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(BQ) Part 1 book Human resource management has contents: Changing nature of human resource management, strategic HR management and planning, organization individual relations and retention, legal framework of equal employment, managing equal employment and diversity,...and other contents.
Human Resource Management T W E L F T H E D I T I O N This page intentionally left blank Human Resource Management T W E L F T H E D I T I O N ROBERT L MATHIS University of Nebraska at Omaha • JOHN H JACKSON University of Wyoming Human Resource Management, Twelfth Edition Robert L Mathis, John H Jackson VP/Editorial Director: Jack W Calhoun Editor-in-Chief: Melissa S Acuña Senior Acquisitions Editor: Joseph A Sabatino Senior Developmental Editor: Susanna C Smart Editorial Assistant: Ruth Belanger Senior Marketing Manager: Kimberly Kanakes COPYRIGHT © 2008, 2006 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation Thomson, the Star logo, and South-Western are trademarks used herein under license Printed in the United States of America 10 09 08 07 Student Edition ISBN 13: 978-0-324-54275-2 ISBN 10: 0-324-54275-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2007933762 Senior Marketing Communications Manager: Jim Overly Production House: Graphic World Inc Content Project Manager: Patrick Cosgrove Printer: RR Donnelley, Inc Willard, OH Manager, Editorial Media: John Barans Art Director: Stacy Shirley Technology Project Manager: Kristen Meere Cover and Internal Designer: Joe DeVine, Red Hangar Design Senior Manufacturing Coordinator: Doug Wilke ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other manner—without the written permission of the publisher Cover Images: © Digital Stock For permission to use material from this text or product, submit a request online at http://www.thomsonrights com For more information about our products, contact us at: Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center 1-800-423-0563 Thomson Higher Education 5191 Natorp Boulevard Mason, OH 45040 USA TO Jo Ann Mathis, who manages me R D and M M Jackson, who were successful managers of people for many years This page intentionally left blank Contents in Brief Preface xxiii Section Nature of Human Resource Management Chapter Chapter Chapter Changing Nature of Human Resource Management Strategic HR Management and Planning 34 Organization/Individual Relations and Retention 66 Section Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Staffing the Organization 97 Legal Framework of Equal Employment 98 Managing Equal Employment and Diversity 130 Jobs and Job Analysis 160 Recruiting in Labor Markets 192 Selecting Human Resources 224 Section Developing Human Resources 257 Chapter Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Training Human Resources 258 Talent Management and Development 290 Performance Management and Appraisal 324 Section Compensating Human Resources 357 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Total Rewards and Compensation 358 Variable Pay and Executive Compensation 390 Managing Employee Benefits 416 Section Managing Employee Relations 453 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Risk Management and Worker Protection 454 Employee Rights and Responsibilities 488 Union/Management Relations 518 Appendix A Appendix B Human Resource Certification Institute Test Specifications 552 Current Literature in HR Management 559 Glossary 563 Author Index 571 Subject Index 576 vii This page intentionally left blank Contents S E C T I O N NATURE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CHAPTER Changing Nature of Human Resource Management HR Headline Why HR Is Not Always Respected Human Capital in Organizations Human Capital and HR Human Resources as a Core Competency HR Activities Managing Human Resources in Organizations Smaller Organizations and HR Management HR On-the-Job What Do HR Managers Do? HR Cooperation with Operating Managers HR Management Roles 10 Administrative Role of HR 10 Operational and Employee Advocate Role for HR 12 Strategic Role for HR 12 Current HR Management Challenges 14 Globalization of Business 14 HR Perspective Globalization Affecting German Companies 15 Economic and Technological Changes 16 Workforce Demographics and Diversity 17 Organizational Cost Pressures and Restructuring 19 HR Technology 19 Purposes of an HRMS 20 HR Online Wikis and Collaborative HR 20 Other Uses of HR Technology 21 Ethics and HR Management 21 Ethics and Global Differences 22 Ethical Behavior and Organizational Culture 22 HR Best Practices How UPS Delivers Ethics and Corporate Integrity 23 HR’s Role in Organizational Ethics 23 HR Management Competencies and Careers 25 HR Competencies 25 HR Management as a Career Field 26 HR Professionalism and Certification 27 Summary 29 Review and Application Questions 29 Case: HR Contributes at SYSCO 30 Supplemental Case: Phillips Furniture 31 Notes 31 ix Chapter Training Human Resources Cross training Training people to more than one job 275 Cross Training A variety of on-the-job training is cross training, which occurs when people are trained to more than one job—theirs and someone else’s For the employer, the advantages of cross training are flexibility and development However, although cross training is attractive to the employer, it is not always appreciated by employees, who often feel that it requires them to more work for the same pay To counteract such responses, learning “bonuses” can be awarded for successfully completing cross training to make it more appealing to employees In some organizations, the culture may be such that people seek crosstraining assignments to grow or prepare for a promotion, but that is not the case in all organizations Unions typically are not in favor of cross training because it threatens job jurisdiction and broadens jobs Cross training may require scheduling work differently during training, and temporarily decreased productivity may result from it as people learn Overall, an effective cross training program can overcome the concerns mentioned and has the potential to be good for both employer and employee External Training Internet Research HrGOpher.com This Website includes a directory of human resource Websites and on-line education links on employee training topics Link to this site at: http://thomsonedu com/management/mathis ■ ■ ■ ■ External training, or training that takes place outside the employing organization, is used extensively by organizations of all sizes Large organizations use external training if they lack the capability to train people internally or when many people need to be trained quickly External training may be the best option for training in smaller firms due to limitations in the size of their HR staffs and in the number of employees who need various types of specialized training Whatever the size of the organization, external training occurs for several reasons: It may be less expensive for an employer to have an outside trainer conduct training in areas where internal training resources are limited The organization may have insufficient time to develop internal training materials The HR staff may not have the necessary level of expertise for the subject matter in which training is needed There are advantages to having employees interact with managers and peers in other companies in training programs held externally Outsourcing of Training Many employers of all sizes outsource training to external training firms, consultants, and other entities According to data from ASTD, approximately 25% to 30% of training expenditures go to outside training sources Interestingly, over a recent three-year period, the outsourcing of training has not increased dramatically.30 The reasons may be cost concerns, a greater emphasis on internal linking of training to organizational strategies, and other issues However, outsourcing of training is used more frequently when mergers and acquisition occur.31 A popular route for some employers is to use vendors and suppliers to train employees Several computer software vendors offer employees technical certifications on their software For example, being a Microsoft Certified Product Specialist gives employees credentials that show their level of technical expertise Such certifications provide employees with items to put on their résumés should they decide to change jobs These certifications also benefit employers, who can use them as job specifications for hiring and promotion 276 Section Developing Human Resources Many suppliers host users’ conferences, where employees from a number of firms receive detailed training on using products, services, and features that are new to the employees Some vendors will conduct the training inside an organization as well if sufficient numbers of employees are to be trained Government-Supported Job Training Federal, state, and local governments provide a wide range of external training assistance and funding The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) provides states with block grant programs that target adult education, disadvantaged youth, and family literacy Employers hiring and training individuals who meet the WIA criteria receive tax credits and other assistance for six months or more, depending on the program regulations At state and local levels, employers who add to their workforces can take advantage of a number of programs that provide funding assistance to offset training costs As examples, a number of states offer workforce training assistance for employers Quick Start (Georgia), Smart Jobs (Texas), and Partnership (Alabama) are three well-known training support efforts Often, such programs are linked to two-year and four-year colleges throughout the state Educational Assistance Programs Some employers pay for additional education for their employees Typically, the employee pays for courses that apply to a college degree and is reimbursed upon successful completion of a course The amounts paid by the employer are considered non-taxable income for the employee up to amounts set by federal laws But one concern is that traditional forms of employee educational programs pose risks for the employer Upon completion of the degree, the employee may choose to take the new skills and go elsewhere Employers must plan to use these skills upon employee graduation to improve the retention of those employees Combination Training Approaches Whether training is delivered internally or externally, appropriate training must be chosen The following overview identifies two common training approaches that often integrate internal and external means Some are used more for job-based training, while others are used more for development Cooperative Training Cooperative training approaches mix classroom training and on-the-job experiences This training can take several forms One form, generally referred to as school-to-work transition, helps individuals move into jobs while still in school or on completion of formal schooling Such efforts may be arranged with high schools or with community colleges One form of cooperative training used by employers, trade unions, and government agencies is apprentice training An apprenticeship program provides an employee with on-the-job experience under the guidance of a skilled and certified worker Certain requirements for training, equipment, time length, and proficiency levels may be monitored by a unit of the U.S Department of Labor Figure 9-9 indicates the most common areas that use apprenticeships to train people for jobs Apprenticeships usually last two to five years, depending on the occupation During this time, the apprentice usually receives lower wages than the certified individual Another form of cooperative training called internship usually combines job training with classroom instruction from schools, colleges, and universities Internships benefit both employers and interns Interns get “real-world” Chapter Training Human Resources F I G U RE 9-9 277 Most Common Apprenticeship Occupations Electrician (construction) Carpenter Plumber Pipe fitter Sheet metal worker Structural-steel worker Elevator constructor Roofer Sprinkler fitter Bricklayer Construction craft laborer Painter Source: U.S Department of Labor, 2006, www.dol.gov exposure, a line on their résumés, and a chance to closely examine a possible employer Employers get a cost-effective source of labor and a chance to see an intern at work before making a final hiring decision Instructor-Led Classroom and Conference Training Instructor-led training is still the most prevalent approach to training Employer-conducted short courses, lectures, and meetings usually consist of classroom training, whereas numerous employee development courses offered by professional organizations, trade associations, and educational institutions are examples of conference training A particularly important aspect of classroom training is the need to recognize that adults in a classroom setting have different expectations and learning styles from those of younger students A number of large firms have established their own “universities” to offer classroom and other training as part of curricula for employees Because these corporate universities generally offer both training and development courses, they are discussed in Chapter 10 Orientation: On-Boarding for New Employees Orientation Planned introduction of new employees to their jobs, co-workers, and the organization The most important and widely conducted type of regular training is done for new employees Orientation is the planned introduction of new employees to their jobs, co-workers, and the organization, and is offered by most employers It requires cooperation between individuals in the HR unit and operating managers and supervisors In a small organization without an HR department, the new employee’s supervisor or manager usually assumes most of the responsibility for orientation.32 In large organizations, managers and supervisors, as well as the HR department, generally work as a team to orient new employees Unfortunately, many new employee orientation sessions still come across as boring, irrelevant, and a waste of time to both new employees and their department supervisors and managers The term on-boarding is being used increasingly to describe orientation This usage reflects that getting new employees, including executives, to immediately begin performing successfully is crucial.33 Estimates are that about 75% of employers have implemented on-boarding activities to improve their employee orientation efforts Many of them are using electronic technology as part of their on-boarding efforts.34 Effective orientation achieves several key purposes: ■ ■ Establishes a favorable employee impression of the organization and the job Provides organization and job information 278 Section ■ ■ ■ Developing Human Resources Enhances interpersonal acceptance by co-workers Accelerates socialization and integration of the new employee into the organization Ensures that employee performance and productivity begin more quickly On-boarding through orientation efforts contributes to both short-term and long-term success for employees The HR On-the-Job discussion contains some suggestions on how to make employee orientations more effective The socialization of new employees and their initial commitment to the organization are positively affected by orientation This socialization enhances the person/organization fit, which reinforces the employee’s positive view of the job, co-workers, and the organization Additionally, employers have found that higher employee retention rates result when new employees receive effective orientation Orientation also contributes to overall organizational performance By helping employees to more quickly feel that they are a part of the organization, they can begin contributing more quickly to organizational work efforts One way of expanding the efficiency of orientation is to use electronic resources A number of employers place general employee orientation information on company intranets or corporate Websites New employees log on and go through much of the general material on organizational history, structure, products and services, mission, and other background, instead of sitting in a classroom where the information is delivered in person or by videotape.35 Specific questions and concerns can be addressed by HR staff and others after employees review the Web-based information Effective New Employee Orientation Effective new employee orientation requires planning and preparation Unfortunately, orientation often is conducted rather haphazardly To make orientation more effective, the following suggestions are useful: ■ ■ ■ ■ Prepare for new employees New employees must feel that they belong and are important to the organization The supervisor, HR unit, and co-workers should be prepared for a new employee’s arrival Consider using mentors Some organizations assign co-workers or peers to serve as buddies or mentors as part of the new employees’ orientation Use an orientation checklist An orientation checklist can be used to identify what the new employee needs to know now Cover needed information It is important to give employees information on the policies, work rules, and benefits of the company ■ ■ ■ Present orientation information effectively Managers and HR representatives should determine the most appropriate ways to present orientation information both in person and using technological means Avoid information overload One common failing of many orientation programs is information overload New workers presented with too many facts may ignore or inaccurately recall much of the information Evaluate and follow up An HR representative or manager can evaluate the effectiveness of the orientation by conducting follow-up interviews with new employees a few weeks or months after the orientation Chapter Training Human Resources 279 E-Learning: On-Line Training E-learning Use of the Internet or an organizational intranet to conduct training on-line E-learning is use of the Internet or an organizational intranet to conduct training on-line E-learning is growing in popularity with employers The major advantages are cost savings and access to more employees Estimates are that corporate training conducted through learning technology today will be doubled in the next few years Almost 30% of learning hours are totally technology based, according to an ASTD report Also, e-learning is seen as more highly preferred by workers under the age of 30 years.36 A number of e-learning methods are used for workers, regardless of age or location, some of which are discussed next Distance Training/Learning A growing number of college and university classes use some form of Internet-based course support Blackboard and WebCT are two popular support packages that thousands of college professors use to make their lecture content available to students These packages enable virtual chat and electronic file exchange among course participants, and also enhance E-Learning Guild instructor/student contact Many large employers, as well as The E-Learning Guild provides colleges and universities, use interactive two-way television members with learning opporto present classes The medium allows an instructor in one tunities, networking services, resources, and place to see and respond to a “class” in any number of other publications on e-learning Visit their site at: locations With a fully configured system, employees can take http://thomsonedu.com/management/mathis courses from anywhere in the world Internet Research Simulations and Training The explosive growth in information technology in the past few years has revolutionized the way all individuals work, including how they are trained Today, computer-based training involves a wide array of multimedia technologies—including sound, motion (video and animation), graphics, and hypertext—to tap multiple learner senses Computer-supported simulations within organizational training can replicate the psychological and behavioral requirements of a task, often in addition to providing some amount of physical resemblance to the trainee’s work environment From highly complicated systems that replicate difficult landing scenarios for pilots to programs that help medical trainees learn to sew sutures, simulations allow for safe training when the risks associated with failure are high Virtual reality is also used to create an artificial environment for trainees so that they can participate in the training On-line gaming is a growing e-learning tool, as the HR On-Line feature (on the next page) describes The new technologies incorporated into training delivery also affect the design, administration, and support of training Some companies have invested in electronic registration and record-keeping systems that allow trainers to register participants, record exam results, and monitor learning progress Generally, technology is moving from center stage to becoming embedded in the learning and training processes As learning and work merge even closer in the future, technology is likely to integrate seamlessly into the work environment of more employees This integration will allow employees to spend less time in the future learning how to use technology, and more time on learning the desired content Blended Learning E-learning alone cannot be the sole method of training, according to the findings of a significant number of employers Therefore, 280 Section Developing Human Resources Gaming Grows in E-Training A large number of Internet users play on-line games of all types But games also are an important part of employer training initiatives Estimates are that up to $150 million annually is being spent by employers on work-related games For years military and government workers have used games and simulations to prepare for combat exercises, improve use of military equipment, and prepare for natural and human-caused disasters However, many private employers of all types are using gaming situations for both new and existing employees ■ A technology company, Borland Software, uses games for training sales staff on its software products Various games, including hangman and other simple ones, are combined to evalu- Blended learning Learning approach that combines short, fast-paced, interactive computer-based lessons and teleconferencing with traditional classroom instruction and simulation ■ ate trainees’ knowledge of products and services The individuals who meet the time limit and get perfect scores are eligible for drawings for cash incentives, free iPods, and other rewards Cold Stone Creamery, a California-based ice cream firm, has a game where employees scoop ice cream cones Both timing and the amount of ice cream are part of the game scores The excitement for this game led to over 8,000 persons downloading the game in one week Railroads, trucking companies, banks, retailers technology firms, hotels, and many others are using gaming simulations Doing so appears to increase employee interest in training, promises better training transfer, and improves performance and organizational results.37 the solution seems to be blended learning, which combines short, fast-paced, interactive computer-based lessons and teleconferencing with traditional classroom instruction and simulation.38 Deciding which training is best handled by which medium is important too A blended learning approach uses e-learning for building knowledge of certain basics, a Web-based virtual classroom for building skills, and significant in-person traditional instructorled training sessions and courses Use of blended learning provides greater flexibility in the use of multiple training means and enhances the appeal of training activities to different types of employees.39 Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Learning The rapid growth of e-learning makes the Internet or an intranet a viable means for delivering training content But e-learning has both advantages and disadvantages that must be considered.40 In addition to being concerned about employee access to e-learning and desire to use it, some employers worry that trainees will use e-learning to complete courses quickly but will not retain and use much of what they learned Taking existing training materials, putting them on the Internet, and cutting the training budget is not the way to succeed with e-learning An important question is: Can this material be learned just as well on-line as through conventional methods? In sum, e-learning is the latest development in training delivery Some of the biggest obstacles to using it will continue to be keeping up with the rapid change in technological innovation, knowing when and how much to invest, and designing e-courses appropriately Undoubtedly, e-learning will have a major impact on HR and training, but there are no “ten easy steps” to making e-learning successful Figure 9-10 presents a listing of e-learning’s most commonly cited advantages and disadvantages Chapter Training Human Resources F I G U RE 9-10 281 Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Learning Advantages Is self-paced; trainees can proceed on their own time Is interactive, tapping multiple trainee senses Enables scoring of exercises/assessments and the appropriate feedback Incorporates built-in guidance and help for trainees to use when needed Allows trainers to update content relatively easily Can enhance instructor-led training Is good for presenting simple facts and concepts Disadvantages May cause trainee anxiety Some trainees may not be interested in how it is used Requires easy and uninterrupted access to computers Is not appropriate for some training (leadership, cultural change, etc.) Requires significant up-front investment, both time and cost-wise Requires significant support from top management to be successful Source: Developed by Lisa A Burke and Robert L Mathis Developing E-Learning Rather than being adopted just for its efficiency, e-learning should meet strategic training needs.41 Certain criteria to consider before adopting e-learning include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Sufficient top management support and funding must be committed to developing and implementing e-learning Managers and HR professionals must be “re-trained” to accept the idea that training is being decentralized and individualized Current training methods (compared with e-learning) are not adequately meeting organizational training needs Potential learners are adequately computer literate and have ready access to computers and the Internet Trainees attending training programs are geographically separated, and travel time and costs are concerns Sufficient numbers of trainees exist, and many trainees are self-motivated enough to direct their own learning TRAINING EVALUATION Evaluation of training compares the post-training results to the pre-training objectives of managers, trainers, and trainees Too often, training is conducted with little thought of measuring and evaluating it later to see how well it worked Because training is both time consuming and costly, it should be evaluated.42 Levels of Evaluation It is best to consider how training is to be evaluated before it begins Donald L Kirkpatrick identified four levels at which training can be evaluated As Figure 9-11 shows, the evaluation of training becomes successively more F I G U R E -11 Section Developing Human Resources Levels of Training Evaluation High Results Value to Organization 282 Behavior Learning Reaction Low Easy Difficult difficult as it moves from measuring reaction to measuring learning to measuring behavior and then to measuring results But the training that affects behavior and results versus reaction and learning provides greater value in viewing training as a strategic performance contributor Reaction Organizations evaluate the reaction levels of trainees by conducting interviews with or administering questionnaires to the trainees Assume that 30 managers attend a two-day workshop on effective interviewing skills A reaction-level measure could be gathered by having the managers complete a survey that asked them to rate the value of the training, the style of the instructors, and the usefulness of the training to them If the survey were administered immediately after the workshop, it might measure only how much the managers liked the training rather than how the training benefited them or how it affected the way they conduct interviews Learning Learning levels can be evaluated by measuring how well trainees have learned facts, ideas, concepts, theories, and attitudes Tests on the training material are commonly used for evaluating learning, and they can be given both before and after training to provide scores that can be compared If test scores indicate learning problems, then instructors get feedback and courses can be re-designed so that the content can be delivered more effectively Of course, learning enough to pass a test does not guarantee that trainees will remember the training content months later or will change job behaviors.43 Behavior Evaluating training at the behavioral level means: (1) measuring the effect of training on job performance through interviews of trainees and their Chapter Training Human Resources 283 co-workers, and (2) observing job performance But the evaluation should be broadly based and consider performance management improvements, not just be on the training events.44 For instance, the managers who participated in the interviewing workshop might be observed conducting actual interviews of applicants for jobs in their departments If the managers asked questions as they had been trained to and used appropriate follow-up questions, then behavioral indicators of the interviewing training exist Behaviors are more difficult to measure than are reaction and learning Even if behaviors change after training, the results that management desires may not be obtained Results Employers evaluate results by measuring the effect of training on the achievement of organizational objectives Because results such as productivity, turnover, quality, time, sales, and costs are relatively concrete, this type of evaluation can be done by comparing records before and after training For the managers who attended the interviewing training, evaluators could gather records of the number of individuals hired compared with the number of employment offers made before and after the training The difficulty with measuring results is pinpointing whether changes were actually the result of training or of other major factors For example, managers who completed the interviewing training program can be measured on employee turnover before and after the training But turnover also depends on the current economic situation, the demand for workers, and many other variables Training Evaluation Metrics Training is expensive, and it is an HR function that requires measurement and monitoring Cost-benefit analysis and return on investment (ROI) analysis are commonly used to so, as are various benchmarking approaches Cost-benefit analysis Comparison of costs and benefits associated with training Cost-Benefit Analysis Training results can be examined through cost-benefit analysis, which is comparison of costs and benefits associated with training There are four stages in calculating training costs and benefits45: Determine training costs Consider direct costs such as design, trainer fees, materials, facilities, and other administration activities Identify potential savings results Consider employee retention, better customer service, fewer work errors, quicker equipment production, and other productivity factors Compute potential savings Gather data on the performance results and assign dollar costs to each of them Conduct costs and savings benefits comparisons Evaluate the costs per participant, the savings per participant, and how the cost-benefits relate to business performance numbers Internet Research Workplace Basic Skills For free tools to design, manage, and assess workplace education programs, visit this site at: http://thomsonedu com/management/mathis One firm that has done cost-benefit analyses is the Cheesecake Factory restaurant chain The firm uses HR metrics for many aspects of evaluating how over 100 general managers and their stores are performing Scoring results are produced annually, quarterly, and monthly.46 Figure 9-12 shows some costs and benefits that may result from training Even though some benefits (such as attitude changes) are hard to quantify, comparison of costs and benefits 284 F I G U R E -12 Section Developing Human Resources Balancing Costs and Benefits of Training Typical Costs Trainer’s salary and time Trainees’ salaries and time Materials for training Expenses for trainer and trainees Cost of facilities and equipment Lost productivity (opportunity cost) Typical Benefits Increase in production Reduction in errors and accidents Reduction in turnover Less supervision necessary Ability to use new capabilities Attitude changes associated with training remains a way to determine whether or not training is cost effective For example, one firm evaluated a traditional safety training program and found that the program did not lead to a reduction in accidents Therefore, the safety training was re-designed, and better safety practices resulted However, measurement of both the costs and the benefits listed in Figure 9-12 may be difficult Return on Investment Analysis In organizations, training is often expected to produce an ROI.47 Still, in too many circumstances, training is justified because someone liked it, rather than on the basis of resource accountability According to one study, firms that measure ROI on training spend 1% to 3% of payroll on training But higher performing firms spend even more The ROI of these companies has been determined to be 137% over five years, which is much more than the ROI at organizations spending less on training.48 This study reveals that training can produce significant financial results for employers Benchmarking In addition to evaluating training internally, some organizations use benchmark measures to compare it with training done in other organizations To benchmarking, HR professionals gather data on training in their organization and compare them with data on training at other organizations in the same industry and of a similar size Comparison data are available through the American Society for Training and Development and its Benchmarking Service This service has training-related data from more than 1,000 participating employers who complete detailed questionnaires annually Training also can be benchmarked against data from the American Productivity & Quality Center and the Saratoga Institute Chapter Training Human Resources 285 Training Evaluation Designs With or without benchmarking data, internal evaluations of training programs can be designed in a number of ways The rigor of the three designs discussed next increases with each level Post-Measure The most obvious way to evaluate training effectiveness is to determine after the training whether the individuals can perform the way management wants them to perform Assume that a customer service manager has 20 representatives who need to improve their data-entry speeds After a one-day training session, they take a test to measure their speeds If the representatives can all type the required speed after training, was the training beneficial? It is difficult to say; perhaps most of them could have done as well before training Tests after training not always clearly indicate whether a performance is a result of the training or could have been achieved without the training Pre-/Post-Measure By differently designing the evaluation just discussed, the issue of pre-test skill levels can be considered If the manager had measured the data-entry speed before and after training, she could have known whether the training made any difference However, a question would have remained: Was any increase in speed a response to the training, or did these employees simply work faster because they knew they were being tested? People often perform better when they know their efforts are being evaluated Pre-/Post-Measure with a Control Group Another evaluation design can address the preceding problem In addition to testing the 20 representatives who will be trained, the manager can test another group of representatives who will not be trained, to see if they as well as those who are to be trained This second group is called a control group After training, if the trained representatives work significantly faster than those who were not trained, the manager can be reasonably sure that the training was effective SUMMARY • Training is the process that provides people with the capabilities they need to their jobs • Four types of training are regular/required, job/ technical, interpersonal/problem solving, and developmental/career in nature • A strategic approach to training links organizational strategies and HR planning to various training efforts • Training affects factors such as organizational competitiveness, knowledge management, revenue, and performance • Performance consulting compares desired and actual results in order to identify needed training and non-training actions • Global strategies must consider training as a key component, including intercultural competence • • • • • training to prepare employees to respond more appropriately to situations encountered during global assignments The training process consists of four phases: assessment, design, delivery, and evaluation Training needs can be assessed using organizational, job/task, and individual analyses, and then training objectives can be set to help the organization meet those needs Training design must consider learner readiness, learning styles, and learning transfer Training can be delivered internally through classes, informally, and on-the-job, or using different external means Common training approaches include cooperative training and classroom/conference training 286 • • • Section Developing Human Resources Orientation is a form of on-boarding designed to help new employees learn about their jobs E-learning is training conducted using the Internet or an intranet, and its development must consider both its advantages and its disadvantages Various organizations are taking advantage of training that uses technology, such as Webbased multimedia, video streaming, simulation, and virtual reality • Training can be evaluated at four levels: reaction, learning, behavior, and results • Training evaluation metrics may include costbenefit analysis, return-on-investment analysis, and benchmarking • A pre-/post-measure with a control group is the most rigorous design for training evaluation; other, less rigorous designs can be used as well REVIEW AND APPLICATION QUESTIONS Assume that you want to identify training needs for a group of sales employees in a luxuryoriented jewelry store What would you do? Discuss why evaluating training is an important part of strategic training Develop a briefing for division managers that shows the advantages and disadvantages of e-learning Use various Web sources, including the following Website: www.astd.org CASE Training Crucial for Hotels In the United States and worldwide, there are many different hotels for guests to select Some are part of high-end, luxury hotel chains such as Ritz-Carlton and Four Seasons Other chains have multiple levels such as Starwood with Sheraton, Four Points, and others, and Marriott Corporation with a range of brands from Marriott resorts to Fairfield Inns One common characteristic that all of these hotels have identified is how crucial training is Hotel executives have learned that high-quality service is usually what determines if guests will return to their facilities, even more so than price Consequently, having a well-trained hotel staff is crucial to delivering the high-quality customer service guests expect The focus of much of the training is on creating positive organizational cultures through all facilities and with all managers and employees Many of these chains have expanded their training commitments by hiring more full-time trainers to work throughout all locations and areas Several different types of training illustrate these efforts The Starwood collection of hotels (St Regis, Westin, Sheraton, Four Points, W Hotels) sees a specific focus on training as a contributor to competitive success Over a recent six-month period, Starwood trained its 185,000 workers on areas such as social skills, handling worker emotions, and conflict/problem solving These elements are seen as crucial to providing successful customer service The focus of the training is for employees to know more about the types of guests in the hotels and how to respond to different situations that occur Managers and others at hotels are trained on such factors as ensuring eye contact, evaluating customer and employee body language signals, and flexibility in resolving problems Choice Hotels and other chains use roleplaying as part of their training for hotel staff members Handling families with kids, tired business travelers, and other types of individuals enhances the customer services culture in a facility Another side benefit is that employees become less frustrated and stressed, which has reduced turnover and increased employee satisfaction The upscale Ritz-Carlton group has established the Mystique technology program Individual guests’ preferences can be entered and accessed by employees This system can track what individual clients’ preferences are for types of rooms, service that they have experienced, and even personal allergies To implement this system and its use, the firm held train-the-trainer conferences Then those trainers spread out and Chapter Training Human Resources 287 conducted training for hotel managers, local HR and training managers, and marketing/guest relations managers However, training just existing employees can be too limited So Ritz-Carlton and other chains have revised their new employee orientation training Integrating job-related details and how to use the Mystique system with customers is now part of the on-boarding process for employees at all levels, including housekeepers, desk clerks, restaurant servers, supervisors, and managers From these examples, it is evident that many hotels are investing significantly in training The payoffs of the training are likely to be seen in more satisfied guests, better-performing employees, and increased organizational revenues and profits.49 Questions Discuss how these hotels are using a strategic and performance consulting approach to developing training efforts Identify how the effectiveness of Ritz-Carlton’s Mystique program might be measured several years later SUPPLEMENTAL CASE The New Payroll Clerk This case identifies the frustration that often accompanies the first day at work and why orientation often is important in aiding employee retention (For the case, go to http://thomsonedu.com/management/mathis.) NOTES Based on Margery Weinstein, “IBM: Suite Success,” Training, March 2006, 18–22; and Jessica Marquez, “Faced with High Turnover, Retailers Boot Up E-Learning for Quick Training,” Workforce Management, August 2005, 74–75 Kathryn Tyler, “Training Revs Up,” HR Magazine, April 2005, 58–63 ASTD State of the Industry Report, 2006, www.astd.org Based on Jessica Marquez, “Randstad North America,” Workforce Management, March 13, 2006, 18 S P Lopez, J M M Peon, and C J V Ordas, “Human Resource Management as a Determining Factor in Organizational Learning,” Management Learning, 37 (2006), 215 Robert Rodriguez, “Meet the New Learning Executive,” HR Magazine, April 2005, 64 Nick van Dam, “The New CLO,” Chief Learning Officer, August 2006, 13 J J Smith, “U.S Workers Tech Skills Decline While India, Eastern Europe Grew,” SHRM Global HR News, September 2006, www.shrm org/global 10 11 12 13 14 15 Yoshitaka Yamazaki and D Christopher Hayes, “An Experiential Approach to Cross Cultural Learning .” Academy of Management Learning and Education, (2004), 362–379 John G Schieman, “Establishing an Effective Cross-Cultural Training Program and Measuring Benefits,” ASTD Links, July 2006, www.astd org Sharon Daniels, “Employee Training: A Strategic Approach to Better Return on Investment,” Journal of Business Strategy, 24 (2003), 1–4 John O’Connor, “Shifting Mindsets,” E-Learning Age, April 2006, 14–17 Sarah Cook, “Assessing Learning Needs,” Training Journal, September 2005, 32 Yu-Hui Tao, C R Yeh, and S I Sun, “Improving Training Needs Assessment Via the Internet: System Design and Qualitative Study,” Internet Research, 16 (2006), 427 Jacqueline Red and Maria Vakola, “What Role Can a Training Needs Analysis Play in Organizational Change?” Journal of Organizational Change Management, 19 (2006), 393 16 Nicholas Clarke, “The Politics of Training Needs Assessment,” Journal of Workplace Learning, 15 (2003), 141–153 17 Sara B Kimmel and Mary N McNeese, “Barriers to Business Education: Motivating Adult Learners,” Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, (2006), 292 18 Gerard H Seijts and Gary P Latham, “Learning Versus Performance Goals: When Should Each Be Used?” Academy of Management Executive, February 2005, 124–131 19 Gary P Latham and Travor C Brown, “The Effect of Learning vs Outcome Goals on Self-Efficacy, Satisfaction, and Performance in an MBA Program,” Applied Psychology, 55 (2006), 606 20 Gary L Karns, “Learning Style Differences in the Perceived Effectiveness of Learning Activities,” Journal of Marketing Education, 28 (2006), 56 21 Malcolm S Knowles, Elwood F Holton III, and Richard A Swanson, The Adult Learner, 6th ed (New York: Elsevier, 2005) 288 Section 22 Paul Hager, “Lifelong Learning in the Workplace? Challenges and Issues,” Journal of Workplace Learning, 16 (2004), 22–32 23 Gary N McLean, “Rethinking Adult Learning in the Workplace,” Advances in Developing Human Resources, August 2006, 416 24 Karen Evans et al., “Recognition of Tacit Skills: Sustained Learning Outcomes in Adult Learning,” International Journal of Training and Development, (2004), 54–72 25 Mel Siberman, Active Training (New York: Pfeffer, 2006) 26 P J Taylor, D F Russ-Eft, and D W L Chan, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Behavior Modeling,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (2005), 692–709 27 James P Cavanaugh, “Training Versus Knowledge Transfer,” Emergency Number Professional Magazine, September 2006, 26–30 28 Alan M Saks and Monica Belcourt, “An Investigation of Training Activities and Transfer of Training in Organizations,” Human Resource Management, 45 (2006) 629 29 Doo Hun Lim and Michael Lane Morris, “Influence of Trainee Characteristics, Instructional Satisfaction, and Organizational Climate on Perceived Learning and Training Transfer,” Human Resource Development Quarterly, 17 (2006) 85 30 Mark E Van Buren, ASTD State of the Industry Report, 2003 (Alexandria, VA: American Society of Train- Developing Human Resources 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 ing and Development, 2005), 11–12, www.astd.org “Mergers Transforming Outsourced Training,” Workforce Management, May 22, 2006, 28 “How Companies Make New-Hire Training Mean Business,” Managing Training and Development, September 2002, 1–3 “That Tricky First 100 Days,” The Economist, July 15, 2006, 65 Onboarding Benchmark Report (Boston, MA: Aberdeen Group, Inc., 2006) Margaret O Kirk, “E-Orientation,” Human Resource Executive, October 16, 2005, 40–43 American Society of Training and Development, www.astd.org Based on Kim Fernandez, “Purposeful Playing,” Human Resource Executive, October 2, 2006, 43–47; Reena Jana, “On-the-Job Video Gaming,” Business Week, March 27, 2006, 43; and Michael Totty, “Better Training Through Gaming,” The Wall Street Journal, April 25, 2005, R6 Allison Rossett, “How Blended Learning Changes What We Do,” ASTD Learning Circuits, 2006, www.learningcircuits.org Hemant Mirocha, “Learning Strategies: Blended Instruction,” Chief Learning Officer, June 2005, 20–23 Michael A Tucker, “E-Learning Evolves,” HR Magazine, October 2005, 75–78 Andrew E Hinger, Viki Holten, and Eddie Blass, “E-Learner Experiences: 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Key Questions to Ask When Considering Implementing E-Learning,” Industrial and Commercial Training, 38 (2006), 143 Gregg G Wang and Diane Wilcox, “Training Evaluation: Knowing More Than Is Practiced,” Advances in Developing Human Resources, (2006), 528 Mark A Davis, “Evaluating Cognitive Training Outcomes,” Journal of Business and Psychology, 18 (2003), 191–206 Robert O Brinkerhoff, “Increasing Impact of Training Investments: An Evaluation Strategy for Building Organizational Learning Capability,” Industrial and Commercial Training, 38 (2006), 302 “Calculate the Cost and Benefits of Training,” Workforce Management, 2005, www.workforce.com Guna Ruiz, “A Heaping Help of Metrics,” Workforce Management, April 24, 2006, 26 For an extensive discussion of ROI on training, see Michael E Echols, ROI on Human Capital Investment (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, Inc., 2006) Tom Casey and Carey Guggenheim, Buch Consultants, June 6, 2005, www.workforce.com Based on Jacqueline Dunett, “RitzCarlton: Plug In and Perform,” Training, March 2006, 30–34; and Barbara DeLollis, “Hotels Train Employees to Think Fast,” USA Today, November 29, 2006, 1B This page intentionally left blank ... Rights Act of 19 64, Title VII 10 5 (EEO) 10 0 Disparate Treatment 10 1 Disparate Impact 10 1 Executive Orders 11 246, 11 375, and 11 478 10 7 xii Contents Civil Rights Act of 19 91 107 Sex/Gender Discrimination... Diversity 13 0 Jobs and Job Analysis 16 0 Recruiting in Labor Markets 19 2 Selecting Human Resources 224 Section Developing Human Resources 257 Chapter Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Training Human Resources... Discrimination 11 4 Military Status and USERRA 11 4 Other Discrimination Issues 11 5 Pre-Employment Inquiries 11 6 Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures 11 9 “No Disparate Impact” Approach 11 9 Job-Related