392, 431, 441, 443, 454 abac´a 178 coir 198 cotton 220 flax 76, 80, 89, 95, 96, 97 geotextiles 509–10, 513–16, 518, 520–1 hemp 77, 81, 109, 111, 114–15, 122, 123 insulation 482, 489–90, 492, 495–7, 499, 501, 504 jute 137 prices 81–2 silks 244, 248 European garden spider 238, 245, 248 excelsior 510, 512, 515, 520 expanded polystyrene (EPS) 482 extensibility of silk 237, 240, 245–6, 249–50 extractives 210 extrusion 397, 399, 409, 416–17, 418, 438 false sisal fibre 183, 185 FaserTec 426, 428, 434–5 fats 20, 210, 303–4 felts 63–5, 66, 67, 80, 511 automobile industry 424–5, 427, 428–31, 436 coir 215 hemp 127 insulation 487, 495 jute 136, 158–9 fertilisers 80 abac´a 163, 170 cotton 227, 228, 231 flax 74 hemp 74 jute 137, 140 wool 265 fibre conditions structuring 271, 274 fibre geometry 271, 272, 490 fibrenodes 33, 324, 326, 337–8 flax 91, 100 Fibreshape 273, 281, 283, 284, 287–8, 289 Fibrit 423, 426–9 fibrograms 361–2 fibroin 240, 241, 243, 245 Fibropur 427, 430 Fibrowood 427–8, 429–30, 433 Fiji 198 filters and sorbents 214, 215, 216 fineness 281–3, 286–9, 299–300, 346 coir 207–8 cotton 358, 359, 360, 365, 366 flax 98–102, 371, 374–5, 376 grading 52, 54–6 hemp 128 jute 142, 144, 146 mechanical property testing 270–1, 276, 278–83, 286–9 SEM 320, 323, 324, 325 finishing (woolenisation) of jute 154–5 Finland 389, 393 fire see flammability; wildfire fish farming 141 flags 4, 8, 256, 345 flame retardants 155, 495–6 flammability 67–9, 155, 399, 417, 495–6 insulation 494, 495–6, 498, 502 flax (Linum usitatissimum) 76, 89–104, 172 automobile industry 373–5, 424–5, 427–8, 430–1, 436 behaviour towards moisture 305 cellulose nanocomposites 465, 469 chemistry 14–16, 18–21, 91–4, 210, 303 classification and grading 46, 54, 56, 371–2 coir 298 composite applications 385, 389, 390–1, 393 composite processing 408–9, 411, 413, 415, 417 composites 91, 95, 104, 373, 437–8, 445–6, 448–50 cotton 220 DNA 345–6, 351 genetic modification 346 geometric properties 299 geotextiles 80, 104, 512, 520 harmonisation 371–7 hemp 89–90, 97, 102–3, 117, 123, 126 insulation 80, 104, 482–6, 490, 493, 496, 502–3 jute 146–7, 159 mechanical properties 30, 33, 271–2, 280, 286, 288–90, 292–7, 301 physical characteristics 302 price 81–3, 91, 104 SEM 95, 322–4, 325, 326 size and shape 25–6 structure 437–8 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index technical applications 63, 65–6, 68, 73–6, 78–80, 83–4 types of fibre 24, 42, 45, 46 fleeces 409, 438 automobile industry 424, 430, 434–5 coir 59, 215 hemp 127, 128 insulation 486, 487, 493 jute 158–9 technical applications 63–5, 66, 67, 80 flooding 137, 510, 512, 517 floor coverings 156–7, 190, 213 coir 197, 200, 212, 213, 214 jute 135, 155–7 flower pots 64, 67, 135, 157–8 formaldehyde 450–1 France 80, 256, 372, 386, 427 hemp 80, 113–14, 118–20, 124 Fried test 98 FT-IR spectroscopy 340–1 fungi and fungal diseases 19, 460, 464, 514 abac´a 170, 171 flax 89, 94, 96, 98, 99 hemp 122 insulation 497, 498 jute 139, 140, 141, 142 furan resins 440, 441, 442, 451 furfural 445 furfuryl alcohol 441, 442, 443, 444 furfurylation 444 furniture 63, 64, 67 composites 409, 413, 417, 426–7, 448, 450 Fusarium 96 galactose 15, 16–17, 27, 93 galacturonic acid 16–17, 93 gas chromatography 3, genetic engineering or modification 346–8, 349–50 cellulose nanocomposites 475 cotton 346, 349, 351 DNA 345, 346–8, 349–50 organic cotton 231 silk 248–9 spider silk 245, 247, 251 geometric properties 299–300, 305 geosynthetics 512, 516, 520, 521 geotextiles 23, 35, 66–7, 80, 274, 509–21 coir 57, 80, 197, 200, 211, 214–16, 509–21 flax 80, 104, 512, 520 hemp 80, 128, 512, 520 jute 80, 135, 137, 157–9, 214, 509–16, 520–1 sisal 190, 332, 512 technical applications 63–4, 66–8, 78, 80, 83–4 529 Germany 68, 231, 351, 387, 451, 510 automobile industry 78–9, 82, 415, 423–4, 426, 431 coir 198 flax 80, 372 hemp 77, 80, 118–19, 121–2, 125, 128, 431 insulation 80, 482 kenaf 328 odour 286 silk 248 Ghana 77, 388 Ginko biloba 30 ginning cotton 19, 55, 228–31, 329, 354–6, 358 G-layer 34–5 glass fibre 84, 403, 408, 410, 411, 414 abac´a 163 composites 67–9, 385, 387–8, 391–2, 394, 450 insulation 80, 482, 490 mechanical properties 292, 293, 296 glass transition 263, 469–70 glucomannans 15, 341 Gluconacetobacter xylinus 42 glucose 13, 15, 27 flax 92, 93, 376 gluing insulation 487 glycerol 442, 443 goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) 248, 276, 320, 350, 351 golf tees 67 Gordon-Aerolite 386–7, 391 grass 19, 20, 89 Greece 228 Griffiths approximation 403–4 ground solidification 66–7 guanako 75 Guinea-Bissau 357 gymnosperm trees 42 hackling 103–4, 204, 211, 372 hemp 111, 116, 117, 122 Haiti 185–6 halm fibre 300, 301, 302, 304 Halpin–Tsai model 403, 404 hard hats 409 hardwood 18, 24–6, 30, 34–5, 46, 299 SEM 321, 322 harvesting 228–31, 280 abac´a 171–2 cotton 228–9 flax 89–90, 93, 96, 103 hemp 111–13, 115, 116–22, 129 jute 138–9, 141 silk 242 sisal 181, 183, 184, 186 yields 220, 222, 226, 228–31, 232 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 530 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index heat capacity 470 heat treatment 444–5 hemicelluloses 15–16, 27, 33–4, 210, 303–4, 393 chemistry 13–16, 18–19, 21 coir 209–10 flax 92, 93, 94, 97 insulation 484 jute 142 micromechanical tests 341 nanocomposites 464 hemming jute 154 hemp (Cannabis sativa) 24, 26, 45, 46, 77, 109–29, 172 abac´a 331 automobile industry 110, 129, 424–5, 427–8, 430–1, 436 behaviour towards moisture 305 cellulose nanocomposites 469 chemistry 19, 20, 210, 303 coir 198 composite processing 408–9, 411–12, 413, 415 composites 110–11, 116, 128–9, 386, 389–91, 393, 448–51 DNA 345–6, 351 flax 89, 90, 97, 102–3, 117, 123, 126 genetic modification 346 geometric properties 299 geotextiles 80, 128, 512, 520 insulation 80, 110–11, 128–9, 484–5, 488, 490–6, 502–3 jute 146–7 mechanical properties 30, 33, 271–2, 276–7, 283–90, 293–4, 297–8, 301 micromechanical tests 337–8 odour 297–8 physical characteristics 302 price 81–3 SEM 324–6, 336 technical applications 63, 65–7, 73–81, 83–4 types of fibre 42, 45, 46 hemp seed oil 110, 111 henequen (Agave fourcroydes) 42, 75, 76, 183, 185, 301 chemical composition 304 geometric properties 300 herackele sewing of jute 154 herbicides 89, 110, 227–8, 346, 349 Hermes oilseed flax 101 hessian 136, 145, 151–2, 153, 154, 155–6 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 94 HM–PP 428, 431–3 holocellulose 210 home furnishings 64, 135, 155–6 horizontally cross-lapped insulation 485–6 hormones 225 horsehair 426 humidity 5, 6, 9, 289, 407, 409 abac´a 167 hemp 118 insulation 491, 494, 496, 497, 500 jute 136 wool 260–3 Hungary 114, 115 hurds of hemp 110 hydraulic erosion control mulches 513 hydroseeding 512, 517, 518 hygroscopic sorption behaviour 494, 499 hygrothermal parameters 492, 501 hysteresis 246–7, 261 image analysis 374–5 imaging spectroscopy 19 impact sound insulation 488, 490, 495, 497–9 India 386, 515, 516 abac´a 164 coir 57, 59, 77, 197–9, 202–3, 205, 212 cotton 74, 220, 222, 226–7, 230 jute 56–7, 75, 77, 84, 136–7, 139–40, 142–4 kenaf 75 sisal 185 Indonesia 57, 198–9, 227 inductive coupling plasma (ICP) emission spectroscopy 20, 93 initial modulus 211–12 injection moulding 78–80, 392, 413–15, 437, 439, 447, 449 automobile industry 427, 433–4, 436 composite processing 409, 411–15, 417–18 design 397, 399, 403–5 flax 100 insect pests 170, 171, 225, 226–7, 228, 232 insecticides 220, 226, 227 instrument testing 53, 54, 56, 61, 372–3 cotton 353–4, 358–9, 360–1, 369, 372 insulation 23, 35, 64–6, 80, 481–504 characteristics 490–7 coir 198, 200, 216, 482–5, 488, 490–1, 500 flax 80, 104, 482–6, 490, 493, 496, 502–3 hemp 80, 110–11, 128–9, 484–5, 488, 490–6, 502–3 impact sound 488, 490, 495, 497–9 installation 500, 504 jute 135, 137, 155, 157, 159 sound 63–5, 265, 488, 495 standards 506–7, 497–8, 499, 502–3, 504 technical applications 63–6, 68, 80, 83–4 thermal 63–5, 265, 481–4, 488–9, 492–3, 498–9, 502–3 wool 265, 482, 484–5, 490–1, 493–4, 496–7, 500–3 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index intrinsic fibre properties 270–3, 279, 287 Iran 222 iron 140 Israel 55, 228 Italy 77, 110, 113, 114, 115 ITMF activities 368 Jamaica 388 Japan 178, 198, 213, 509–10, 521 Juniperus virginiana 30 jute (Corchorus sp.) 26, 30, 41–2, 46, 74–6, 135–60 automobile industry 155, 157, 159, 424–5, 427, 430–1 behaviour towards moisture 305 chemistry 210, 303 classification and grading 54, 56–7, 142–5, 146–7 composite 385–7, 408, 415 DNA 345 fibre extraction 138–41 geometric properties 299 geotextiles 80, 135, 137, 157–9, 214, 509–16, 520–1 mechanical properties 277, 286–8, 290, 292–4, 297, 301 physical characteristics 302 price 81–3, 136 SEM 326–8 technical applications 63, 65–7, 73–7, 79–80, 83–4 uses 155–60 see also tossa jute; white jute jute batching oil (JBO) 75, 148–9 kapok (Ceiba pentandra) 24–5, 26, 31, 42, 63, 397, 301 behaviour towards moisture 305 chemistry 303 geometric properties 299 physical characteristics 302 kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) 26, 42, 46, 135–6, 159, 390, 452–3 automobile industry 424–5, 428, 430, 432–3, 436 behaviour towards moisture 305 chemistry 19, 303 composite processing 408–9, 412, 413, 415 DNA 345, 351 exports 136–7 flax 90 geometric properties 299 geotextiles 512 insulation 484–5, 486, 488, 490–1, 493–4, 502–3 material modelling 403–4 mechanical properties 30, 288, 301 physical characteristics 302 SEM 328–9 sisal 193 technical applications 73, 75–6, 79, 83–4 531 Kenya 221 sisal 76, 181–2, 183, 185–6, 332 keratin 4–6, 289, 347, 485 wool 41, 43, 256–60, 262–4, 318 knitted goods 63, 64, 80, 156, 215 knotted nets 63, 64, 66 Korea 198, 510 kraft pulp 464, 469 kutcha grade jute 143, 144 lactic-acid-based resins 440, 441–2, 443 lama hair 75 lapping jute 154 Laserscan 54, 60, 374–5 Latsaea polyantha 238 leaching 21, 224 leather 423 length 283–4, 287–8, 290, 299–300 classification and grading 52, 54, 55, 60 coir 207–8 cotton 220, 230, 354, 358, 361–3, 365, 367 flax 376, 377 jute 142 mechanical properties 270, 272, 278–84, 287–8, 290 sisal 60 light and preservation 5–6, light micrographs 375–6 light microscopy 6, lignin 23, 32, 27, 83, 273, 341 cellulose nanocomposites 464 chemistry 13, 15, 18–19, 210, 303–4 coir 198, 207, 209–10, 212, 215 composites 392–3, 413, 448, 451, 452 flax 94 geotextiles 67, 80, 514, 515 hemp 112–15 insulation 484 sisal 188 stress 33–4 lignocelluloses fibres 386 linear density 207 linen 8, 56, 123 flax 76, 89, 96–7, 102–4, 377 linseed 90, 97, 98, 100, 104 linseed oil 440–1, 444 epoxidised (ELO) 440–1, 443 lipids 13, 20 liquid wood 448–9 longitudinal flax processing 371, 372, 377 longitudinal hemp processing 111, 116–17, 122, 123, 129 long-staple cotton 230 low-energy houses 483, 484 lubricating jute 148–9 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 532 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index Machilus bombycina 238 Macrophomina phaseoli 142 Madagascar 186 magnesium 20, 167, 225 magnetic nanocomposites 474 maguey 175, 183 maize (Zea mays) 74, 76, 451 genetic modification 346, 350 Malaysia 77, 164 maleic anhydride 413, 415 Mali 357 mango intercropped with abac´a 169 manila hemp 74, 76, 331 man-made fibres 7, 74, 295, 385, 388, 391–2, 403 cotton 219, 232–3 mannose 15, 27, 93 material data sheets 399 material modelling 403–6 material selection 397, 398, 399 mats and matting 57, 59, 77, 78, 190 mattress coir 47, 78, 82, 197, 200–9, 216, 286, 288 classification and grading 57, 58 SEM 333–4, 335 mattresses 57, 77, 78, 82 MDF (medium density fibreboard) 110, 215–16, 449–52 measurement 270–1, 273, 277–89, 311 precision and accuracy 277–8 mechanical properties 3, 6–9, 29–31, 269–306, 338 automobile industry 423–5, 430–1 cellulose nanocomposites 467–9, 470 coir 31, 210–12, 274, 286–93, 297, 301 composite processing 409, 411 composites 449, 452, 453 design 397, 402–3 dynamic 469 significance of testing method 278–9 silk 241–2, 246, 251 static 468 suitability of testing method 279–80 wool 261–2, 272–4, 279, 282–3, 287–90, 297, 301 mechanically laid insulation 485 melanine 450–1 melt compounding 467 melt mixing 191–2, 193 melting 470 mesocarp fibres 25, 26, 31, 42 coir 77, 199, 334 mesta (Hibiscus sabdariffa) 135, 146 Mexican boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) 226 Mexico 76, 198 cotton 220, 221, 226, 227 sisal 182, 183, 185–6 microcellulose 286–7 microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) 393, 462, 465, 468–70 microfibril angle (MFA) 28–31, 32, 34, 288, 337–40 cell walls 27–8, 35 microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 462, 463–4, 472 microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) reinforced polymers 448 microfibrils 27–8, 32, 33–4, 437, 448–9 cellulose 13–14, 16, 460–1 mechanical property testing 287, 293 micromechanical tests 337–41 SEM 321 sisal 189 wool 258–9 microfluidic extrusion nozzle heads 250 micronaire 231, 354, 358, 359–60, 366, 367 micronutrients for cotton 224–5 microspectroscopy 16 Middle East 198 mildew 52, 270, 297–8 miscanthus stalks 451–3 mixed coir 57, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208–9, 211 mohair 75, 300, 345 moisture content and regain 273, 305, 494–5, 496 coir 207, 209 cotton 219, 358 insulation 491, 493–6, 498–500, 502–3 jute 145 wool 261, 262 monocotyledenous plants 25–6, 28, 31, 74, 301, 332 behaviour towards moisture 305 chemical composition 304 geometric properties 300 physical characteristics 302 types of fibre 24, 42, 47 mosaic virus 169, 170, 349 mould 491, 496, 497, 498, 500 Mucor sp 96, 142 Muga silk 238 mulberry (Morus sp.) 238, 242, 284 mulberry silk 43, 238, 240–4, 245–6, 249, 251 SEM 316–17 Myanmar 75–6, 136, 222 nanocomposites 437, 459–75 crystallinity 471–2 thermal properties 469–71 nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) 393 nanoreinforcement 459–60, 461–6, 467–8, 470–2, 475 nanosized cellulose particles (NCPs) 393 natural fibres defined 41–3 natural fibre with epoxy resin (NF-EP) 431, 432 natural rubber composites 192, 408 Naturfaser-EP 428 near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) 375–7 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index needle drums (Ceylon drums) 202–3, 204–7 needle felts 287, 409, 413, 415, 438, 336 automobile industry 424–5, 427, 428–9, 430–1, 433 coir 59 flax 375 geotextiles 521 hemp 116 insulation 487, 488 jute 159 technical applications 63–5, 66 needle-punching 190 Nepal 57, 75, 136–7 Nephilia sp (spider) 43, 44, 244–51, 316 dragline 238–40, 241, 242, 244–51, 316 neps 20, 229, 231, 331, 354 mechanical properties 270, 271, 274, 279 nerve regeneration 244, 251 Netherlands 198, 256, 372, 441, 444 hemp 77, 114 nettle (Urtica dioica) 30, 42, 63, 301, 303, 305 DNA 351 geometric properties 299 Nicaragua 185–6 Niger 357 nitrogen 111, 141, 224–5 non-wood-fibre-based panels 451 non-wovens 80, 83, 158–9, 392, 405, 412, 437 cellulose nanocomposites 463 coir 216 cotton 233 geotextiles 510, 512, 518, 520, 521 jute 137, 155–6, 158–9 silk 244 sisal 190 Norway spruce (Picea abies) 30, 42, 44, 46, 322 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry 92, 94 nylon 146–7 odour 285–6, 297–8, 407, 414, 417 automobile industry 425, 433 hemp 111, 128 jute 149 mechanical properties 280, 285–6, 297–8, 305 OFDA 54, 60 oil shortage 63, 81, 84 oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) 25, 26, 192, 301, 302, 452–3 chemical composition 304 geometric properties 300 omat 57, 201–2, 205–9, 211, 216, 288, 334 Omega oilseed flax 101 one-step compression moulding 415 onions 16 533 optical microscope 312 optical transparency 472 organic cotton 220, 231–2, 346 organoleptic inspection (manual classing) 53–4, 56–7, 61 overretting 142 oxalate 97 oyster cultivation 213 packaging material 214, 216, 439, 474 jute 135, 137, 145, 149, 155–6, 326 paddy (Oryza sativa) 137 paina (Bombax ceiba) 42 paints 110 Pakistan 220, 222, 226, 227 palms 28, 32 panel and boards 450–3 paper and pulp 24, 42, 78, 83, 392–3, 438 abac´a 163–4, 178 flax 91, 100 geotextiles 510, 513, 516 hemp 110, 113–14, 121, 123, 124 insulation 484, 500 jute 135, 155–6, 159–60 prices 82 sisal 190–1 Papua New Guinea 198 para (Leopoidinia plassaba) 42 particle boards 160 passive houses 483, 484, 496 peanut intercropping with abac´a 169 pectate lyase 16, 18, 101–2 pectin 27, 92–3, 273, 294, 298, 464 chemistry 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 210, 303–4 coir 209–10 flax 92–3, 94–5, 97–102, 372 jute 139, 140, 142 sisal 188 pectinases 18 Pencillium sp 142 Peru 220, 221 pesticides 74, 89, 137, 163 cotton 74, 226–7, 231, 232 petroleum-based fibres 21 pH 141, 142, 224, 427–8 PHA/PHB 439 phenol 450, 451 Philippines 198, 199, 388, 515 abac´a 74, 76–7, 163–6, 169–70, 173–6, 178, 331–2 Philosamia Cynthia ricini 238 phloem 24, 25–6, 42, 112, 138 photobioremediation 21 Phoma sp 142 phormium (Phormium tenax) 42, 74, 300, 304 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 534 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index phosphorus 224–5 piassava (Attale funifera) 31, 301, 302, 304 pickers (spindle pickers) 228–9 piecing-up of jute 148 pineapple PALF (Ananas comusus) 26, 31, 300–2, 304–5 pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) 226 Pinus taeda 30 pita fibre 183, 185, 190 pits 32–3, 337 plastication 413 Poland 77, 372 polarised light micrograph 91, 100 polarised light microscopy (PLM) 337–8, 339, 466 Pollit 441 polyester-reinforced natural fibre mat (PNM) 430–1 polyethylene (PE) 296, 413, 415, 428, 443, 448 sisal 191, 192 polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) 439, 447 polylactic acid (PLA) 386, 413, 439, 446–7, 453 cellulose nanocomposites 461, 468–71, 473 insulation 487, 490 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 345, 346–7, 348–9, 350–1 polymerisation 467 polypropylene (PP) 80, 296, 403, 439, 446, 448 automobile industry 424, 428, 431–4, 436 composite processing 413–18 durability 443, 445 geotextiles 513 sisal 191–2, 193 polysaccharides 15, 16, 27, 92, 209–10, 444 cellulose composites 461, 462 DNA 347 polystyrene (PS) 80, 413 polyurethane 80 polyurethane resin (PUR) 430–1, 436, 440, 442 polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) 461, 469, 473 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 413, 431, 433, 461 poplar wood (Populus) 30, 42, 44, 46, 65, 321–2 Portugal 185 potassium 20, 203, 224–5 potato (Solanum tuberosum) 248, 448–9, 462 pouring insulation 65, 66 PP-NF 427, 428, 433–4, 436 prepegs 410, 429, 430–1 press flow moulding 78, 79, 415–16 press forming 397, 399, 402, 404–5, 409 prices 73, 78, 79, 81–3, 269 abac´a 81–2, 173, 176 classification and grading 51–2, 55 composites 439, 440, 441, 445 cotton 81, 219, 232, 346 flax 81–3, 91, 104 geotextiles 514, 515, 516, 517, 520, 521 insulation 504 jute 136 oil 81, 84 organic cotton 346 sisal 81–3, 187 wheat 77 wool 263 projection microscope 54 psychoactive substances 109, 112 PTP system 450 pucca grade jute 143, 144, 148 pultrusion 409–10, 417 Quercus sp (oak) 238 Raman spectroscopy 340–1 ramie (Boehmeria nivea) 19, 25–6, 30, 42, 75, 453 behaviour towards moisture 305 cellulose whiskers 462 chemistry 303 decortication 175 DNA 351 flax 90 geometric properties 299 jute 146–7 mechanical properties 293, 297, 301 physical characteristics 302 PLA composites 446, 447 rape (Brassica napus) 346, 350, 469 rapeseed oil 440, 444 rattans 28 recombinant silk 237, 243, 247, 248, 250–1 recycling 66, 485, 500, 501 reflectance 54, 56, 358, 363–4 regenerated silk 237, 244, 250–1 regulations 489–90, 510 reinforced plastics 397–402 renewable polymers 438–42 resin transfer moulding (RTM) 191–2, 411–13, 449 resins 191, 440–1, 444, 449–50, 453, 472 automobile industry 423–34, 436 composite applications 386–90, 393 composite processing 408–13, 415, 417 resistance to decay 206, 207, 214 retting 94–102, 200–2, 272, 280, 294, 407 abac´a 172 chemistry 14–16, 18–21 coir 57–8, 78, 197, 200–3, 205, 207, 213 fish farming 141 flax 56, 89–90, 91–104, 172, 372–7 hemp 111, 114–16, 118–23, 125, 127, 172 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index jute 139–41, 142, 326 kenaf 328–9 rhamnose 16–17, 93 Rhapalosiphum maidis 170 Rhizopus sp 96 ribbon fibres 189 ribbon retting 139, 140 rice 20, 169 straw 304, 451–3, 510–12, 515–16 Rilsan 439 road construction 510, 512, 517, 518, 521 rodents 497, 498 rolled erosion control product (RECP) 512, 514–18, 520 roller carding 65 roofing 191, 193, 215, 388, 487 ropes, twines and yarns 63, 64, 76, 77–8, 84, 212–13 abac´a 59, 164, 178 coir 57, 59, 197, 200, 202, 206, 208–13 flax 94, 103 hemp 110 jute 136, 137, 148–56 sisal 181, 190, 193, 332 rosella 75 rot proofing 155 round trials 367–8 rubber 192, 408, 426, 434–5 rubberised coir 197, 200, 202, 206, 214 rumen fungi 19 rutabaga (Brassica napus) 346, 350, 469 Russia 372 sacks and sacking 77, 136, 145, 151–6, 326 saprophytic fungus (Sporotricchum) 141 saturniid moths (Antharea sp.) 43, 238, 317 sawdust 482 scales 260, 320, 321 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 3–6, 8, 189, 311–36, 338–9, 346 cellulose nanocomposites 466 cotton 329–31, 336, 360 flax 95, 322–4, 325, 326 kapok 297 micrographs 25, 27 principle 312–14 sample preparation 314–15 types of fibre 43, 46, 47 sclerenchyma 23 scouring 16, 20, 101 scutching flax 102–4, 372 hemp 110, 111, 117, 122–6 Sea Island cotton 220 secondary electron imaging 312, 313–14 535 sediment retention fibre 512–13 seed hairs 19, 24–5, 26, 28, 31, 42, 46–7 semi-commercial resin systems 442–3 Senegal 357 sericin 240, 242–4, 316–17 shatoosh (Pantholops hodgsonii) 263 shaping 397, 398, 399 sheep (Ovis aries) 4, 43, 44, 60, 255–6, 263–4 DNA 350, 351 Merino 255–6, 264 SEM 318 sheet moulding compound (SMC) 410–11 shives 66, 424, 437, 449, 451 animal bedding 77, 80–1 flax 90–2, 94–5, 98, 102–4, 375–6, 377 hemp 110, 116, 119, 121–8 mechanical properties 270, 274, 280 short-staple cotton 220 silk 75, 146–7, 220, 237–51, 259, 386 behaviour towards moisture 305 mechanical properties 272, 274, 287, 288, 301 mulberry 43, 238, 240–4, 245–6, 249, 251, 316–17 physical characteristics 302 scaffolds 244, 251 SEM 316–18 see also spider silk silk moths (Bombyx mori) 43, 44, 238, 240–4, 316–17 simulation 402–6 sisal (Agave sp.) 26, 31, 76, 181–93 automobile industry 190, 191, 424, 430–1 behaviour towards moisture 305 cellulose whiskers 462 chemistry 19, 210, 304 classification and grading 54, 60, 181, 182–5, 187–8 composite applications 387, 390 composite processing 408–10, 413, 415 decortication 175 DNA 345 geometric properties 300 geotextiles 190, 332, 512 insulation 482 mechanical properties 31, 277, 286–8, 290–4, 297, 301 physical characteristics 302 prices 81–3, 187 SEM 332–4 technical applications 63, 66, 73–6, 78–9, 83–4 types of fibre 24, 41, 42, 45, 47 uses 185, 190–3 slivers 64, 103, 190, 410 jute 148, 149, 150, 151 slugs 169, 171 small-angle neutron scattering 466 small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) 339 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 536 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index softening jute 148–9 softwood 24, 25–6, 46, 65, 301, 392, 449 chemistry 18 geometric properties 299 insulation 485 mechanical properties 30 micromechanical tests 341 physical characteristics 302 SEM 322 stress 33–4 soil erosion 157, 168, 190 geotextiles 66–7, 509–21 soil stabilisation 190, 510, 511–12 coir 197, 215, 216 jute 135, 157–8 solution casting 467 solution mixing 191–2, 193 sorption moisture content 491, 494, 497, 499–500 South Africa 227, 256 South America 181, 183, 185, 392 sowing density 111, 114–15 soya (Glycine max) 346, 349 straw 451 soybean 74 soybean oil 440–1, 443, 450 epoxidised (ESO) 440–1 Spain 228, 256 Spanish broom (Spartium junceum) 30 specific heat capacity 492–3, 501, 503 spectroscopy 377 spider draglines 238–42, 241, 242, 244–51, 316 spider silk 42, 43, 237–8, 243, 244–51, 259, 287–8 geometric properties 300 SEM 316 spidroins 245, 248 spindle stripping 59 spinning 20, 26, 242 coir 212–13, 334 cotton 103, 231, 271, 274, 331, 363 flax 76, 103–4, 371, 372 hemp 116, 123 jute 75, 137, 145, 148–50, 151–2, 159 sisal 181, 187, 190 spray enzyme retting (SER) 98–9, 101 spruce wood 33, 339, 340–1, 389, 392, 427–9 Norway spruce (Picea abies) 30, 42, 44, 46, 322 SEM 322–3 sputter coating 314–15 Sri Lanka 515, 516 coir 57, 77, 82, 197–9, 202–7, 211–12 stack retting 139 stand retting 96 standards for insulation 497–8, 499, 502–3, 504, 506–7 staple length 220, 230, 356, 358, 362–3 steel 146, 238, 240, 246 steep retting 140 Stelometer 285 sterols 92 stiffening 400–1 storage 3, 6, 8–9 stripping 59, 228–9 abac´a 163, 169, 172–5, 177, 178 structural reaction injection moulding (SRIM) 411–13 strength and tensile strength 5, 23, 28–31, 32, 453, 459 abac´a 163–4, 176, 177 automobile industry 425, 428, 430, 431 cellulose nanocomposites 468–9 chemistry 20 coir 198, 207, 209, 211 composite applications 386, 387, 391, 392 cotton 354, 358, 360–1, 367 flax 99, 100–1, 102, 371, 376 grading 54, 55 hemp 128, 284 insulation 498 jute 142, 146 material modelling 403–5 mechanical properties 270, 272, 280–2, 284–5, 288–98, 301, 305 micromechanical tests 337–41 silk 237–8, 240, 242, 245–6, 248, 250 single element versus collective test 294–6 sisal 189–90 stress 33–4 wool 261–2 stress 29–31, 33–5 stress–strain curves 29, 260–1, 290–1, 293 sucrose 442, 443 Sudan 221, 227, 230 sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) 350, 462 sulphur 5, 224–5 Sumatra 164 sunflower oil 440, 444 sunflower stalks 451 sunn (Crotalaria juncea) 42, 141, 299, 301–2, 305 supercontraction 246 surface contaminants 3–5, 8–9 swaths and swathers 118–21 swede root 448 Sweden 452 Switzerland 231 tableware 64, 67 tambours 126–7 tannin 19, 21, 140, 215 Tanzania 76, 181–3, 185–6, 198, 224, 332 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index tarpaulin 63, 64, 153 Taxus baccata 30 teabags 78, 83, 163, 178 temperature 6, 496 automobile industry 425, 428–9, 431, 433 cellulose nanocomposites 469–71 composite processing 407, 409, 410, 413–15 wool 262–3 tension wood 34–5 tequila 185 textiles 24, 123, 279, 391–2, 438 automobile industry 431 cotton 355 DNA 346, 350–1 flax 89, 91, 103–4, 371, 373, 375, 377 hemp 110–11, 113–14, 116, 121–4 jute 135, 137, 153, 155–6, 157, 160 preservation 3–9 SEM 320, 322, 331 silks 242–3, 251 wool 255, 263, 264, 265 Thailand 75, 222 coir 77, 198, 199 jute 57, 136–7 thermal conductivity 483–6, 488, 490, 492–5, 499, 501, 504 thermal degradation 470–1 thermal expansion 471 thermal threshold temperature 491 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) 470–1 thermomechanical pulp (TMP) 428–9 thermoplastic starch (TPS) 439, 447–8, 466, 469, 470–1 thermoplastics 78–9, 290–1, 399, 417–18, 461 automobile industry 424–6, 428, 431–3, 436 composite applications 389, 390, 392 composite processing 407–10, 413, 415–16, 417–18 composites 437, 438–9, 445–9, 451, 453 sisal 181, 191–2, 193 thermosets 78–9, 399, 408 automobile industry 423–6, 430 composite applications 386–7, 389, 390 composite processing 408–11, 413, 415, 417–18 composites 437, 440, 449–50, 453 sisal 181, 191 tissue engineering 244, 251 tobacco (Nicotiana tobaccum) 248 Togo 357 tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius) 26, 74, 135–6, 138, 144, 286, 293 classification and grading 56 geotextiles 510 537 mechanical properties 30 SEM 326–7 types of fibre 41, 42, 45, 46, 56 tow 78, 103–4, 123, 372, 377 tracheids 24, 25, 321, 322 transmission electron microscope (TEM) 312, 464, 466 trash 54, 375 cotton 228, 230, 354, 356, 358, 363–5 Trichoderma 96 triglycerides 440–1 Tsai–Wu model 403 tunicin 462, 470, 471–2 turf reinforcement mats (TRMs) 512–13, 518, 520 Turkey 220, 451 tussah silk 43, 238, 317–18 tuxying 172, 174, 175, 177 tweezers 281, 282, 283, 287, 290 ultraviolet absorption microspectrophotometry 19, 94 underretting 94 United Kingdom 77, 80, 96, 231 United States of America 271, 355–6, 415, 417, 441, 451 abac´a 164, 178 automobile industry 427 coir 198 composite applications 386, 389 cotton 74, 220–1, 226–31, 354–7, 359–60, 363 flags 345 flax 96, 97, 98 geotextiles 509–10, 511, 514–18, 521 hemp 77 silks 244, 251 sisal 181, 183, 185 wool 256 USDA HVI Checktest 367–8 upholstery 63, 64, 78, 155–6 automobile industry 423, 424, 426, 427, 434 coir 57, 197, 200, 214 upland cotton 220, 329–31, 356, 359, 360 urea 75, 450–1, 452 uronic acid 27, 92, 93 U-values 483 vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) 411–12 vanillic acid 445 vegetable oils 440–1 Venezuela 76, 198 Vietnam 77, 136, 164, 198, 222 vikunja 75 viral diseases 169, 170, 178, 227, 349 viscose 146–7, 297, 317, 375 vulcanisation 424, 435 P1: OTA/XYZ ind P2: ABC JWBK450/Mussig 538 February 22, 2010 14:20 Printer: Yet to come Index wadding 63, 64, 66 wallpaper 65 water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) 140 water soluble compounds 13, 21, 303–4 wax 13, 20, 210, 274, 303–4 flax 92 sisal 188 weaving 152, 153 wet fibre formation 249–50 wet process insulation 486–7 wheat 77, 81–2, 110 wheat straw 20, 26, 300, 304, 445, 451 cellulose nanocomposites 462, 464, 469, 470 cellulose whiskers 462 geotextiles 510, 512, 515, 516 white coir 197, 205, 210, 212–13, 334 white jute (Corchorus capsularis) 26, 30, 74, 135–6, 138, 143–4 classification and grading 56 geotextiles 510 SEM 326–8 types of fibre 41, 42, 45, 46, 56 whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) 226, 227 wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) 339 wide-angle X-ray scattering 466 wildfires 517, 519 winding jute 152 winding techniques 410 windrowing 119, 121 wood plastic composite (WPC) 388–90, 392, 393, 417 automobile industry 436 durability 443 thermoplastic composites 448 Wood-Stock 431, 432 wool 4–8, 41, 43, 255–65, 345, 386 automobile industry 423 behaviour towards moisture 305 classification and grading 52, 54, 60–1, 264, 318 coir 198, 208 cotton 220 diameter 208 flags 4, 8, 345 geometric properties 300 insulation 265, 482, 484–5, 490–1, 493–4, 496–7, 500–3 jute 137, 145, 146–7, 149, 326 mechanical properties 261–2, 272–4, 279, 282–3, 287–90, 297, 301 mixed with silk 317 physical characteristics 302 SEM 318–20, 336 technical applications 65, 66, 74, 75 X-ray diffraction 94, 339–40 xylans 15, 341 xylem fibres 24, 189, 337 hemp 112, 114, 115 xylose 27, 93 yak (Bos mutus) 43, 75, 257, 288 DNA 345–6, 350, 351 SEM 311, 318, 320–1, 336 yellowness 20, 54, 56, 358, 363–4 Young’s modulus 190, 240, 301, 404, 468–9 composite applications 386, 391 insulation 495 jute 145, 146 mechanical properties 272, 280–2, 292, 301 yucca (Yucca filamentosa) 42 zinc 20, 224, 225 ... Grades and Standards Axel Drieling and Jăorg Măussig 3.2 Technical Applications of Natural Fibres: An Overview Nina Graupner and Jăorg Măussig 49 51 3.3 73 Natural Fibres in Technical Applications: ... JWBK450/Mussig March 12, 2010 2 2:3 7 Printer: Yet to come Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres Structure, Properties and Technical Applications Edited by ă ă JORG MUSSIG Department of Biomimetics, Hochschule... condition of the entire textile The views presented in this chapter reflect the opinion of the author and not the Library of Congress Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres: Structure, Properties and