Green composites from natural resources

The prime disadvantages of synthetic polymers, such as release of toxic gases and vapors as a result of incineration and diffculty in their disposal, have led to intense investigations in the feld of new green polymeric materials with a particular interest in the use of biopolymers obtained from renewable resources for green composite applications. This document contains precisely referenced chapters, emphasizing green composite materials from different natural resources with ecofriendly advantages that can be utilized as alternatives to synthetic polymers through detailed reviews of various lignocellulosic reinforcing materials and their property control using different approaches. Each chapter in this document covers a signifcant amount of basic concepts and their development until its current status of development. The document aims at explaining basic characteristics of green composite materials, their synthesis, and applications for these renewable materials obtained from different natural resources that present future directions in a number of industrial applications including the automotive industry.

Green Composites from Natural Resources Green Composites from Natural Resources Edited by Vijay Kumar Thakur CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20131021 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-7070-2 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface vii Editor .ix Contributors .xi Chapter Green Composites: An Introduction Vijay K Thakur, Manju K Thakur, Raju K Gupta, Raghavan Prasanth, and Michael R Kessler Chapter Valorization of Agricultural By-Products in Poly(Lactic Acid) to Develop Biocomposites 11 Anne Bergeret, Jean-Charles Benezet, Thi-Phuong-Thao Tran, George C Papanicolaou, and Anastasia Koutsomitopoulou Chapter Processing Cellulose for Cellulose Fiber and Matrix Composites 45 Robert A Shanks Chapter Hemp and Hemp-Based Composites 63 Hao Wang and Alan K.T Lau Chapter Plant Fiber–Based Composites 95 Bessy M Philip, Eldho Abraham, Deepa B., Laly A Pothan, and Sabu Thomas Chapter Eulaliopsis binata: Utilization of Waste Biomass in Green Composites 125 Vijay K Thakur, Manju K Thakur, and Raju K Gupta Chapter Bast Fibers Composites for Engineering Structural Applications: Myth or the Future Trend 133 Bartosz T Weclawski and Mizi Fan Chapter Life Cycle Assessment for Natural Fiber Composites 157 Nilmini P.J Dissanayake and John Summerscales v vi Contents Chapter Effect of Halloysite Nanotubes on Water Absorption, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Fiber–Reinforced Vinyl Ester Composites 187 Abdullah Alhuthali and It Meng Low Chapter 10 Eco-Friendly Fiber-Reinforced Natural Rubber Green Composites: A Perspective on the Future .205 Raghavan Prasanth, Ravi Shankar, Anna Dilfi, Vijay K Thakur, and Jou-Hyeon Ahn Chapter 11 Weathering Study of Biofiber-Based Green Composites 255 Vijay K Thakur, Manju K Thakur, and Raju K Gupta Chapter 12 Machining Behavior of Green Composites: A Comparison with Conventional Composites 267 Inderdeep Singh and Pramendra K Bajpai Chapter 13 Potential Biomedical Applications of Renewable Nanocellulose 281 Sivoney F de Souza, Bibin M Cherian, Alcides L Leão, Marcelo Telascrea, Marcia R M Chaves, Suresh S Narine, and Mohini Sain Chapter 14 Green Composites from Functionalized Renewable Cellulosic Fibers .307 Vijay K Thakur, Manju K Thakur, and Raju K Gupta Chapter 15 Properties and Characterization of Natural Fiber–Reinforced Polymeric Composites 321 Hom N Dhakal and Zhong Y Zhang Chapter 16 Vegetable Oils for Green Composites 355 Vijay K Thakur, Mahendra Thunga, and Michael R Kessler Index 391 Preface Global warming, rising environmental awareness, waste management issues, d­ windling fossil resources, and rising oil prices are some of the reasons why green materials obtained from renewable resources are increasingly being promoted for sustainable development Various kinds of renewable green materials, such as starchy and cellulosic polymers including natural fibers, vegetable oils, wood bark, cotton, wool, and silk, have been used for thousands of years for food, furniture, and clothing However, it is only in the past two decades they have experienced a renaissance as one of the most feasible alternatives to synthetic polymers for a variety of industrial applications, such as building, construction, automotive, packaging, films, and paper coating, as well as in biomedical applications The prime disadvantages of synthetic polymers, such as release of toxic gases and vapors as a result of incineration and difficulty in their disposal, have led to intense investigations in the field of new green polymeric materials with a particular interest in the use of biopolymers obtained from renewable resources for green composite applications This book is the outcome of contributions by world-renowned experts in the field of green polymer materials from different disciplines, and various backgrounds and expertise The material enclosed in the book gives a true reflection of the vast area of research in green composites, which is also applicable to a number of industries This book contains precisely referenced chapters, emphasizing green ­composite materials from different natural resources with eco-friendly advantages that can be utilized as alternatives to synthetic polymers through detailed reviews of various lignocellulosic reinforcing materials and their property control using different approaches Each chapter in this book covers a significant amount of basic concepts and their development until its current status of development The book aims at explaining basic characteristics of green composite materials, their synthesis, and applications for these renewable materials obtained from different natural resources that present future directions in a number of industrial applications including the automotive industry The book attempts to present emerging low-cost and ecofriendly green composite materials I hope this book will contribute significantly to the basic knowledge of students and researchers all around the globe working in the field of green materials I thank all the contributors for their innovative contributions and Laurie Schlags (project coordinator) along with Allison Shatkin (senior editor) for their invaluable help in the editing process Vijay Kumar Thakur Iowa State University vii Editor Vijay Kumar Thakur, PhD, graduated with a BSc in chemistry (nonmedical), physics (nonmedical), and mathematics (nonmedical); BEd; and MSc in organic chemistry from Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India, in 2006 He then moved to the National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, India, where he obtained his doctoral degree in polymer chemistry from the Chemistry Department in 2009 After a brief stay in the Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Lunghwa University of Science and Technology, Taiwan, he joined Temasek Laboratories at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, as a research scientist in October 2009 and worked there until 2012 He has a general research interest in the ­ synthesis of polymers, nanomaterials, nanocomposites, ­biocomposites, graft copolymers, high-performance capacitors, and electrochromic materials He has coauthored five books, 20 book chapters, one U.S patent, and has published more than 60 research papers in reputed international p­ eer-reviewed journals, including Advanced Materials, Journal of Materials Chemistry, Polymer Chemistry, and RSC Advances, along with 40 publications in proceedings of ­international/national conferences He has been included in the Marquis Who’s Who in the World in the field of science and ­engineering for the year 2011 He is a reviewer for more than 37 international journals and ­currently serves as a member on the steering committee of the WAP Conference Series: Engineering and Technology Frontier He also serves on the editorial board of 22 international journals including Advanced Chemistry Letters, Lignocelluloses, Drug Inventions Today (Elsevier), International Journal of Energy Engineering, and Journal of Textile Science & Engineering (USA) being published in the fields of natural/synthetic polymers, ­composites, energy s­ torage materials, and nanomaterials ix 392 Biodegradable polymers, exploration of, 355 Biodegradable resins, 111 Biodegradation of polymeric materials, 161 Biodegradation process, 99, 110–111 Biodiversity, effects on, 168 Biofiber-based green composites, fabrication for weathering study, 256–257 Biofibers, 214, 255–256 Biofill®, 286 Biomass-based materials, 307, 308 Biomaterials nanocellulose derivatives, 299 use of, 286 Biomembranes, 294 Biopolymer-based green composites, Biopolymeric materials, Biopolymers, 2, 284, 291, 294 development of, 356 Bioreinforcement, primary effects of, 110–111 Biotic resources, 170 BMA, see n-Butyl methacrylate BNC, see Bacterial nanocellulose Bonding agents, 224 Bound water, 53 Bridging fibers, cohesive tractions of, 115–116 Brittle scission of fibers, 116 Buckling initiation stress, 151 n-Butyl methacrylate (BMA), 365 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (BMIMAc), 55 1-n-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (BMIM) (Ac), 55 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIC), 56 1-n-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (BMIM)(PF6), 55 C CAB, see Cellulose acetate butyrate Candida antarctica, 375 Cannabis sativa L., 322 Carbide drills, 272 Carbon–carbon double bonds, 364, 366 Carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP), 271 Carbon nanotube, 298 Carding, 159 Cardiovascular diseases, 291 Castor oil, 372 general chemical structures of, 356 triglycerides, 381 Cationic polymerization, 363 Cellobiose, 212 Cellulases, 285 Cellulose, 45–48, 99, 126, 325, 341 chain, fragment of, 282 chemical character of, 212 crystallite structure of, 69 Index fiber structure and performance, enhancing, 49–51 nanocomposite of, 294 nanofiber, 50, 290 source of, 57 by partial hydrolysis, enhancing, 57–58 purification, 48–49 regeneration, 56–57 solutions, 51–55 sources of, 48 structure of, 97, 98, 282 whiskers, 57 Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), 46 Cellulose-based fibers, thermal degradation of, 216 Cellulose bast fibers, 137, 138 α-Cellulose decomposition, 20 Cellulose-degrading enzymes, 285 Cellulose derivatives inherent advantages of, 281 of polymers, 291 Cellulose fibers, 45–48, 104, 158, 284, see also Cellulose with silanes, 109 structure and performance, enhancing, 49–51 treatment of, 107 Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), 282 Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF), 57 Cellulose nanowhiskers (CNW), 57, 58, 299 Cellulosic constituents, 114 Cellulosic fiber-reinforced green composites, 128 Cellulosic fibers, 97, 126, 333 Cellulosic microfibers, 238 Cellulosic nanofibers, genotoxic of, 299 Cell wall of fiber, 341 primary vs secondary, 67 structure, 325 CES EDUPACK (2010) report, 174 CFCs, see Chlorofluorocarbons CFRP, see Carbon fiber–reinforced polymer Chain-transfer process, 365 Charpy impact test, 343, 344 Chemical bonding, 105 fiber–matrix composites, 218 Chemical coupling, plant fibers, 106 Chemical resistance, 258 Chemical resistance behavior of functionalized fiber-reinforced composites, 316–317 Chemical treatment, fiber–matrix composites, 218 China clay, 160 China Reed fiber, 167 Chitin whiskers, 53–54 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 173 Classification of green composites, 6–8 Climate change, 167–170 393 Index CNC, see Cellulose nanocrystals; Computer numerical control CNF, see Cellulose nanofibrils CNW, see Cellulose nanowhiskers Coarse coir fiber, 229 Coconut coir, 229 Coir fiber–reinforced composite drilling of, 276 NR composite, 234, 235 Coir fibers, 219, 229 alkali treatment of, 233 chemical treatment of, 232 vs natural fiber, cost and properties, 230 Coir/glass-reinforced polyester hybrid composites, 270 Coir–polyester composites drilling behavior of, 276 fiber treatment, 334 Cold plasma, 104 Colemanite, 160 Collagen, 292 Compatibilizers, 218–220 Composite–based materials, 256 Composite density measurement, 328 Composite laminates, drilling process of, 270 Composite-manufacturing methods, 111 Composite materials, 267, 308, 322 defined as, 206 properties affecting factors critical fiber length and aspect ratio, 239–240 fiber breakage, 238–239 fiber concentration, 240–241 fiber–matrix adhesion, 241–242 Composite panels, dynamic mechanical analysis of, 377 Composite reinforcements, natural plant fibers for, 324–326 Composites classification, 322 die swelling of, 238 overview of, 2–3 potential merits of, 3–4 structural reliability of, 337–338 test specimens, 377 void contents, 327–329 volume fractions, 329 volumetric interaction, 328 Composites Innovation Centre in Canada, 89 Compression molding method, 80, 87, 111, 113, 346 Compressive strength of E binata fiber, 128 Computer numerical control (CNC), 269 Conservation tillage, 158 Continued decomposition, 199 Continuous fiber, Continuous phase, Conventional constant feed rate drilling process, 275 Conventional drilling, 269 Conventional fibers, 102 Conventional polymer composites, 272, 274, 275 Conventional polymer matrix composites (PMCs), 267 Conventional ring spinning process, 138 Coral reefs, 168 Corn oil-based cationic resins, 377 Corona, 104 Cosmetic tissues, 294 Cosmospheres®, 294 Cost-effective filler, 207 Coupling agents, 76, 91, 218 classification of, 107–109 Crack growth rate, 345 Crack-opening displacement, 116 Crack propagation in fiber composites, 115 “Cradle to the reincarnation” concept, 323 Crop fiber, 48 Cross-linking reaction of vegetable oils, 363 Crystalline nanoparticles, 283 Crystalline regions, 282 Crystic resin, 138 Cuprammonium method, 52 Cyclic hygrothermal aging conditions, 26 Cyclic loading, 117–118 Cyclopropene, ring-opening metathesis polymerization of, 368, 369 Cytokines, 296 Cytotoxicity, 297 Cytotoxicological evaluation, methods for, 295 Cytotoxicological tests, 295 D DCPD, see Dicyclopentadiene Decortication, 49, 137, 159 1-Decyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, 56 Deformable layers, 104 Degree of compactness, 172 Degree of polymerization, 126 Delamination, 274 Demonstration-scale anaerobic digestion plant, 161 Density measurement, fibers, 327 Deoxychlorocellulose, 50 Depletion of resources, 170–173 Derivate weight loss (DTG), 20 Derivatization of cellulose, 50, 52, 56 Desiccation, 159 Dew retting of fiber, 72 Dicarboxylic acids, polycondensation of, 375 Dichlorotriazines, 109 Dicomponent system, 232 Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), 363 394 Die swelling of composites, 238 Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), 21 Diffusion coefficient behavior of samples, 190 Digital radiographic technique, 275 Digital scanning technique, 275 Dimensional stability, 117 Dimethylacetamide (DMAC), 54 Dimethylformamide (DMF), 54 Direct polymerization, 363–366 Discontinuous fiber, Discontinuous phase, Discontinuous reinforcement phase, 308 Disentanglement of fibers, 159 Dispersion of fibers, 238 Divinylbenzene (DVB), 363 DMA, see Dynamic mechanical analysis DMAC, see Dimethylacetamide DMF, see Dimethylformamide Double melting peak, 24–25 Dredging activities, 171 Drilled holes, visual measurements of, 275 Drilling (planting), 159 forces, 270, 273–274 parameters, effect of, 271 Drilling-induced damage, 274, 275, 278 Drilling of green composites (GCs), 269–270 Drilling operation application of predictive tools in, 276–277 output parameters during, 273–276 Drill point geometry, 271–272 Dry-bonding system, 241–242 DSC, see Differential scanning calorimeter DTG, see Derivate weight loss DVB, see Divinylbenzene Dynamic cyclic loading, 116 Dynamic glass transition temperature, 235 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), 227–228, 236, 377 E ECM molecules, see Extracellular matrix molecules Eco-composites, 199–200 cleanness of, 196 flexural properties of, 194 fracture toughness of, 197–198 water absorption curves of, 193 Ecological integrity of legume-based agroecosystems, 167 Eco-nanocomposites, 189, 199–200 flexural strength of, 194–195 fracture surfaces of, 197 fracture toughness of, 197–198 water absorption curves of, 193 water uptake and diffusion coefficients, 194 Economic sustainability, 172 Index ECO resin system, 138, 139 Ecotoxicity, 163–165 E-glass fiber–reinforced laminates, 343 plant fibers comparing to, 101–102 Einkorn wheat husks, 14, 15 Elastic properties, 116 Elastomers, 110 Electric discharge methods, 104 Electrostatic attraction, fiber–matrix composites, 217–218 Elementary fiber, 67 End-of-life composites, 160–161 Energy-absorbing mechanism, 116 Energy efficiency of NFCs, 134 Environmental impact classification factors (EICF), 162 acidification, 163 aquatic toxicity/ecotoxicity, 163–165 depletion of resources, 170–173 eutrophication/nitrification, 165–167 global warming/climate change, 167–170 human toxicity, 165 ozone depletion, 173–174 photochemical oxidants, 174 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM), 16, 17 Enzymes, 159 immobilization of, 293–294 purification, 49 Epoxidized polymer resins, 366 Epoxidized triglycerides, ring-opening products of, 367 ePTFE, see Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene ESEM, see Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, 56 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, 56 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium diethyl phosphate, 56 EU Directive on Packaging criteria for biodegradability, 161 Eulaliopsis binata green composites with green polymer composites, 126–127 materials and methods, 126 TGA of, 130 European hemp fiber, 135–136 European parliament, 162 Eutrophication, 165–167, 169–170 Excessive entrance delamination, 275 Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE), 299, 300 Extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules, 288 Extrusion compounding process of short fiberreinforced thermoplastic composites, 78–79 395 Index F Fabrication methods, 86 Fabric-reinforced composites, 138–139 Fatty acids, structures of, 359–361 Fertility of soil, 171 Fiber breakage, 79, 238–239 Fiber-bridging mechanism, 198 Fiber de-bonding, 199 Fiber integrity, preserving, 79 Fiber–matrix adhesion, 196, 197, 199, 241–242 Fiber–matrix bonding, 117 Fiber–matrix interface, 114, 115 adhesion, 241–242 and interfacial modifications description, 216–217 electrostatic attraction, 217–218 mechanical adhesion, 218–220 Fiber–matrix system, 142 Fiber misalignment in nontwisted yarn, 144–147 Fiber orientation, 224 Fiber–polymer composites, 188, 198 Fiber/polymer matrix interface optimization, 349 Fiber-reinforced composites, 64, 128 interface bonding types in, 241 Fiber–reinforced elastomer composites, 209, 223 Fiber-reinforced natural rubber composites description, 209 fibers, 211–214 natural rubber, 210–211 Fiber-reinforced plastics, low-velocity impact of, 342 Fiber–rubber interfacial bonding, 223–224 Fibers, 158, 324, see also specific fibers cell wall, 341 chemical treatment of, 236 concentration, 240–241 critical fiber length and aspect ratio, 239–240 defined, 211 dispersion, 238 hemp, see Hemp fiber length and breakage, 225 modification, 348–349 moisture absorption of, 214–215 natural fibers, see Natural fibers orientation, 240 with primary and secondary walls, 67, 68 separation, 71–72 treatments, 72, 83 in twisted yarns, 145 Fiber saturation point (FSP), 333 Fiber volume fraction, 82–83, 271 Fibrous reinforcement, 207 Fickian diffusion behaviors, 193 Fick’s laws, 330 Filament winding, 138 Filtration, membranes for, 294 Flammability properties of vinyl ester resin, 200–201 Flammability tests, 191, 200 Flat laminate panels, 150, 151 Flax fabric reinforcement, 139 Flax fibers, 65, 322 cellulose, 51 mechanical and physical properties of, 334 production cycle for, 158–160 Flax mat, 138–139 Flax production, 134–137 Flax sliver, 176 Flax unidirectional laminates, 142 Flexural modulus, 142 Flexural strength of composite materials, 341–342 with E binata fibers, 128 of vinyl ester eco-composites, 194–195 Flexural tested hemp composite, 340 Floret, 15 Formaldehyde, 127 Formed copolymers, 107 Fracture processes, 343 Fracture surfaces of eco-nanocomposites, 197 Fracture toughness, 115–116, 191 behavior, evaluation of, 345–346 of eco-composites and eco-nanocomposites, 197–198 Free-radical copolymerization, 365 Free-radical macroinitiators, 365 Free-radical polymerization, 365, 381 Free-radical reaction mechanism, 365 Fruit, 100 FSP, see Fiber saturation point Functionalized cellulosic fiber–reinforced green composites, 309–312 Functionalized fiber–reinforced composites chemical resistance behavior of, 316–317 water absorption behavior of, 313–315 Functionalized renewable cellulosic fibers, 307–309 functionalized cellulosic fiber–reinforced green composites, 309–312 functionalized fiber–reinforced composites chemical resistance behavior of, 316–317 water absorption behavior of, 313–315 functionalized S.cilliare fiber–reinforced, mechanical properties of, 313 polymer biocomposites, morphological analysis of, 317 Functionalized S cilliare fiber–reinforced, mechanical properties of, 313 G Game Conservancy Trust Allerton project, 167 Gengiflex® nanocellulose, 285 GFRC, see Glass fiber reinforced–composites GFRP, see Glass fiber–reinforced polymer 396 GFRP laminate, 144 GIIC values, 347 Glass/carbon fiber–reinforced polymer composites, 345 Glass composites, 119–120 Glass fiber reinforced–composites (GFRC), 133, 377 Glass fiber-reinforced plastics, drilling of, 272 Glass fiber–reinforced polymer (GFRP), 271, 277 Glass fibers vs natural fibers, mechanical properties, 214 Glass fibres production, 160 Global warming, 12, 167–170 Glumes, 15 Glyphosate, 159, 164 Graft copolymerization method, 106 Grafted polymer, 106 Grafting, 160 Graft polymerization, 50 Grain by-products, use of, 13 Graphite bismaleimide/titanium composites, drilling of, 272 Graphite/epoxy composite, 275 Grass, 100 Green composites with E binata fibers compressive strength, 128 green polymer composites, 126–127 materials and methods, 126 morphological and thermal study of, 129 tensile strength, 127–128 Green materials, 1–2 Green polymer composites, 125–127 drilling of, 274 fabrication and characterization of, 312 physicochemical and thermal characterization of, 257–259 thermal behavior of, 260–262 Grinding technique, 160 H HA, see Hydroxyapatite Haake Rheocord mixer, 78 Hackling, 159 Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), 188 experiments materials and sample preparation, 189 mechanical tests, 190–191 phase composition and microstructure, 189–190 thermal and flammability test, 191 water uptake test, 190 mechanical properties strength, 194–197 thermal stability and flammability, 199–201 toughness, 197–199 structure and morphology of Index microstructures, 192–193 SAXS/WAXS analysis, 192 water uptake, 193–194 Halocarbon compounds, 173 Halohydrines, epoxidation with, 366 Hand laminating, 112 Hand lay-up method, 86–87, 346 Hard fibers, see Leaf fibers Harvest, 159 Hemicelluloses, 212, 214 fiber fraction, 69–70 Hemp fiber, 50, 65–68, 322 constituents of, 68–70 hurd composites, 90–91 issues, 70–72 NHF, see Noil hemp fiber treatments acetylation, 74–75 alkaline, 73–74 MA, 76–77 silane, 75 steam explosion and plasma treatment, 72–73 Hemp fiber–reinforced composites, 79 thermoplastic composites, 77 polypropylene composites, 80 polypropylene pellets, 85–86 processing methods, 77–80 thermoset composites mat thermoset composites, 89–90 polyester composites, 87–89 processing methods, 86–87 Hemp fiber–reinforced polyester composites, 219 impact properties, 343, 344 Hemp fiber–reinforced polymer composites, 348 Hemp fiber–reinforced unsaturated polyester (HERUPE) composites, tensile strength, 336 Hemp production, 134–137 Hemp stems, 66, 67, 136 Herbicides, 172 HERUPE composites, see Hemp fiber–reinforced unsaturated polyester composites Heterotrophic organisms, 166 Hevea brasiliensis, 210 High-speed steel–cobalt (HSS-Co), 272 High-speed steel (HSS) drill, 271 High temperature degradation process, 216 High-velocity impact test, 342 HMHEC, see Hydrophobically modified hydroxyethylcellulose HNTs, see Halloysite nanotubes Homogenizers, 283 Horizontal burning test, 191 HPC, see Hydroxypropyl cellulose HRH system, 225, 232, 241–242 HSS drill, see High-speed steel drill 397 Index Human dermal fibroblasts culture, 298 Human macrophages, 296 Human monocyte-derived macrophages, 298 Human toxicity, 165 Hurd, 66 Husks, 13 rice, see Rice husks wheat, see Wheat husks Hybrid biocomposites, 111, 275 Hybrid composites, 208, 350 Hybrid hemp–wool yarn 1000 tex reinforced aligned composites, 147–148 Hydrogen bonds, 114–115 Hydrolysis, 57–58, 109 Hydrolytic degradation, 285, 383 Hydrolyzable alkoxy group, 108 Hydrophilic cellulosic fiber, 115 Hydrophilic glucan polymer, 223 Hydrophilic lignocellulosic powder, 35 Hydrophily, husk, 18 Hydrophobically modified hydroxyethylcellulose (HMHEC), 83–85 Hydrophobic PLA, 35 Hydrophobic silanes, 105 Hydroxyapatite (HA), 288 Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), 53 Hygroexpansion coefficient, 117 I I-beams, NFC, 152 Impact strength, 190 Impact toughness, 116–117, 191 Impregnation of plant fibers, 105 Individual samples, 190 Industrial hemp vs marijuana, 66 Inert biomaterials, 290–293 Injection molding method, 79–80, 111, 113, 348 Innovative vascular prostheses, 291 Inorganic coupling agents, 107 Insecticides, 172 Intensification of agriculture, 178 Intensive farming, 171–172 Interdiffusion, fiber-matrix composites, 217 Interface bonding, types of, 241 Interface-modified wood fiber–reinforced polyethylene, 117 Interfacial adhesion, 107, 232 Interfacial properties, 115 Interfacial shear strength (ISS), 217 Interphase optimization, 349 Interply hybrids, 208 Intimately mixed type hybrids, 208 Intraply hybrids, 208 In vitro analysis, 295–300 In vivo analysis, 295–300 Ionic solvents, 55 ISS, see Interfacial shear strength K Kaolin, 160, 188 Kenaf fiber–reinforced polyester composite, 219 Kevlar fibers, 102 L Laryngeal medialization, 285 Latex, 210 LCIA, see Life Cycle Impact Assessment LCI analysis, see Life Cycle Inventory analysis LC polymers, see Liquid crystalline polymers LCST, see Lower critical solution temperature LDPE, see Low-density polyethylene Leaf fibers, 99 Legume-based agroecosystems, ecological integrity of, 167 Leguminous cover crops, 167 Lemma, 15 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for NFC, 157–158 EICF, see Environmental impact classification factors (EICF) impact, life cycle inventory and, 174–177 materials end-of-life composites, 160–161 glass fibres production, 160 natural fibres production, 158–160 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), 162 Life Cycle Interpretation, 162 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis, 162 and LCA, impact, 174–177 Ligaments, natural tendons and, 291 Ligament/tendon substitutes, load-bearing component of, 290 Lignin, 69, 98, 215–216, 219–220 Lignocellulosic cereal waste by-products, 13 Lignocellulosic fibers, 71, 308, 333, 341 chemical composition of, 97 disadvantages of, 80 MAPP with surface of, 76 Lignocellulosic natural fibers, 214, 216, 308 Lignocellulosic waste biomass materials, 125 Limestone, 160 Linseed oil–derived PU, 373 Linum usitatissimum, 322 Liquefaction of wood, 58 Liquid crystalline alkyd resin, preparation of, 375, 376 Liquid crystalline (LC) polymers, 375 Lithium chloride–N,N- dimethylacetamide, 56 LLOYD Material Testing Machine, 190, 191 Load-bearing materials, 118 LOC Composites Pty Ltd, 118 398 Long-grain rice husks (LRH) biocomposites, thermal characteristics evolution of, 27 distributions of husk areas, 20–21 Loss modulus, DMA, 228 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 218 composites, 333 Low dissolved oxygen levels, 166 Lower critical solution temperature (LCST), 52–54 Low temperature degradation process, 216 Low-velocity impact test, 342 LRH, see Long-grain rice husks Lyocell process, 56 M Machining behavior of green composites, 267–269 application of predictive tools in drilling operation, 276–277 drilling of, 269–270 general comparison, 277–278 input parameters, 270–272 output parameters during drilling operation, 273–276 Macromonomers, 367 Macrophages, 296 Maleic anhydride (MA) molecular chain of, 107 treatments of hemp fiber, 76–77 Maleic anhydride–grafted polypropylene (MAPP), 76, 77 effect of, 83 Maleinization of triglyceride oil, 373–374 Man-made glass fibers, 158 MAPP, see Maleic anhydride–grafted polypropylene Marihuana Tax Act of 1937, 135 Marijuana, industrial hemp vs., 66 Mass transport process, 329 Matrices, types of, 110 Matrix, 206 properties, fibers, 349 Matrix–fiber interfacial adhesion, 194 MCC, see Microcrystalline cellulose MDI, see 4,4'-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate Mean value of yarn twist angle, 145 Mechanical abrasion, 110 Mechanical adhesion, fiber–matrix composites, 218–220 Mechanical damping term, tan δ, 228 Mechanical extraction, 99 Mechanical fastening, 268 Mechanical properties of biocomposites, 22–24 of plant fibers, 101 Mechanical separation process, 137 Mechanical strength, 115 Index Melt mixing method of mixing fiber with thermoplastic polymer, 78 Melt viscosity, 237 MEMO, see 3-Methacryloxypropyl­ trimethoxysilane Meniscus, degenerative/traumatic lesions of, 292 Mercerization, 49, 52, 106, 160 processes, 139 Mercerized Saccaharum cilliare fiber, 310, 311 Metathesis reactions, 367 polymers via, 369 3-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MEMO), 57 4,4'-Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), 381 Methyl methacrylate (MMA), 365 MFA, see Microfibril angle MFC, see Microfibrilated cellulose Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), 50, 294 morphology of, 283 Microfibril angle (MFA), 102, 338, 340 Microfibrilated cellulose (MFC), 57, 283 cytotoxicity of, 295 Microfibrils, 67, 97, 282 Microgenetic algorithm technique, 277 Microstructures, 192–193 Milled olive pits PLA biocomposites reinforced by, 28 thermal stability of, 30–31 MMA, see Methyl methacrylate Mode I fracture behavior, 345 Mode II fracture behavior, 345 Modified fiber–reinforced composites, 313 Moisture absorbance, 258 Moisture absorption, 101, 329 affecting factors, 332–333 Fickian diffusion behavior, 330–331 non-Fickian/anomalous, 331 pathways of, 117 of plant fiber composites, 114–115 sorption measurements, 332 water absorption effects, 334 Moisture diffusion in natural fiber–reinforced polymer composite, 332–333 in polymeric composites, 330 Moisture-induced swelling, 117 Moisture uptake, 117 Molecular chain of maleic anhydride, 107 Monomers polymerizable, 356 synthesis of, 367–368, 370 Mononylon®, 299 Montreal Protocol, 173 Mouse macrophages, 296 Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), 54 MWCNT, see Multiwalled carbon nanotubes Index N Nanocellulose, 281, 283–284 Nanocellulose-based nanocomposites, mechanical properties of, 290 Nanocellulose-implanted larynx, 285 Nanocellulose membranes, 299 Nanocellulose–polyurethane prosthetic heart valve, 293 Nanocellulose–PPy composites, 298 Nanoclay loadings, 196 Nanocomposites benefit of, 284 processing and properties of, 291 “Nanocrystals,” 283 Nanofiber networks, 291 Nanofibrilated cellulose (NFC), 283 microparticles, 286 “Nanofibrils,” 283 NanoMasque®, 294 Nanoscale reinforcement material, 188 NanoskinV®, 287 diabetic varicose ulcer treatment using, 288 Nanowhiskers, 282 aggregation of, 299 NaOH, see Sodium hydroxide NaOH-treated hemp fiber, 73, 74 NATCOM, 150 Natural bast fibers, 158 physical and mechanical properties, 326 Natural biomass, Natural cellulosic fiber, 308 Natural composites, drawbacks of, 118 Natural fiber–based composite, 268 Natural fiber composites (NFCs), 133 in civil engineering, 149 I-beams, 152 panels, 151 rods, 150 tubes, 151–152 Life Cycle Assessment for, see Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for NFC production of, 134 tensile and flexural properties axially aligned laminates, 140–144 fiber misalignment in nontwisted yarn, 144–147 hybrid hemp–wool yarn 1000 tex reinforced aligned composites, 147–148 mat and fabric, 138–139 reinforcement type, influence of, 137–138 tensile testing of, 336 weathering, 148–149 Natural fiber–reinforced composites (NFRC), 64, 92, 323–324, 379 moisture absorption behavior of, 333 399 Natural fiber–reinforced green composites, advantages of, Natural fiber–reinforced plastics, 101 Natural fiber–reinforced polymer (NFRP), 268 composites, 208 Natural fiber–reinforced polymeric composites future trends, 349–350 mechanical properties characterization flexural, 341–342 fracture toughness behavior, 345–346 impact, 342–345 manufacturing methods effect, 346–348 tensile, 335–341 moisture absorption characterization, 329–331 affecting factors, 332–333 sorption measurements, 332 water absorption effects, 334 physical properties characterization, 327–329 tensile properties of, 339 Natural fibers, 2, 12–13, 64, 188, 206, 207 advantages of, 5, 208–209, 242–243 characteristics of, 72 chemical structure of, 212–213 classification, 6, 65, 323 vs coir fiber, cost and properties, 230 description, 211–212 disadvantages, 324–325 biodegradation and photodegradation, 216 moisture absorption, 214–215 thermal stability, 215–216 dispersion, 238 mechanical properties of, 97 moisture absorption of, 115 physical and mechanical properties, 326 production, 158–160 properties, 213–214 spiral angles, cellular contents, and tensile properties, 339 vs synthetic fiber, 70 types of, 268 use of, 322 Natural fiber yarns, 142 Natural oils, properties of, 359 Natural plant fibers advantages, 324 composition and structure, 325–326 disadvantages, 324–325 Natural polymeric materials, Natural rubber (NR), 210–211 composites, mechanical properties of, 110 mechanical properties and cure characteristics, 227 Natural rubber–coir fiber composite, 229–238 Natural rubber–sisal fiber composite and properties, 223–229 sisal fiber, 220–223 Natural waste biomass, 126 400 Nature-Works LLC, 14, 28 Nettle fiber–reinforced PLA GC laminate, 276 Nettle fiber–reinforced polypropylene composite laminate, 273 Neural network–controlled drilling process, 275 NFCs, see Natural fiber composites NFRC, see Natural fiber–reinforced composites NFRP, see Natural fiber–reinforced polymer NHF, see Noil hemp fiber Nitrate anion, 167 Nitrification, 165–167 Nitrogen-containing monomers, 374 N-Methylmorpholine oxide (NMMO), 54–55 and ionic liquid solutions, 56 NMMO, see N-Methylmorpholine oxide Noil hemp fiber (NHF) hemp fiber and, 80 fiber treatment, 83–85 fiber volume fraction effect, 82–83 resin modification, 83 and SHF, 81–82 Nondestructive dye penetration technique, 275 Nonpolar aliphatic polymer matrix, 115 Nonpolar thermoplastics, 107 Nonrenewable reinforcement, economical problems, 349–350 Nonstructural composite components, 119 Nonstructural elements, automotive industries and production of, 118 Nontwisted yarns, 145, 147 fiber misalignment in, 144–147 Nonwood natural fibers, 308 Nova Institute in Germany, 85 Novel polymers, 358 NR, see Natural rubber Nucleophilic reactions, 52 O Oil palm fibers, 111, 219 properties of, 223 Oligomers, 364 Olive pits, 13 biocomposite properties, 31–35 PLA biocomposites reinforced by, 28 powder characterization chemical composition of, 29–30 grinding process, 28–29 thermal properties of, 30–31 Optimum fiber concentration, 241 Organic coupling agents, 107 Organic–inorganic coupling agents, 107 Organofunctional metals, 36 Orthophosphate, 166 Oryza glaberrima, 14 Oryza sativa, 14 Oscillatory vibration–assisted drilling, 275 Index Oxidation, 166 Ozone depletion, 173–174 P Packaging waste criteria for biodegradability, 161 Paddy, 14 Palea, 15 Panels, flat laminate, 150, 151 Paris power law, 345–346 Particulate natural fillers, 207 Particulate reinforcement, 207 PBS, see Polybutylene succinate Pectate lyase enzyme, enzyme treatment using, 49 Pectins, 70 Peel-up delamination, 274 Pellets, 85 Percent chemical resistance, 312 Peroxides, organic and inorganic, 366 Pesticides, 178 Petrochemical-based polymers, 359 Petrochemical-based polyols, 372 Petroleum-based epoxy, 357 Petroleum-based monomers vs vegetable oil– based polymers, 376 Petroleum-derived comonomers, 363 PF, see Phenol formaldehyde PHBA, see p-hydroxybenzoic acid Phenol formaldehyde (PF), 309 matrix–based polymer composites, 312 resin, 126 Phosphorus, 166 Photochemical oxidants, 174 Photosynthetic processes, 166 p-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA), 375 Physicochemical characterization of green polymer composites, 257–259 of polymer composites, 259–260 PLA, see Polylactic acid Plant-based composites, 213 Plant-based natural fibers, 206 Plant fiber–based composites applications of, 118–120 chemical composition and structure of, 96–99 factors affecting composite properties, 115–118 processing methods, 111–113 properties of, 100–103, 114–115 reinforced composites, 109–111 surface modification of, 104–109 types of reinforcing, 99–100 Plant fiber–reinforced polymer composites, 114 Plant fibers, 7, 64–65, 323 advantages, 324 disadvantages, 324–325 noncellulosic components, 70 Plant growth, 159 Plant oil-based resins, 357 401 Index Plasma treatment, 160 of fiber, 73 Ploughless soil tillage (PST), 172 Pluronic F127, 298 PMCs, see Polymer matrix composites Polybutylene succinate (PBS), 13 Polyesters, 375–376 reinforcement of, 110 Polyester synthesis, 375 Polylactic acid (PLA), 12–13, 268 aging resistance of, 24–28 agricultural by-products valorization in, 14 biocomposites reinforced by olive pits, see olive pits rice husks, see Rice husks wheat husks, see Wheat husks biocomposites, thermal characteristics evolution of, 27, 31 and CNW, 58 Polymer biocomposites, morphological analysis of, 317 Polymer composites, 4, 188, 376–378 classification of, 268 drilling behavior of, 273, 276 drilling of, 269 laminates, drilling of, 270 physicochemical behavior of, 259–260 Polymeric composites, 188 reinforcements for, 322–324 Polymeric materials, Polymeric matrices, 97 Polymeric matrix composite (PMC), 322, 334 Polymerizable monomers, 356 Polymerization, degree of, 126 Polymer matrices, Polymer matrix, 116, 129, 158 by grafting, 109 multiscale reinforcement materials in, 188 Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), 206, 267 Polymer polypyrrole (PPy), 298 Polymer resin, 126, 129, 310, 378 categories, 110 shrinkage of, 380–381 Polymers industrial implementation of, 359 via metathesis reaction, 369 Polynomial geometrical correction factor, 191 Polyolefin thermoplastics, 115 Polyols form epoxidized soybean oil, 370, 371 prepared for polyurethane synthesis, 372, 373 Polyricinoleate diols, 372 Polyurethanes, 372–374 Polyurethanes (PUs), 356 Polyurethanes–nanocellulose materials, 291 Polyurethane synthesis, polyols prepared for, 372, 373 Potential degradation product, 285 Potential merits of composites, 3–4 PPy, see Polymer polypyrrole Presence of voids, 114 Pressure-assisted absorption, 49 Pristine polymer, 129 Production energy, 169 Prolene®, 299 Proposed optimization technique, 277 Proteases, 293 Protein, 47 Proteinaceous polymers, 294 Pseudoplasticity index, 237 PST, see Ploughless soil tillage Pultrusion, 113 winding, 138 Pure landfill gas, 161 PUs, see Polyurethanes Push-down delamination, 274 Pycnometry method, 327 Pyrolysis char, 13 Q Quasistatic fracture toughness, 116 R Radial drilling machine, 269 Radial drilling setup, 269 Raman spectroscopy, 58 Raw fiber–reinforced composite, 316 RCF, see Recycled cellulose fiber Recyclablem plant fibers, 119 Recycled cellulose fiber (RCF), 188–189, 200 Recycling, 376 Regression models (RMs), 277 Reinforced green composites, 128 Reinforcement, 109, 206 effect of grass, 111 of polyesters, 110 type, influence of, 137–138 Reinforcement filler, 207 Renewable construction materials, 149 Renewable nanocellulose, potential biomedical applications of, 282–285 bioactive biomaterials, 288–290 biodegradable materials, 285–288 enzymes, immobilization of, 293–294 filtration, membranes for, 294 inert biomaterials, 290–293 nanocellulose, 281 in vitro and in vivo analysis, 295–300 Renewable organic materials, 47 Renewable plant biomass, 308 Renewable polymers, Resin-less bamboo 402 composites, drilling of, 270 drilling of, 272 Resins, types of, 112 Resin transfer molding (RTM), 87, 111 technique, 112–113, 341, 347 Resorcinol–formaldehyde–latex (RFL) solution, 235 Response surface methodology (RSM), 277 Restrained layers, 105 Retting, 49, 159, 174 process of fiber, 72 RFL solution, see Resorcinol–formaldehyde– latex solution Ribbon fibers, 220, 221 Rice husks, see also Wheat husks aging resistance, 24–28 chemical composition, 16–17 mechanical properties, 22–24 microstructure, 17–18 PLA biocomposites reinforced by, 14–16 properties of, 16 after biocomposite processing, 20–21 surface properties of, 18 surface treatments of, 36–40 thermal properties, 19–22 Ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), 368 of cyclopropene, 369 Ring-opening products of epoxidized triglycerides, 367 Ring opening with alcohols, 370 Rippling, 159 RMs, see Regression models Rods, NFC, 150 ROM, see Rule of mixtures ROMP, see Ring-opening metathesis polymerization Roof materials, 118 Roselle/sisal polyester hybrid biocomposite, drilling of, 277 RSM, see Response surface methodology RTM, see Resin transfer molding Rubber-based polymer composites, 110–111 Rubber–coir interface bonding, 232 Rubbers, 209, 223 compounds, mixing of, 238 Rule of mixtures (ROM), 101–102 Ruthenium-based catalysts, 367 S Saccaharum cilliare, 256–257, 309, 311, 312 fiber–reinforced PF composite, 315 functionalization of, 310, 313 swelling behavior of, 257–258 thermal behavior of, 260–262 Index Sand, 160, 171 Sandwich hybrids, 208 Saturated fatty acids, 358 SAXS/WAXS analysis, 192 SAXS/WAXS plots, 192 Scaffolds, 282 Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 127, 189–190, 309, 377 images, 196 of fracture surfaces for composites, 380 micrographs of HNT clusters, 192 of unfilled polyurethane, 381, 382 Scarring, 286 Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2010 report, 173 Scutched hemp fiber (SHF), 80–82 Scutching process, 159 Seeds, 100 Selected storm water priority pollutants (SSPP), 164 Self-metathesis of fatty acids, 368 SEM, see Scanning electron microscope Shear viscosity, 237 Sheep fetus, stages of corrective surgery in, 300 Sheet molding compound (SMC), 113 SHF, see Scutched hemp fiber Short beam shear tests, 377 Short fiber composite, 226 Shrinkage of fibers, 106 Silane coupling agents, 105, 108, 219, 313, 377, 378 Silane functionalized fiber, 313 Silane functionalized S cilliare fiber–reinforced polymer composites absorption behaviors of, 315 chemical resistances of, 316 Silane modification, 312 Silane-treated fibers, 377 Silane-treated Saccaharum cilliare fiber, 310, 311 Silane treatments, 37 of hemp fiber, 75 Silent Spring, 158 Silica, 225 Sisal fiber–polyester composites, impact properties, 344 Sisal fiber–reinforced polyethylene composites, tensile testing, 336 Sisal fiber–reinforced polypropylene composites, moisture absorption, 334 Sisal fiber–reinforced PP, drilling process of, 275 Sisal fibers, 111 chemical compositions of, 221–223 description, 220–221 water uptake for, 117 403 Index SMC, see Sheet molding compound Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 219 husks are treated by, 36–37 solution cellulose fibers swelled in, 49, 50 interaction with cellulose, 52 Sodium hydroxide–treated fibers, 232, 234 Soil acidification, 163 Soil depletion, 171 Soil erosion, 178 Solar corona, 104 Solid waste, 376 Solution mixing, 79 Soxhlet extraction, 16, 49, 309, 381 Soybean hull composites, 381 Soybean oil-based thermosets, 365 Spent germ reinforcement, 378–379 Spikelet, 15 Spinning process, 159, 176 Spray drying process, 286 Springtime ozone hole, 174 SSPP, see Selected storm water priority pollutants ST, see Styrene Steady-state one-dimensional (1D) diffusion, 330 Steam explosion, 49 method, 72–73 Stern Review (2007), 169 Stiffness, 116 Stiffness-critical designs, 188 Storage modulus curves, 377, 379 DMA, 228 Strength testing, 116 Strength-to-weight ratio, 323 Stress intensity factor, 347 Stress relaxation behavior, 226 Stress–strain curves analysis, 233 Structure of plant fiber, 97–98 Styrene (ST), 363 Styrene–butadiene rubber, 224 Superimposed drilling, 275 Surface cross-linking, 104 Surface modification of plant fibers change of surface tension, 105 chemical methods, 104–105 classification of coupling agents, 107–109 mercerization, 106 physical methods, 104 Surface tension, change of, 105 Surface treatments of husks, 36–40 Surgicel®, 289 Sustainable development, 158 definition of, Swelling behavior of Saccaharum cilliare fibers, 257–258 Swelling in alkali-treated coir fiber, 233 Swelling ratio, 233 Symmetric composites, mechanical properties of, 380 Synthetic fibers, 65, 326 economical problems, 349–350 natural fiber vs., 70 Synthetic polymers, 125, 291 Systemic acute phase response, 296 T Taguchi approach, 276 Taguchi’s method, 277 TDI solution, see Toluene diisocyanate solution Technical thermoplastics, 110 TEM, see Transmission electron microscope Tensile modulus, 231 Tensile strength, 335–336 with E binata fibers, 127–128 Tensile testing, 138, 336–341 Tensioned polyester wrapping wire, 144, 145 Termites hatch, 161 Test specimens, composite, 377 Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 66 Tex value, 142 TGA, see Thermogravimetric analysis THC, see Tetrahydrocannabinol Thermal analyzer, 127 Thermal characterization of green composites, 259 of green polymer composites, 257–262 Thermal decomposition, 191 Thermal degradation, 199 Thermal polymerization, 366 Thermal properties of biocomposites, 21–22 Thermal stability of natural fibers, 215–216 of plant fiber composites, 114 of rice and wheat husks, 19–20 Thermal test, 191 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 49, 259, 377 curves for vinyl ester, 199 of Eulaliopsis binata, 129, 130 rice and wheat husks, 19 thermal behavior of composites, 191 thermal stability of biocomposites, 21 of natural fibers, 215 Thermoplastics, 110 Thermosets, 364 Thermosetting biocomposites, tensile and flexural properties of, 381 Thermosetting polymer resin matrix, 127 Thermosetting polymers, 110, 127 Thin-walled tubular NFC elements, 151 404 Thrombosis, 292 Tillage, 158, 174 Time-dependent properties, 117–118 Tissue-engineered nanocomposite bone graft, 289 Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) solution, 109, 232, 235 Tool geometry parameters, effect of, 272 Toxicological factors, 165 Traditional synthetic resins, 356 Translucent vegetable oil-based thermosets, 365 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 189, 192 Trees, source of cellulose, 48 Tricomponent dry-bonding system, 232 Triethoxyvinyl, 109 Triglyceride molecules, 358 Triglycerides direct copolymerization of, 363–364 free-radical polymerization of, 365 general structure of, 358 mixtures of, 357 oil, maleinization of, 373–374 polymers derived from, 359 reaction products of, 370, 371 subsequent polymerization of, 366 Trisilanol, surface condensation reaction of, 378 Triticum monococcum, 14 Trypsin (TRY), 293 Tubes, NFC, 151–152 Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α, 296 Twill glass fabric, 139 Twin-screw extruders, 348 Twisted hemp fiber-reinforced composites, 140 Two-stage relaxation mechanis, 226 U U.K production sectors, 169 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 138 Unidirectional glass/epoxy (UD-GE) conventional composites, drilling of, 273 United Nations Environment Program, 173 United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, 168, 169 Unsaturated polyester resins, 138 Unsaturated polyesters, 110 Untreated hemp fiber, 73–75 UTS, see Ultimate tensile strength V Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM), 87, 113, 379 Vacuum-assisted transfer molding process, 380 Vacuum-bagged tool, 113 Vacuum bagging, 111 Index Vacuum treatment, 51 VARTM, see Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding Varying molding methods, 346–347 Vascular prostheses, 293 Vegetable oil–based polyesters, 375–376 Vegetable oil–based polymer resin, 377 Vegetable oil–based polyols, 373 Vegetable oils bio-based polyurethanes and polyesters, 372–376 biomass to polymer for, 357 chemical composition of, 362 chemistry of, 358–362 green composites from, 376 for polymer applications, 358 polymerization methods for chemical modification, 366–372 direct polymerization, 363–366 VER, see Vinyl ester resin Vinyl ester eco-composites, flexural strength of, 194–195 Vinyl ester resin (VER), 188–189, 200–201 Voids, presence of, 114 Vulcanized rubbers, 226 W Waste biomass, advantages of, 126 Waste paper composites, 117 Water absorption behavior of functionalized fiber-reinforced composites, 313–315 effects of, 334 of Saccaharum cilliare fibers, 261 Water immersion conditions, 26 Water immersion tests, HFRUPE composites, 339–340 Water retting, 72, 99 Water uptake and husk hydrophily, 18 for sisal fiber, 117 test, 190 Weak boundary layers, 104 Wear test, 129 Weathering study, biofiber-based green composites fabrication for, 256–257 Weed control, 159 Wettability, 105 Wetting, fiber-matrix composites, 217 Wheat husks, see also Rice husks aging resistance, 24–28 chemical composition, 16–17 mechanical properties, 22–24 microstructure, 17–18 PLA biocomposites reinforced by, 14–16 405 Index properties of, 16, 20–21 surface properties of, 18 surface treatments of, 36–40 thermal properties, 19–22 Wollastonite mineral fimine, 380 Wood composites, 100, 117 Wood fibers, 324, 340 Wood plastic composites (WPC), 90–91, 115 Wood pulp cellulose, 55 Wood, source of cellulose, 48 World Commission on Environment and Development (1987), 158 World production of hemp, 135 WPC, see Wood plastic composites X Xanthate, regeneration of, 46 Xylem fibers, 221 Y Yarns, 138, 140 Z Zwick Charpy impact tester, 190, 191 ... 2012) 6 Green Composites from Natural Resources 1.3.1  Classification of Green Composites Intense research efforts are currently focused on developing green composites by combining (natural/ bio)... Engineering of Natural Fibre Composites for Maximum Performance Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing 10 Green Composites from Natural Resources Oksman, K and Sain, M 2008 Wood-Polymers Composites. .. renewable reinforcement for green composites and is considered one of the most important components of green composites The numerous advantages of natural fiber–reinforced green composites such as low