DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE AND WORLD TRADE LAW What does justice demand in international trade regulation? And how far does WTO law respond to those demands? Whether our focus is developing countries, struggling industries, or environmental protection, distributive conflict is a pervasive feature of international economic law Despite this, we lack an adequate theory of distributive justice for this domain Drawing on philosophical approaches to global justice, this book advances a novel theory of justice in trade regulation, and applies this to explain and critique the law of the WTO Integrating theoretical and doctrinal approaches, it demonstrates the potential for political theory to illuminate and inform the progressive development of WTO law, including rules on border measures, discrimination, trade remedies, and domestic regulation Written from an interdisciplinary perspective, accessible to lawyers, philosophers, and political scientists, the book will appeal both to theorists interested in building bridges from theory to practice and to practitioners seeking new perspectives on existing problems oisin suttle is a Lecturer at Queen’s University, Belfast, having previously taught at the University of Sheffield and University College London He teaches political philosophy, public international law and WTO law He holds degrees in law (University College Dublin) and international relations (University of Oxford), and a PhD on the philosophy of international economic law (University College London) His research has been published in leading international journals, including the European Journal of International Law, the Modern Law Review, and the Journal of International Law and International Relations He formerly practiced commercial law and is qualified both in Ireland and in England and Wales cambridge international trade and economic law Series editors Dr Lorand Bartels, University of Cambridge Professor Thomas Cottier, University of Berne Professor William Davey, University of Illinois As the processes of regionalization and globalization have intensified, there have been accompanying increases in the regulations of international trade and economic law at the levels of international, regional, and national laws The subject matter of this series is international economic law Its core is the regulation of international trade, investment, and cognate areas such as intellectual property and competition policy The series publishes books on related regulatory areas, in particular, human rights, labor, environment and culture, as well as sustainable development These areas are vertically linked at the international, regional, and national level, and the series extends to the implementation of these rules at these different levels The series also includes works on governance, dealing with the structure and operation of related international organizations in the field of international economic law, and the way they interact with other subjects of international and national law Books in the series Distributive Justice and World Trade Law: A Political Theory of International Trade Regulation Oisin Suttle Freedom of Transit and Access to Gas Pipeline Networks Under WTO Law Vitalily Pogoretskyy Reclaiming Development in the World Trading System Yong-Shik Lee Developing Countries and Preferential Services Trade Charlotte Sieber-Gasser WTO Dispute Settlement and the TRIPS Agreement: Applying Intellectual Property Standards in a Trade Law Framework Matthew Kennedy Establishing Judicial Authority in International Economic Law Edited by Joanna Jemielniak, Laura Nielsen, and Henrik Palmer Olsen Trade, Investment, Innovation and Their Impact on Access to Medicines: An Asian Perspective Locknie Hsu The Law, Economics and Politics of International Standardisation Panagiotis Delimatsis The WTO and International Investment Law: Converging Systems Jürgen Kurtz Export Restrictions on Critical Minerals and Metals: Testing the Adequacy of WTO Disciplines Ilaria Espa Optimal Regulation and the Law of International Trade: The Interface between Societal Values and WTO Law Boris Rigod The Social Foundations of World Trade: Norms, Community and Constitution Sungjoon Cho Public Participation and Legitimacy in the WTO Yves Bonzon The Challenge of Safeguards in the WTO Fernando Piérola General Interests of Host States in International Investment Law Edited by Giorgio Sacerdoti, Pia Acconci, Mara Valenti and Anna De Luca The Law of Development Cooperation: A Comparative Analysis of the World Bank, the EU and Germany Philipp Dann WTO Disciplines on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Balancing Policy Space and Legal Constraints Dominic Coppens Domestic Judicial Review of Trade Remedies: Experiences of the Most Active WTO Members Müslüm Yilmaz International Organizations in WTO Dispute Settlement: How Much Institutional Sensitivity? Marina Foltea Public Services and International Trade Liberalization: Human Rights and Gender Implications Barnali Choudhury The Law and Politics of WTO Waivers: Stability and Flexibility in Public International Law Isabel Feichtner African Regional Trade Agreements as Legal Regimes James Thuo Gathii Liberalizing International Trade after Doha David Gantz Processes and Production Methods (PPMs) in WTO Law: Interfacing Trade and Social Goals Christiane R Conrad Non-Discrimination in International Trade in Services: “Likeness” in WTO/GATS Nicolas Diebold The Law, Economics and Politics of Retaliation in WTO Dispute Settlement Edited by Chad P Bown and Joost Pauwelyn The Multilateralization of International Investment Law Stephan W Schill Trade Policy Flexibility and Enforcement in the WTO: A Law and Economics Analysis Simon A B Schropp DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE AND WORLD TRADE LAW A Political Theory of International Trade Regulation OISIN SUTTLE University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 4843/24, 2nd Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi – 110002, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108415811 DOI: 10.1017/9781108235235 © Oisin Suttle 2018 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2018 Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Suttle, Oisin, 1980– author Title: Distributive justice and world trade law : a political theory of international trade regulation / Oisin Suttle Description: Cambridge [UK] ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2017 | Series: Cambridge international trade and economic law ; 36 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2017030746 | ISBN 9781108415811 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: Foreign trade regulation | World Trade Organization | Distributive justice | Foreign trade regulation – Political aspects | Free trade Classification: LCC K3943 S89 2017 | DDC 343.08/7–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017030746 ISBN 978-1-108-41581-1 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain accurate or appropriate CONTENTS Preface page xv Table of Cases xix Table of Treaties, Instruments and Official Documents xxviii List of Abbreviations xxxi PART I Foundations Introduction 1.1 Distributive Justice in International Trade 1.2 Why Trade Law Needs a Theory of Justice 1.3 and Why It Doesn’t Have One 1.4 Overview 1.5 On the Merits and Challenges of Interdisciplinarity 16 1.6 Equality in Global Commerce 19 1.6.1 Two Classes of Measure 19 1.6.2 Identifying Measures 22 1.6.3 Equality in Global Commerce 25 Why World Trade Law Needs a Theory of Justice 28 2.1 The Problem of Distributive Justice in International Trade Regulation 28 2.2 Distributive Justice and Political Morality vii 30 viii co ntents 2.3 On the Scope of Justice: Domestic vs International vs Global 32 2.4 What Trade Law Theory Is (and Is Not) About 34 2.5 Existing Approaches to Distributive Justice in Trade Regulation 37 2.5.1 Equality and a Global Difference Principle 38 2.5.2 Social Liberalism and the Law of Peoples 40 2.5.3 Human Rights and Realization-Focused Comparison 42 2.5.4 Internalism and Interpretivism 2.5.5 Moral Positivism 2.5.6 Economic Efficiency 46 47 2.6 Structure and Methodology 2.6.1 Normative Theory 44 49 49 2.6.2 Explanation, Interpretation, Evaluation 55 2.6.3 Critical Implications 2.7 Conclusion PART I I Justice 63 66 67 Towards a Political Theory of International Economic Law 69 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Coercion, Nonvoluntary Institutions, and Distributive Justice 72 3.2.1 Can Coercion Distinguish Domestic from International? 75 3.2.2 Why Does Coercion Matter? 76 376 bib l iogr ap hy Zampetti, A B (2001) “A Rough Map of Challenges to the Multilateral Trading System at the Millennium,” in R B Porter, P Sauve, A Subramanian, & A B Zampetti (Eds.), Efficiency, Equity and Legitimacy: The Multilateral Trading System at the Millennium: Brookings Institution (2006) Fairness in the World Economy: US Perspectives on International Trade Relations: Edward Elgar Zanardi, M (2004) “Anti-Dumping: What Are the Numbers to Discuss at Doha?” World Economy, 27(3), 403–433 Zheng, W (2012) “Reforming Trade Remedies,” Michigan Journal of International Law, 34, 151–207 Zimmerman, D (1981) “Coercive Wage Offers,” Philosophy & Public Affairs, 10(2), 121–145 INDEX Abizadeh, A., 125, 126, 129, 140 Accession Protocols, 56, 59, 189 ACP-EU Economic Partnership Agreements, 329 ADA See Anti-Dumping Agreement (ADA) Adjustment, safeguards and, 247–249 Agreement on Agriculture, 187, 257 Agreement on Government Procurement, 327 Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) overview, 15–16, 284–286, 319–320 balancing, 294 democracy and, 286, 290–292 DEMs and, 15–16, 294, 295–296, 297–298, 313, 317 domestic approaches, 287–292 efficiency and, 286, 289–290, 292–294 EGC and, 285, 286 ETMs and, 15–16, 294–295, 296–297, 313 global approaches, 292–294 harmonization and, 293–294, 314, 318–319 human, animal, and plant life and, 295, 297 international standards in, 314–319 (See also International standards in Regulation Agreements) market fragmentation and, 292–293 Non-Discrimination Provisions and, 285 prisoner’s dilemma and, 292 protectionism and, 287–289 scientific authority in, 305–313 (See also Scientific authority in SPS) sovereignty and, 286 special and differential treatment (SDT) and, 297–298 SPS Committee, 293, 314 TBT compared, 305, 314–315 theories of justice and, 55 Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) overview, 15–16, 284–286, 319–320 democracy and, 286, 290–292 DEMs and, 15–16, 295–296, 297–298, 317 domestic approaches, 287–292 efficiency and, 286, 289–290, 292–294 EGC and, 285, 286 ETMs and, 15–16, 296–297 global approaches, 292–294 harmonization and, 293–294, 314, 318–319 international standards in, 314–319 (See also International standards in Regulation Agreements) legitimate objectives in, 298–304 (See also Legitimate objectives in TBT) market fragmentation and, 292–293 Non-Discrimination Provisions and, 191, 203–204, 285, 287 prisoner’s dilemma and, 292 protectionism and, 287–289, 293 sovereignty and, 286 special and differential treatment (SDT) and, 297–298 SPS compared, 305, 314–315 theories of justice and, 55 Aims and effects test for likeness, 192–194 Animal rights, 113 Anscombe, G E M., 95 377 378 in de x Anti-Dumping Agreement (ADA) overview, 241, 253 anti-dumping duties (ADDs), 268, 269–270 fair comparison requirement, 282 price discrimination and, 271–272 Safeguards Agreement compared, 264–265 Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement compared, 269–270 zeroing and, 280–281 Anti-dumping duties (ADDs), 244, 268–270 Anti-trust law, dumping and, 251, 271, 272 Arrow, K J., 185 Bagwell, K., 179, 180, 189, 245–246 Balancing General Exceptions and, 232–236 SPS and, 294 Bali Trade Facilitation Agreement, 65 Barry, B., 98, 124 Basic Structure overview, 123–124 agency objection and, 131–134 background justice and, 125 definition of Basic Structure, 124 impact objection and, 127–128 individuals and, 125 inequality and, 124–125 participation objection and, 129–131 reasons for focus on, 124–126 sovereignty and, 123–126 Beitz, C., 38–39, 40, 52, 91, 126, 128–129 Benefit, subsidies and, 260, 273–277 Bhagwati, J., 251 Blake, M coercion and, 72–73, 75–76, 77, 80–82, 83, 84, 99 impact objection and, 127 Border measures EGC and, 186 ETMs and, 186 Protectionism Theory, 182–185 (See also Protectionism Theory (PT)) Terms of Trade Theory, 179–182 (See also Terms of Trade Theory (TTT)) Boundary problem, 69–71 Brilmayer, L., 76 Broude, T., 251 Buchanan, A., 26, 126, 128–129, 145, 146, 169, 260 Career choice, self-determination and, 168–169 Causation, safeguards and, 278–280 Charlton, A., 217 Charnovitz, S., 230 China Accession Protocol, 189 Doha Round and, 325–326 EGC and, 326–327 export duties in, 189, 226 preference schemes in, 218 tariffs in, 212 in WTO, 325 Climate change, 113, 230 Coercion overview, 71–72 compensation and, 77, 78–79 DEMs and, 108–109, 114–115 difference principle and, 96 direct agency and, 86–89, 90, 95–96 direct coercion, 90–96, 106–107 distributive justice and, 72–75 doctrine of double effect and, 86–89, 95–96 domestic versus international, 75–76, 82–86 egalitarianism and, 82–83, 100 EGC and, 106–114 ETMs and, 107–108, 114–115 exclusive coercion, 96–103, 106–107, 108 external coercion, 103–106 fiduciary obligation and, 77 importance of, 76–80 inclusive coercion, 96–103, 106–107, 108 indirect coercion, 90–96, 106–107 interactional coercion, 104 interpersonal test and, 103–106 in dex non-voluntary institutions and, 72–75 outweighing and, 77, 78–79 plurality of global institutions and, 80–86 reconciliation and, 77–80 self-determination and, 90–96 Cohen, G A., 104, 106, 124, 133 Collateral goals (Article XX) overview, 227–228, 229–231 Appellate Body jurisprudence regarding, 232–236 EGC and, 235–236 Protectionism Theory and, 232–234 Terms of Trade Theory and, 232–234 Colonialism, self-determination and, 163–164 Communitarianism, 70 Compensation coercion and, 77, 78–79 safeguards and, 247–249 Competitive likeness test, 193, 194–197 Conationality, 134–141 Constitutional economics, 292, 303 Constitutionalism, 62 Constructive interpretation, 22–23, 56–58 Constructivism, moral/political, 49 Contingency, subsidies and, 256–258 Contractarianism, 46 Contractualism, 44 Coordination, sovereignty and, 122–123 Core Disciplines EGC and, 187 ETMs and, 187 Protectionism Theory and, 183 special and differential treatment (SDT) and, 207–208 Terms of Trade Theory and, 179–180 Corrective justice, 30 Correlation, safeguards and, 279 Cosmopolitanism moderate cosmopolitanism, 70–71 rights-based cosmopolitanism, 38, 42–43 strong cosmopolitanism, 70 Cottier, T., 168 Countervailing duties (CVDs), 243–244, 246–247, 262–263, 268–270 379 Critical theory principle, 72 Culture, self-determination and, 166–168 CVDs See Countervailing duties (CVDs) Democracy income and, 265 scientific authority in SPS and, 290–291 SPS and, 286, 290–292 TBT and, 286, 290–292 trade law and, 35 DEMs See Domestic Economic Measures (DEMs) Dependency theory, 209 Developing countries Doha Round and, 325–326 Rules on Special and Differential Treatment for Developing Countries, 4, 206, 207–208 safeguards and, 266, 268 self-determination and, 164 (See also Development Provisions) Terms of Trade Theory and, 212 Development Provisions overview, 14, 205, 206–209, 240 Appellate Body jurisprudence, 219–223 DEMs and, 14 dependency theory and, 209 effectiveness of, 210–211 EGC and, 186–187, 206, 213–219, 222 Enabling Clause, 207–208, 212–213, 215, 216, 217–223, 240 ETMs and, 14, 186–187, 213 form of, 212–213 individual opportunity and, 213, 214 legal weakness of, 218–219 Protectionism Theory and, 184, 209–211, 221–222 self-determination and, 213–214 special and differential treatment (SDT), 206, 207–208 Terms of Trade Theory and, 181, 211–213, 221–222 unilateral rights, 219 Diamond, R., 241 380 in de x Dietsch, P., 169 Difference principle overview, 89 coercion and, 96 efficiency and, 32 inequality and, 25, 38, 39, 69–70, 148 Direct agency, 86–89, 90, 95–96 Direct coercion, 90–96, 106–107 Dispute Settlement System, 65 Dispute Settlement Understanding, 65, 66 Distributional autonomy, 111, 169, 260 Distributive effects of trade regulation, 36–37 Distributive justice See also Theories of justice coercion and, 72–75 corrective justice versus, 30 domestic distributive justice, 33 efficiency and, 32, 47–48 Equality in Global Commerce (EGC) (See Equality in Global Commerce (EGC)) existing approaches to, 37–38 global difference principle and, 38–40 global distributive justice, 33–34 humanity versus, 31 human rights and, 42–43 internalism and, 44–45 international distributive justice, 33 interpersonal morality versus, 31–32 interpretivism and, 44–45 legitimacy versus, 31 linkages and, 28–29 moral positivism and, 46–47 political morality and, 30–32 problem of, 28–30 procedural values versus, 31 realization-focused comparison and, 43 rights-based cosmopolitanism and, 42–43 social liberalism and, 40–42 Doctrine of double effect, 86–89, 95–96 Doha Ministerial Conference, 261, 324 Doha Round overview, 16, 65, 207, 324–325 reasons for failure, 215, 325–326 zeroing and, 281 Domestic distributive justice, 33 Domestic Economic Measures (DEMs) overview, 10, 12 coercion and, 108–109, 114–115 defined, 19 Development Provisions and, 14 duty of assistance and, 114 ETMs distinguished, 19–22, 25, 114, 333 identification of, 22–25 justification in EGC, 27, 113–114 public morals and, 296 rulemaking and, 331–332 self-determination and, 13, 113–114, 152, 173 SPS and, 15–16, 294, 295–296, 297–298, 313, 317 sufficientarianism and, 72 TBT and, 15–16, 295–296, 297–298, 317 Domestic rationality, 183, 234 Du, M M., 288 Dumping overview, 244 abuses of, 250 anti-dumping duties (ADDs), 244, 268–270 anti-trust law and, 251, 271, 272 Appellate Body jurisprudence regarding, 280–283 domestic production and, 251–252 EGC and, 268–272, 282–283 ETMs and, 268–272, 282–283 exporting state action and, 270–271 fairness in, 268–272 individual market participants and, 272 market penetration and, 252 political arguments for, 253 price discrimination and, 251, 271–272 sanctuary markets and, 268–270 skepticism regarding, 250–253 targeted dumping, 282–283 zeroing and, 280–283 Dunoff, J L., 307 in de x Duty of assistance, 27, 40–41, 102–103, 114 Dworkin, R., 22–23, 44, 48, 56–58, 64, 100, 167 Dynamic problem, 146–149 Efficiency difference principle and, 32 distributive justice and, 32, 47–48 indeterminate or doubtful nature of, 48 Kaldor-Hicks efficiency, 32, 39, 48 Pareto efficiency, 32, 48, 183–184 probabilistic nature of economics and, 47–48 Protectionism Theory and, 185 scientific authority in SPS and, 306–307, 312–313 SPS and, 286, 289–290, 292–294 subsidies and, 244–245 TBT and, 286, 289–290, 292–294 theories of justice and, 59 trade law and, 35 Egalitarianism boundary problem and, 70–71 coercion and, 82–83, 100 ETMs and, 72, 145–146 self-determination and, 164–166 subsidies and, 261–262 EGC See Equality in Global Commerce (EGC) Embedded liberalism General Exceptions and, 225 scientific authority in SPS and, 307 self-determination and, 168 theories of justice and, 59–61 trade law and, 35–36, 42, 60–61 Environmental issues, 113 Equality in Global Commerce (EGC) overview, 10, 11–12, 19 border measures and, 186 coercion and, 106–114 collateral goals and, 235–236 Core Disciplines and, 187 DEMs (See Domestic Economic Measures (DEMs)) Development Provisions and, 186–187, 206, 213–219, 222 dumping and, 268–272, 282–283 381 dynamic problem and, 146–149 ETMs (See External Trade Measures (ETMs)) General Exceptions and, 187, 199, 227–232 harmonization and, 318–319 international standards in Regulation Agreements and, 317–319 legitimate objectives in TBT and, 303–304 liberalism and, 332–334 metric problem and, 142–146 (See also Metric problem) nationalist objections to, 141–142 Non-Discrimination Provisions and, 186, 199–202 non-liberal societies and peoples and, 332–334 non-reciprocity and, 214–215 NPRPPMs and, 199–202 plurilateralism in, 328–329 preference schemes and, 216 Protectionism Theory versus, 202 regionalism in, 328–331 regulatory likeness test and, 201–202 revision of WTO negotiation practices and, 327–328 rulemaking in, 331–332 safeguards and, 265, 278, 280 scientific authority in SPS and, 307–308, 312–313 self-determination, inclusion of, 151, 172, 174 (See also Selfdetermination) sovereignty objections to, 118–119, 121–122, 123, 130–131, 133, 149–150 (See also Sovereignty) SPS and, 285, 286 subsidies and, 255–256, 276–277 TBT and, 285, 286 Terms of Trade Theory versus, 202 trade remedies and, 243, 253, 283 variable geometry in, 328–329 Equality of opportunity, 25 Ethier, W J., 183, 188–189, 245–246 ETMs See External Trade Measures (ETMs) Exclusive coercion, 96–103, 106–107, 108 382 in de x Explanatory nationalism, 149 Expressive arguments for selfdetermination, 154, 162–166 External coercion, 103–106 External self-determination, 161–162 External Trade Measures (ETMs) overview, 10, 12 animal rights and, 113 border measures and, 186 climate change and, 113 coercion and, 107–108, 114–115 Core Disciplines and, 187 defined, 19 DEMs distinguished, 19–22, 25, 114, 333 Development Provisions and, 14, 186–187, 213 dumping and, 268–272, 282–283 dynamic problem and, 143–144, 148 egalitarianism and, 72, 145–146 environmental issues and, 113 as exclusive coercion, 108 General Exceptions and, 14–15, 187 human rights and, 113 identification of, 22–25 as inclusive coercion, 108 justification in EGC, 25–27, 109, 112–113 metric problem and, 143–146 Non-Discrimination Provisions and, 186 permissibility of, 205 reciprocity and, 112 Regulation Agreements and, 295, 296–297 rulemaking and, 331–332 safeguards as, 263–268 self-determination and, 13, 25–26, 112–113, 152, 164, 170–171, 172–173 (See also Selfdetermination) sovereignty and, 118, 121–122, 139–141 SPS and, 15–16, 294–295, 296–297, 313 subsidies as, 255–263, 276–277 TBT and, 15–16, 296–297 war powers and, 107 Fairness in dumping, 268–272 justice as, 49–51, 96 in safeguards, 263–268 in subsidies, 255–263 in trade remedies, 15, 242–243, 253–255 Fair Trade Movement, Fiduciary obligation, coercion and, 77 Financial contribution, subsidies and, 277 Finger, J M., 180, 241, 253 FitzPatrick, W J., 87 Føllesdal, A., 126, 128 Foreseeability, safeguards and, 267, 277–278 Franck, T M., 127, 129 Freeman, S basic structure and, 124, 127–129, 130, 131, 133 coercion and, 100 distributive justice and, 33, 80 duty of assistance and, 27 self-determination and, 162 Fried, C., 37, 161–162 Garcia, F., 35, 37, 38, 39–40, 44–45, 142 Gauthier, D P., 46 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) overview, 6, 14, 177–178 Core Disciplines (See Core Disciplines) Development Provisions (See Development Provisions) General Exceptions (See General Exceptions (Article XX)) MFN Treatment (See Most Favored Nation Treatment (Article I)) National Treatment (See National Treatment (Article III)) Non-Discrimination Provisions (See Non-Discrimination Provisions) NPRPPMs and, 197–199 Protectionism Theory, 182–185 (See also Protectionism Theory (PT)) Terms of Trade Theory and, 179–182 (See also Terms of Trade Theory (TTT)) ind ex theories of justice and, 55, 64 Understanding on the Balance of Payments Provisions, 215 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), 328 General Exceptions (Article XX) overview, 14–15, 206, 223–225, 240 Appellate Body jurisprudence, 232–240 balancing and, 232–236 chapeau, 224, 226–227, 231–232, 237–239 collateral goals and, 227–228, 229–231, 232–236 (See also Collateral goals (Article XX)) competitive likeness test and, 195–196 DEMs and, 14–15 EGC and, 186–187, 199, 227–232 embedded liberalism and, 225 ETMs and, 14–15, 187 human, animal, and plant life, 225, 228–229 incomplete contracting model, 180 international standards in Regulation Agreements and, 317 natural resources, 225–226, 228–231, 236–240 objective characteristics test and, 195–196 prisons, 225, 229–231 Protectionism Theory and, 183–184, 225–227 public morals, 225, 228, 229–231 regulatory likeness test and, 195–196 self-determination and, 227–232 shared goals and, 227, 228–229, 236–240 (See also Shared goals) subsidies and, 261 Terms of Trade Theory and, 180–181, 225–227 Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), 219–223 See also Development Provisions Global difference principle, 38–40 basic structure objection to, 124 dynamic objection to, 146–149 fit objection to, 38–39 metric objection to, 142 383 Global distributive justice, 33–34 Goodin, R E., 137 Gross domestic product (GDP) as metric for distributive judgments, 143–144 Grossman, G M., 241 Gross national product (GNP) as metric for distributive judgments, 143 Gruszczynski, L., 313–314 Harmonization in Regulation Agreements, 293–294, 314, 318–319 Hegemonic stability theory, 121 Hobbes, Thomas, 77, 117, 118, 120, 171 Holtug, N., 142 Horn, H., 65, 190 Howse, R., 190, 241, 251, 290, 291, 307, 312 Hudec, R E., 192, 217 Human, animal, and plant life overview, 287 General Exceptions and, 225, 228–229 SPS and, 295, 297 Humanity, duties of, 31 Human rights distributive justice and, 42–43 ETMs and, 113 theories of justice and, 62–63 trade law and, 36 Hume, David, 5, 121–122, 170 Inclusive coercion, 96–103, 106–107, 108 Indirect coercion, 90–96, 106–107 Inequality overview, 3, Basic Structure and, 124–125 difference principle and, 25, 38, 39, 69–70, 148 self-determination and, 164–166 Instrumental arguments for selfdetermination, 154, 166–171 Interdisciplinarity overview, 16–19, 334–335 merits and challenges of, 16–19 theories of justice and, Internalism, 44–45 International distributive justice, 33 384 in de x International law, self-determination in, 153, 155–158 International standards in Regulation Agreements, 314–319 overview, 286 Appellate Body jurisprudence regarding, 319 domestic approaches and, 316 EGC and, 317–319 General Exceptions and, 317 global approaches and, 316–317 SPS versus TBT, 314–315 Interpersonal morality, 31–32 Interpersonal test, 103–106, 113 Interpretation, legal, implications of argument for, 64 Interpretivism, 44–45, 64 Intrinsic arguments for selfdetermination, 154, 158–162 Jackson, J H., 118, 119, 183–184, 187–188 James, A., 38, 44–45, 123 Julius, A J., 74–75, 90, 124 Justice overview, 9–10, 11 Basic Structure, background justice and, 125 corrective justice, 30 distributive justice (See Distributive justice) Equality in Global Commerce (EGC) (See Equality in Global Commerce (EGC)) global distributive justice, 33–34 natural duty of, 133 self-determination (See Selfdetermination) sovereignty (See Sovereignty) theories of justice (See Theories of justice) “Justice as Fairness,” 49–51, 96 Justification, role in interpretation and explanation, 58–59 Kagan, S., 88 Kaldor-Hicks efficiency, 32, 39, 48 Kant, Immanuel, 49–50, 75, 89, 132, 158 Kapstein, E B., 121 Klabbers, J., 157 Kolers, A., 169 Koskenniemi, M., 116 Krasner, S D., 92 Kratochwil, F., 118, 169 Krugman, P R., 182 Kuper, A., 117 Labor rights safeguards and, 248–249 trade law and, 36 Lamy, Pascal, 325–326 Lang, A., 60, 61, 191 Lansing, Robert, 155 Legitimacy distributive justice versus, 31 trade law and, 35 Legitimate objectives in TBT, 298–304 overview, 285–286, 298 EGC and, 303–304 jurisprudence regarding, 299–301, 302 protectionism and, 288, 299–300, 302 Liberalism boundary problem and, 70 EGC and, 332–334 embedded liberalism (See Embedded liberalism) social liberalism, 40–42 theories of justice and, 52 Libertarianism, 46, 52, 254 Likeness, 191–194 aims and effects test, 192–194 competitive likeness test, 193, 194–197 economic nature of, 193 objective characteristics test, 191–192, 195–196, 197 regulatory likeness test, 192–193, 194–197, 201–202 shortcomings of tests for, 194 Linkages, 28–29 Locke, John, 154 Loriaux, S., 130 Lowenfeld, A F., 252 Lukes, S., 82 ind ex MacIntyre, A., 136, 137 Maduro, M P., 29 Margalit, A., 166–168 Market access, subsidies and, 246–247 Market baseline, subsidies and, 273–276 Market fragmentation, Regulation Agreements and, 292–293 Market penetration, dumping and, 252 Market segregation, 269 Martin, R., 147 Marx, Karl, 63 Mastel, G., 252, 270 Mathis, J., 56 Mavroidis, P C., 188–189, 190, 196–197, 241, 256–257, 293, 302 Meckled-Garcia, S., 133–134 Messenger, G., 279 Metric problem, 142–146 MFN Treatment See Most Favored Nation Treatment (Article I) Miller, D dynamic problem and, 147, 148, 149 liberal nationalism and, 26 metric problem and, 142–144 national priority and, 117, 134–139, 140, 141 self-determination and, 91, 167 Minority rights, self-determination and, 156–157 Moderate scarcity, Moellendorf, D., 38, 39–40 Moral positivism, 46–47 Most Favored Nation Treatment (Article I) ambiguity of, 190 Protectionism Theory and, 183, 210 regionalism and, 329 Terms of Trade Theory and, 180, 211 Nagel, T coercion and, 73–74, 80–82, 88–89, 95, 100, 103 sovereignty and, 117, 131, 138 state and, 23–24 National Treatment (Article III) ambiguity of, 190 Protectionism Theory and, 183 Terms of Trade Theory and, 180 385 Natural resources, General Exceptions and, 225–226, 228–231, 236–240 Neoliberal institutionalism, 53, 120, 121 Neven, D J., 241, 251 New International Economic Order, 4, 207, 209 Non-Discrimination Provisions overview, 14, 188–189, 203–204 aims and effects test, 192–194 ambiguity of, 189, 190–191 competitive likeness test, 193, 194–197 EGC and, 186, 199–202 ETMs and, 186 likeness and, 191–194 (See also Likeness) MFN Treatment (See Most Favored Nation Treatment (Article I)) National Treatment (See National Treatment (Article III)) objective characteristics test, 191–192, 195–196, 197 Protectionism Theory and, 183, 188–189 regulatory likeness test, 192–193, 194–197, 201–202 SPS and, 285 TBT and, 191, 202–203, 285, 287 Terms of Trade Theory and, 180, 188–189 Non-product related production processes and methodologies (NPRPPMs), 197–202 Nozick, R., 46 Objective characteristics test for likeness, 191–192, 195–196, 197 Original Position, 49–50 Outcomes, self-determination as promoting, 159, 160 Pareto efficiency, 32, 48, 183–184 Participation, self-determination as promoting, 158, 159–160 Particularism, ethical, 135–136 Peel, J., 307, 313–314 Petersmann, E.-U., 63, 145, 290 386 Philpott, D., 158, 159, 160, 161–162 Pigouvian taxes, 258 Plurilateralism, 16, 328–329 Pogge, T W coercion and, 100 explanatory nationalism and, 149 human rights and, 26, 42, 43, 62 national priority and, 137, 138, 139 participation objection and, 129 rights-based cosmopolitanism and, 38, 42–43 Polanyi, K., 140 Positive WTO law, theories of justice and, 55, 56, 59, 64, 65–66 Positivism, 64 Posner, E A., Practice dependence, 45 Prevost, D., 297 Price discrimination, dumping and, 251, 271–272 Primoratz, I., 137 Principle of rescue, 42 Prisoners’ dilemma sovereignty and, 121, 130 SPS and, 292 subsidies and, 245–246 TBT and, 292 Terms of Trade Theory and, 179, 180–181 Procedural values distributive justice versus, 31 trade law and, 35 Protectionism EGC and, 326–327 legitimate objectives in TBT and, 288, 299–300, 302 scientific authority in SPS and, 306 SPS and, 287–289 TBT and, 287–289, 293 Protectionism Theory (PT), 182–185 overview, 14, 178–179, 203–204 assumptions regarding, 211 collateral goals and, 232–234 competitive likeness test and, 194–197 Core Disciplines and, 183 Development Provisions and, 184, 209–211, 221–222 in de x domestic irrationality and, 183 efficiency and, 185 EGC versus, 202 General Exceptions and, 183–184, 225–227 MFN and, 183, 210 National Treatment and, 183 Non-Discrimination Provisions and, 183, 188–189 NPRPPMs and, 197–199 objections to, 184–185 objective characteristics test and, 197 regulatory likeness test and, 194–197 shared goals and, 239 PT See Protectionism Theory (PT) Public goods, self-determination and, 169 Public morals DEMs and, 296 General Exceptions and, 225, 228, 229–231 Seal Products and, 301, 304 Quinn, W., 86–89, 90, 92, 101 Rawls, J agency objection and, 131–133 Basic Structure (See Basic Structure) coercion and, 72, 76, 80–85, 89–90 difference principle and, 89, 148 distributive justice and, 34, 96, 97–98, 99–100 duty of assistance and, 26–27, 102–103, 114 dynamic problem and, 147, 149 impact objection and, 127 “Justice as Fairness,” 49–51, 96 Law of Peoples, 26–27, 38, 40–42, 50, 51, 52, 99, 100, 107 liberalism and, 38, 40–42, 332 Original Position and, 49–51, 52 participation objection and, 129, 130 self-determination and, 91, 93–95, 101–102, 170 social primary goods and, 30 sovereignty and, 117 theories of justice and, 6–7 Theory of Justice, 69–70 in dex transcendental institutionalism and, 43 utilitarianism and, 48 war powers and, 107, 140 Raz, J., 72, 166–168 Realism international relations, 53, 120, 121 political, 72 Realization-focused comparison, 43 Reciprocity Development Provisions, nonreciprocity and, 207–208 EGC, non-reciprocity and, 214–215 ETMs and, 112 principle of fair reciprocity, 79–80, 85, 94–95, 101, 112, 123, 129 Protectionism Theory, nonreciprocity and, 210–211 Terms of Trade Theory and, 179–180 Reconciliation, coercion and, 77–80 Redress principle, 111–112 Regan, D H General Exceptions and, 234 likeness and, 190, 195, 199 NPRPPMs and, 200, 201 Protectionism Theory and, 182, 183, 184, 185 SPS and, 289, 291, 293 TBT and, 290, 291, 293 Regional trade agreements, 16, 328–331 Regulation Agreements SPS (See Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)) TBT (See Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)) Regulatory likeness test, 192–193, 194–197, 201–202 Relativism, 44–45 Ricardo, David, 182 Rights-based cosmopolitanism, 38, 42–43 Risse, M., 44, 73, 75, 127, 128 Ronzoni, M., 169 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 158 Rubini, L., 274 Ruggie, J G., 55, 60, 188 Safeguards overview, 244 387 adjustment and, 247–249 Appellate Body jurisprudence regarding, 277–278, 279–280 causation and, 278–280 compensation and, 247–249 correlation and, 279 de minimis imports and, 266 developing countries and, 266, 268 domestic injuries and, 266–267 economic arguments for, 247–249 EGC and, 265, 278, 280 as “escape clauses,” 249 as ETMs, 263–268 fairness in, 263–268 foreseeability and, 267, 277–278 form of, 263 labor rights and, 248–249 political arguments for, 249–250 self-determination and, 263–268 serious injury requirement, 264–265 skepticism regarding, 247–250 sufficientarianism and, 265–266 Safeguards Agreement (SA) overview, 241, 248 Anti-Dumping Agreement compared, 264–265 causation and, 278–279 developing countries and, 266, 268 foreseeability and, 267 form of safeguards, 263 political arguments and, 249–250 Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement compared, 264–265 time limits in, 267–268, 278 Sanctuary markets, dumping and, 268–270 Sangiovanni, A coercion and, 76–77, 78–80 practice dependence and, 45 sovereignty and, 123, 129, 138 Scanlon, T., 42, 44 Scheffler, S., 95 Scientific authority in SPS, 305–313 overview, 285–286, 288–289, 305 Appellate Body jurisprudence regarding, 309–312 democracy and, 290–291 388 in de x Scientific authority in SPS (cont.) efficiency and, 306–307, 312–313 EGC and, 307–308, 312–313 embedded liberalism and, 307 objectivity of science, 306, 308, 311–312 politics versus science, 305–306, 308, 309–311 protectionism and, 306 SCM See Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement (SCM) Scott, J., 222, 293, 307 Seal products EU prohibition on, 21–22, 24, 296 public morals and, 301, 304 Self-determination overview, 13, 15–16, 151–155, 174 career choice and, 168–169 coercion and, 90–96 colonialism and, 163–164 culture and, 166–168 DEMs and, 13, 113–114, 152, 173 developing countries and, 164 Development Provisions and, 213–214 distributional autonomy and, 111 egalitarianism and, 164–166 EGC, inclusion in, 151, 172, 174 embedded liberalism and, 168 essential powers, 172 ETMs and, 13, 25–26, 112–113, 152, 164, 170–171, 172–173 exercise of, 152 expressive arguments for, 154, 162–166 external self-determination, 161–162 General Exceptions and, 227–232 groups versus nations, 153 individual freedom versus, 91 inequality and, 164–166 instrumental arguments for, 154, 166–171 International Covenants and, 156 in international law, 153, 155–158 intrinsic arguments for, 154, 158–162 minority rights and, 156–157 outcomes, as promoting, 159, 160 participation, as promoting, 158, 159–160 protection of, 152 public goods and, 169 reductionism and, 154 safeguards and, 263–268 shared goals and standards, 172–173 small countries and, 164 sovereignty versus, 157–158 state as focus of, 152–153, 154–156 sufficientarianism and, 166 territorial rights and, 170 Sen, A., 43, 48 Shue, H., 102 Simmons, A J., 118, 154 Social liberalism, 40–42 Social primary goods, 30 Sovereign debt, 56 Sovereignty overview, 12, 116–119 Basic Structure and, 123–126 (See also Basic Structure) coordination and, 122–123 EGC, objections to based on, 118–119, 121–122, 123, 130–131, 133, 149–150 ETMs and, 118, 121–122, 139–141 prisoners’ dilemma and, 121, 130 security and, 120–122 self-determination versus, 157–158 SPS and, 286 TBT and, 286 Special and differential treatment (SDT), 4, 206, 207–208, 297–298 See also Development Provisions Specificity, subsidies and, 258–259 SPS See Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Srinavasan, T N., 180 Staiger, R W., 179, 180, 189, 245–246 State self-determination, as focus of, 152–153, 154–156 theories of justice, as focus of, 53–55 Stegemann, K., 253 Stiglitz, J E., 217 Strong cosmopolitanism, 70 Structural equity, 44 in de x Subsidies overview, 243–244 adverse effects test, 256, 259–260 Appellate Body jurisprudence regarding, 273–276 benefit and, 260, 273–277 contingency and, 256–258 countervailing duties (CVDs), 243–244, 246–247, 262–263, 268–270 efficiency and, 244–245 egalitarianism and, 261–262 EGC and, 255–256, 276–277 entitlement and, 246, 254 as ETMs, 255–263, 276–277 fairness in, 255–263 financial contribution and, 277 General Exceptions and, 261 justification of, 260–262 market access and, 246–247 market baseline and, 273–276 prisoners’ dilemma and, 245–246 skepticism regarding, 244–247 specificity and, 258–259 sufficientarianism and, 263 Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement (SCM) overview, 241, 243 adverse effects test, 256, 259–260 Anti-Dumping Agreement compared, 269–270 benefit and, 273–274, 276 egalitarianism and, 261–262 market access and, 246–247 Safeguards Agreement compared, 264–265 specific subsidies, 245, 258–259 Sufficientarianism boundary problem and, 70–71 DEMs and, 72 safeguards and, 265–266 self-determination and, 166 subsidies and, 263 Sykes, A.O., 8, 280 Tamir, Y., 70, 92, 137, 139 Tan, K.-C., 332 Targeted dumping, 282–283 389 TBT See Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Terms of Trade Theory (TTT), 179–182 overview, 14, 178–179, 203–204 collateral goals and, 232–234 competitive likeness test and, 194–197 Core Disciplines and, 179–180 developing countries and, 212 Development Provisions and, 181, 211–213, 221–222 EGC versus, 202 General Exceptions and, 180–181, 225–227 maximization of national welfare, assumption of, 181 MFN and, 180, 211 National Treatment and, 180 Non-Discrimination Provisions and, 180, 188–189 NPRPPMs and, 197–199 objective characteristics test and, 197 prisoners’ dilemma and, 179, 180–181 reciprocity and, 179–180 regulatory likeness test and, 194–197 shared goals and, 239 small countries and, 212 tariff reductions and, 189 Territorial rights, self-determination and, 170 Textualism, 65 Theories of justice See also Distributive justice critical function of, 6–7 economic hegemony and, efficiency and, 59 embedded liberalism and, 59–61 Equality in Global Commerce (EGC) (See Equality in Global Commerce (EGC)) exclusion from WTO scholarship, 8–9 explanatory function of, fit and, 58–59 human rights and, 42–43, 62–63 interdisciplinarity and, interpretive function of, 7, 55–63 “Justice as Fairness,” 49–51 390 in de x Theories of justice (cont.) justification and, 58–59 justificatory function of, liberalism and, 52 methodology of, 49 need for, 6–7, 11 positive WTO law and, 55, 56, 59, 64, 65–66 reasons for lack of, 7–9 SPS and, 55–56 state, focus on, 53–55 TBT and, 55–56 trade regulation as focus of, 52 utilitarianism and, 52 Thin statism, 117 Tomasi, J., 254 Trachtman, J.P., 29, 234, 292, 303 Trade agreements, theory of overview, 178–179 Protectionism Theory, 182–185 (See also Protectionism Theory (PT)) Terms of Trade Theory, 179–182 (See also Terms of Trade Theory (TTT)) Trade diversion, 183 Trade Facilitation Agreement, 324 Trade in Services Agreement, 328 Trade regulation distributive effects of, 36–37 theories of justice, as focus of, 52 Trade remedies overview, 15, 241–244, 283 dumping (See Dumping) EGC and, 243, 253, 283 fairness in, 15, 242–243, 253–255 problems regarding, 15 safeguards (See Safeguards) skepticism regarding, 15, 241–242 subsidies (See Subsidies) Transaction costs, 212 Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), 223, 329 Transcendental institutionalism, 43 Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), 329 TRIPS Agreement, 324–325 TTT See Terms of Trade Theory (TTT) Understanding on the Balance of Payments Provisions, 215 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 207, 222–223 Universalist ethics, 135–136 Uruguay Round, 208, 281, 284–285, 325, 326 Utilitarianism, 32, 48, 52 Valentini, L., 75, 76, 80, 104 Van Parijs, P., 125 Variable geometry, 328–329 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 64 Voon, T., 282 Waltz, K N., 53, 132 Walzer, M., 44, 138, 142–143 War powers, 107 Wauters, J., 249 Weiler, J H H., 65 Wenar, L., 40 Williams, B., 51, 72 Wilson, Woodrow, 155 World Trade Organization (WTO) Accession Protocols, 56, 59, 189 Agreement, 46 Dispute Settlement System, 65 Dispute Settlement Understanding, 65, 66 failure as negotiating forum, 324–325 member-driven quality, 53 political morality and, positive law (See Positive WTO law) revision of negotiation practices, 327–328 Rules on Special and Differential Treatment for Developing Countries, (See also Special and differential treatment (SDT)) successes of, 323–324 WTO-plus rules, 56, 59 Zampetti, A B., 254 Zeroing, dumping and, 280–283 ... Journal of International Law, the Modern Law Review, and the Journal of International Law and International Relations He formerly practiced commercial law and is qualified both in Ireland and in... international and national law Books in the series Distributive Justice and World Trade Law: A Political Theory of International Trade Regulation Oisin Suttle Freedom of Transit and Access to Gas Pipeline... levels of international, regional, and national laws The subject matter of this series is international economic law Its core is the regulation of international trade, investment, and cognate areas