(BQ) Part 2 book Economic botany has contents: The history and nature of food plants, the major cereals, legumes and nuts, tropical fruits, spices and other flavoring materials, beverage plants and beverages, fruits of temperate regions.
CHAPTER XIII THE HISTORY AND NATURE OF FOOD PLANTS THE mSTORY OF FOOD PLANTS The most remarkable fact concerning the food plants in use in the world today, and for that matter the industrial plants as well, is their great antiquity Most of them were domesticated from wild ance::;tons long before the beginning of the hi -toricaJ period, and all available records inelle-ate that they were as familiar to the peoples of the ancient world as they are to us Comparatively few new plants have been developed during the last 2000 years, although the older ones have been greatly altered and improved in response to the increasing complexity of man's existence The history of our utleful plant::; and their influence on civilization has always been of interest to botanists and ethnologists Many investigations have been carried FIG 127.- Alphonse De Candolle on in an attempt to determine (1806-1 893), from a photograph taken in 1866 (Courtesv of the Gray theu age and place of ongm, as H erba,·ium ) well as their cultural history The Work of De Candolle.-The classic work dealing with this phase of botany is D e Candolle's "L'origine des plantes cultivees," which appeared in 1883 So careful and painstaking was his work that few of his conclusions have had to be altered in the light of more recent studies D e Candolle (Fig 127) based his conclusions on a great variety of evidence : the works of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and other old historians; Chioese writings; arc:heological and ethnological data, such as the monuments of Egypt, the ruins of Pompeii, the remains of the Lake Dwellers of 297 • 298 ECONOMIC BOT ANY Europe, and the Inca ruins of South America; philological indications, involving the names of plants in Hebrew, Sanskrit, and other ancient languages; and botanical conclusions based on distribution, number of varieties, presence or absence of wild types, length of cultivation, and similar matters He arranged the useful plants in six classes, and it will be interesting to give a few examples of each of these groups: A OLD WORLD 8PECIES CULTIVATED FOR OvER almond apple apricot banana barley broad bean cabbage cucumber B date eggplant fig £lax grape hemp mango < 4000 millet mulberry olive onIOn peach pear quince OLD WORLD SPECIES CULTIVATED FOR OvER YEARS nee sorghum soybean tea turnip watermelon wheat 2000 YEARS, AND PERHAPS LONGER alfalfa asparagus beet breadfruit carrot celery cherry chestnut cotton garden pea grapefruit lemon / lettuce lime mustard nutmeg oats orange pepper plum poppy radish rye sugar cane walnut yam , I C OLD WORLD SPECIES CULTIVATED PROBABLY FOR LESS THAN artichoke buckwheat coffee currant "D endive gooseberry horseradish muskmelon okra parsley parsnip E maize mate sweet potato YEARS raspherry rhubarb strawbprry NEW WORLD SPECIES OF ANCIENT CULTIVATION, MORE THAN cacao kidney bean 2000 2000 YEARS " tobacco NEW WORLD SPECIES CULTIVATED BEFORE TIME OF COLUMBUS ANTIQUITY NOT KNOWN avoeado peanut cotton pineapple guava potato Jerusalem artichoke pumpkin quinoa red pepper squash tomato vanilla THE HISTORY AND NATURE OF FOOD PLANTS F NEW WORLD allspice blackberry black walnut Plueberry SPECIES CULTIVATED cinchona cranberry dewberry SINCE THE gooseherry pecan persimmon TIME OF 299 COLUMBUS plum rubber strawberry JFrom these examples it can readily be seen that our most valuable economic plants, including the cereals, most of the vegetablf's and fruits, tea, coffee, cocoa, and the fiber plants, were discovered, utilized, and cultivated by man thousands and thousands of years ago It is f'ven more difficult to determine the native homes of our cultivated plants Obviously they must have been derived at some time in thf' remote past from wild ancestors, which originally had a restricted distribution In mORt cases thesf' wild forms no longer exist., or they have bf'en carrif'd by man far from their original home For these and many other rf'asons it is a well-nigh impossible task to comf' to a definite conclusion as to the place of their origin , The Work of Vavilov.-An important work which throwR some light on this point of cultivated-plant origins is that of Vavilov, which appeared in 1926 His concluRionR are based on a variety of facts obtained from sourceI' different from those of his predf'cessors He consider~ such featureR as the anatomy, genetics, cytology, distribution, and diseases of the plants concerned A valuable conclusion in Vavilov's work if; that many of our cultivated spf'cies of first rank, the primary crops as he calls them, had a diversified rather than a single origin ~ the case of wheat, for example, the author points out t~la there were at least two distinct centers of distribution The oft wheats came from Southwestern Asia, while the hard wheat originated in the Mediterranean region Similarly barley was d rived from Southwestern Asia, North Africa, and Southf'astern sia Another point is concerned with the so-call~ secondary crop plants It is the contention of the author\~hat these were originally weed companions of the primary crops These weedR could not be eliminated and were either ignored or tolerated by the farmer In regions that were favorable for the primary crops the weeds were of little importance In unfavorable areas, howf'ver, the weeds tended to become more and more prominent, gradually replacing the primary crop, and eventually becoming 300 ECONOMIC BOT ANY e~tabli~hed as a cultivated crop Rye and oats are conspicuous examplcs of such plants A final contention i~ that the great center~ of distribution of our cultivated cropt' were alway~ in mountainous regions, and that the greatest amount of diversity occurred in such areas Vavilov in general recognizes the four centers of distribution to be discus~ed below, with the addition of a fifth area in Abyssinia and adjacent parts of Northern Africa He also suggests the possibility of a sixth center in the Philippine Islands where rice and coix may have originated ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD PLANTS At the pre~ent time the available data seem to e~tablish the fact that there were at lea~t four chief centers in which our economic plants originated, and from which they were later dispersed all over the world: (1) Southwestern or Central Asia, the mountainous region from India to A~ia Minor and Transcaucasia; (2) the Mediterranean region; (3) Southeastern Asia; and (4) the highlands of tropical America The paralleliHm between the hi~tory of mankind and the history of his domesticated plants (and animals a~ well) is obvious It wa~ in this same Central A~ian plateau that scienti~ts tell us man had his origin, from which the human race was disper~ed Thus from the earliest beginnings man had at his dispo~al various food plants, and he must have been dependent on them to a great extent for his existence For countless ages he was a nomad, wandering from place to place, content merely to gather the edible fruits, grains, seeds, and tubers as he needed them, possibly for temporary storage in small amounts At some later period in his history he began to make primitive attempts at cultivating these useful plants by sowing seeds in some favorable location Whether these first attempts at agriculture were acCidental or purposeful, they were of profound importance for they changed the whole nature of his existence Of necessity he had to forsake his nomadic life and remain in one place at least long enough to harvest his crop In so doing he took the first step toward becoming civilized, for agriculture is the only mode of exiHtence that has enabled men to live together in communities and accumulate the necessities of life The establishment of agriculture was THE HISTORY AND NATURE OF FOOD PLANTS 301 of ~he utmost importance to man and probably represents the most significant single advance in his development Gradually these first simple type:,; of plant culture were replaced by an agriculture of a much higher grade, which eventually led to the building up of the great nations of antiquity These ancient civilizations were restricted in area, for they developed only in tho:,;e regions where the useful plants that were the foundation stones of their existence were native And so we find that Asia Minor and adjacent areas in Southwestern Asia, the Mediterranean region, Southeastern Asia, and the tropical American highlandH Wf're the locations of the older civilizations The presence of valuable plants in all these regioml was the most important factor in the successful development of agriculture, although in all theHe areas climate and soil conditions were very favorable The climate wa:,; equable, with no extrf'mes of heat and cold; the soil was fertile; and there wa" either ample rainfall or irrigation could be practiced In Central Asia the native plants included alfalfa, apple, barley, broad bean, buck~heat, cherry, flax, garden peas, garlic, hemp, lentil, mulberry, olive, onion, pomegranate, plum, quincf', radish, rye, and spinach The Mediterranean region was the homf' of the artichoke, asparaguH, cabbage, cauliflower, cotton, fig, horseradiHh, millet, parsnip, parsley, and rhubarb Common to both these areas were the almond, carrot, carob, celery, chestnut, grape, lettuce, mustard, turnip, and walnut Wheat is also a native of some part of this combined area Whether it was indigenous to Syria and Palestine, to Turkestan or Mesopotamia, or perhaps had a multiple origin, it was early available for all the nations of the region In Southeastern Asia the banana, breadfruit, millet, peach, persimmon, orange, rice, soybean, sugar cane, and yam were native; in the American area cacao, American cotton, kidney and lima beant', maize, potato, squash, tobacco, and tomato were indigenow-; It is interesting to note that a cereal was available in all thesf' cultural areas Ancient agriculture was based chiefly on these cereals, just as modern agriculture is Their highly nutritious seeds were the staff of liff' 5000 and 10,000 years ago, and have remained so up to the present time It was the cultivation of wheat in the fertile valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that 302 ECONOMIC BOT ANY made possible the great nations of Biblical time, Chaldea, Assyria, and Babylonia Egypt, Greece, and Rome had both wheat and barley available Rice was the basis of the restricted civilization that developed in the valleys of the HwangHoand Yangtze Kiang rivers and led to the development of the great Chinese empire The primitive peoples of the highlands of tropical America cultivated the natIve maize, the foundation of the remarkable civilizations that persisted until overthrown by the Spanish invaders In all theEle cultural areas the history of agriculture has been the same: lfrst, the gathering of the edible portions of wild plants; then the primitive cultivation of certain species bes~ adapted to man's needs; and finally the evolution of a high-\ grade agriculture, which involved the breeding of new varieties,) improvements in cultivation, irrigation, and similar features'! Because of thiH similarity in the development of agriculture, particularly between the Old and the New ·World, many authorities have believed that the American civilizations must have had some contact with those of the Old World and been influenced by them The evidence, however, o;eems to show that agriculture in this continent has had an entirely separate development and that the resemblances which occur are only chance ones THE NATURE OF FOOD PLANTS Food is necessary for the existence of all living things The various substances that constitute the food of plants and animals are used by them either in the formation of the living protoplasm, the building up of their bodily structure, or as a source of energy We have already pointed Qut, in Chap I, that green plants alone are actually able to manufacture food from raw materials Man and the other animals must take their food ready made, and so are dependent, either directly or indirectly, on plants Fortunately for the animal world, plants manufacture much more food than they can utilize immediately, and they store up this surplus as a reserve supply for future use It is this supply of reserve food that man appropriates for his own use The essential foods, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, each valuable in its own way in man'.s metabolism, are all available in plants So, too, are mineral salts, organic acids, vitamins, and enzymes, which are also necessary for his well-being Thus it is THE HISTORY AND NATURE OF FOOD PLANTS 303 possible for man, if he so desires, to live entirely on a vegetarian diet Plants utilize roots, stems, leaveH, fruits, and seeds, to a greater or less extent, for the storage of reserve food The mOHt important of these from the standpoint of man are the dry fruits and seeds In this category are found the cereals and small grains, the legumes, and the nuts ,All these contain a very large amount of nutritive material and have a proportionately low water content This latter fact enhances their value to man, for they can be storE'd and transported easily Roots, tubers, bulbs, and other earth vegetables are next in importance as sources of food for human beings, and the lower animals as well Their ,'alue is lessened by their high water content The leafy parts of plants, the greens, salad plants, and other herbage vegetables, contain comparatively little stored food However, they are necessary becam;e of the vitamins and mineral salts they contain and the mechanical effect of the indigestible cellulose material The same is true of the fleshy fruits, which may also contain various organic acids In the present discussion the food plants will be considered under the following headings: cereals, small grains, legumps, nuts, earth vegetables, herbage vegetables, fruit VE'getables, and fleshy fruits It will obviously be impossible to discuss, or even list, all the plants URE'd for food throughout the world Hundreds of species, both wild and cultivated, are used only by primitive races or in restricted areas An attempt will be made to consider the outstanding food plants of the United States and Europe, together with a few of the more conspicuous ones of other countries Before proceeding to this discussion, which will be concerned primarily ,vith the higher plants, some reference will be made to the lower plants as sources of food THE LOWER PLANTS AS SOURCES OF FOOD FUNGI The use of mushrooms, truffles, and other fungi as sources of food is very ancient, possibly as old as man himself The first records go back as far as the fifth century B.C Mushrooms were well known to the Greeks and were highly prized by the Romans During the Middle Ages the consumption of these edible fungi 304 ECONOMIC BOTANY , was enormous Today they are eaten by both primitive and civilized peoples Not only are wild forms utilized, but the cultivation of mushrooms is extensively carried on in Europe, the United States, and many parts of the Orient Mushrooms Mushrooms occur naturally in fields, pastures, and woods They represent the reproductive stage of certain of the higher fungi The vegetative stage of these fungi consists of masses of fine threads, or hyphae, which constitute the mycelium This mycelium extends in all directions through the soil, deriving its nourishment saprophytically from decaying organic matter Sooner or later, depending in part on favorable environmental conditions, the visible spore-bearing stage is produced It may take years for this to develop Space ",ill not permit a discussion of the many edible wild mushroo,ms These are more delicate in flavor and more palatable than the cultivated forms However, great caution is necessary in distinguishing them from the poisonous species, familiarly known as toadstools, for the resemblance is often very close No hard and fast rules can be laid down which absolutely separate the two groups Definite and accurate knowledge as to the identity of any particular species is necessary It is wisest to discard any mushroom that resembles a poisonous form, even though it is known to be edible Cultivation of Mushrooms.- The cultivation of mushrooms dates back to the beginning of the seventeenth century Today it is carried on with a high degree of efficiency, particularly in France, England, and the eastern United States The most important species utilized is the common meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris) Propagation is by means of spores, or more usually by using spawn Spawn consists of maRses of mycelium compressed into little bricks Suitable environmental conditions are essential for development There Rhould be little or no light, plenty of moisture, and a conRtant temperature, with'55 to 58°F the optimum The soil should be rich in organic matter, stable manure serving as an excellent medium Cellars, tunnels, and caves afford ideal situations for gro",ing mushrooms The important French industry makes use of abandoned quarries and mines THE HISTORY AND NATURE OF FOOD PLANTS 305 Under these conditions spores germinate, or the mycelium resumes its growth, ramifying through the soil and in about six weeks forming little buttons on the surface of the soil Eventually the buttons enlarge to form a chamber in which the gills develop This chamber is raised up on a short ,fleshy stalk and, when mature, opens out into the characteristic umbrellalike pileus with the gills on the underside The innumerable spores are produced on the gills Mushrooms (Fig 128) are gathered in the button stage, or before they are fully mature The mycelium continues to bear from six to eight months FIG 128.- Musbrooms (Aom·icu.8 campestris) grown under cultivation tesy of the JI assachu.setts Stale Colle(Je.) (Cour- The food value of mushrooms is low, as nearly 91 per cent of the flesh is water Proteins make up 3.75 per cent, carbohydrates 3.50, and fats only 0.20 per cent Truffles Truffles have been famous almost as long as mushrooms and today are considered as greater delicacies and so are higher priced Truffles differ from most other fungi in producing their fruiting bodies underground They are solid, with a firm black or grayish-brown flesh and an agreeable odor and taste Truffles are common in EnglanQ and on the Continent The chief commercial area is 'outhem France These fungi prefer a light, porous 306 ECONOMIC BOTANY limestone soil in oak, beech, or birch forests They are usually collected in the wild state, although crude attempts at cultivation have been made These consist for the most part of ~timulating natural production in favorable areas Truffles are harvested with thE' aid of Rpecially trained dogs or pigs, whose keE'n sense of smell enables them to locate the fungi Truffles are collected when comparatively mature Several species of the genus T uber are utili zed, chiefly T melanospOTum, T aesti,?,um, and T bl'umale Other Fungi The morel (M orchella esculenta) is a familiar wild edible fungus in the United States (Fig 129) This species and several allied Olles are growll to some extent in France, and ot her fungi elsewhere in Europe In Japan, where enormous q uan tities of wild fungi are eaten, several native spf'cies are FI~ 129.~The mor~l (Morchella cultivated, chiefly the shiiesculenta) , an edible wild mushroom take (CoTtinellus Berkeleyanus) (Photo by D H Linder ) This aromatic species is grown on logs It can be kept for a long time in a dried condition and is a favorite ingredient of soups Over 1000 tons are grown annually ALGAE Only a few species of algae are utilized in Europe and America for food purposes and seaweeds are of little economic importance In Japan, China, and the Pacific islands, however, algae constitute one of the chief articles of diet So great is the demand in Japan that the nat.ural supply is insufficient and many species are cultivated It is not unusual to find six or t'even different kinds served at a single meal Over 70 varieties arp eatpo in Hawaii, INDEX Morus alba, 427, 535 nigra, 427, 535 rubra, 427, 535 Mousse de ch ene, 206 Mowra fat, 222, 548 Mucilages, 13, 257, 261, 263, 27~" Mucuna Deeringiana, 541 Mulberry, 298, 301, 426-427 black, 427, 535 )~" paper, 54, 57, 535 red, 427, 535 white, 427, 535 Mung bean, 352, 355, 540 Musa Cavendishii, 533 nana, 440, 533 paradisiaca, 441, 533 subsp sapientum, 438, 439, 533 sapientum, 533 textilis, 38, 39, 533 Atusaceae, 23, 533 Mushroom, 294, 303-305, 527 Musk,197 Muskmelon, 298, 417-418 Murlins, 308, ,')27 Mustard, 194, 298, 3lH, 398, 486487, 496 black, 220, 462, 487, 537 Indian, 487, ,')37 white, 220, 462, 486-487, 537 Mu tree, 213, 543 Mutshu doth, 54 M yrciaria caulifiora, 547 Myrica carolinensis, 225, 534 cerijera: 225, 534 M yricaceae, 534 Myristicafragrans, 223, 487, 488,537 M yristicaceae, 537 Myrobalans, 140-141, 1.,)2,547 Myroxylon Balsamum, 187,540 Pereirae, 187, 540 toluiferum, 540 Myrrh, 192,1193,207,255, 542 Myrtaceae, 194, 429, 448, 547 Myrtle, wax, 225, 534 N NarcisHus, 207, 532 N arci88~s J onquilla, 207, 532 579 Narcis.~us Tazetta, 207, 532 Narcotics, 288-29.5 solanaceous, 288, 295 Nasebprry, 164, 548 Natural fabrie8, 22, ~3-54 Naval stores, 92, 181, 184 N ectandra Rodioei, 125, 537 Nectarine, 415, 539 Nepeta Cataria, 495, 550 Neroli, oil of, 197, 201, 209 New Zealand hemp, 42, 43, 57, 532 N icotiana rustica, 281, 550 Tabacum, 280, 281, 550 Nicotine, 280, 282 Niger-seed, 211, 215, 552 Niger-scpd oil, 215 Nitrostarch, 246 Nitta, 363, 540 Nonalcoholic beverages, 497-515 Nondrying oils, 212, 218-220 Nuts, 303, 364-376 areca, 286 Brazil, 364, 365, 376, 546 kola, 287 (See also Cola) paradise, 366, 547 pili, 220, 371, 542 pine, 371-372 Nut galls, 141, 142, 152 Nutmeg, 223, 298, 487-489, 496, 537 Nutmeg butter, 223, 489 Nux vomica, 260, 274, 278, 549 Nyssa aquatica, 119 548 sylvalica, 119, 548 I () ! Oak,64, 71, 76,79,81, 82,83, 84,85, 86,87,88,91,99,115 116,129, 130, 135, 136, 374 Aleppo, 141, 535 black, 116, 136, 148, ,'i35 bur, 115, 535 California tanbark, 136, 534 chestnut, 115, 13.5, 535 cork, 93, 535 live, 99, 116, 535 Oregon, 116, 535 580 ECONOMIC BOTANY r Oak, over cup, 115, 535 Orange, 194, 195, 196, 197,298 301 pin, 116,535 431-434, 473, 496, 514,' 524' post, 115, 535 525 ' ~ red, 115, 116, 136, 535 bitter, 201, 433, 525, 542 scarlet, 116, 535 deciduous, 438, 542 shingle, 116, 535 King, 433-434, 542 silky, 132, 536 Panama, 437, 542 swamp chestnut, 116, 535 Satsuma, 434, 542 swamp white, 116, 534 Seville, 433, 542 : j Texas red, 116, 535 sour, 433, 542 turkey, 116,535 sweet, 201, 431-433, 542 Turkish, 141, 534 Orange hybrids, 438 white, 49, 86, 115, 116, 136, 534 Orange oil, 196, 201, 209, 433 willow, 116, 535 Orbignya Cohune, 223, 531 Oak moss, 206, 527 Orchidaceae, 533 Oakum, 34 • OregoIl balsam, 185 Oats, 57, 298,300,309,337-340,523, Organic acids, 18, 302, 303, 407 529 Origanum, 209 Ochroma pyramidale, 123, 124, 545 Origanum Majorana, 550 Lagopus, 545 vulgare, 491, 550 Ocimum Basilicum, 490, 550 Orris, 197, 201, 209, 278, 496, 533 Ogea gum, 173 Oryza sativa, 220, 330, 530 Oils, drying, 212-215 Osage orange, 71, 74, 117, 144, 145essential, 15, 170, 171, 180, 194146,535 209, 257, 461 Osiers, 49 Ostrya virginiana, 122, 534 fatty, 14, 210-224, 227, 257, 272, Ottar of roses, 198-199 273, 509 fixed, 210 Otto of roses, 198-199, 209, 473 Oxandra lanceolata, 12.'), 537 grass, 202-203 nondrying, 212, 218-220 OYHter plant, 379, 552 perlume, 198-207 P semidrying, 212, 216-218 Padouk, 130, 541 volatile, 15, 194-209 I, Palaquium Gutta, 162, 163, 548 (For individual oils, see und;er Palm, 228 Sour('e plant) / '_ betel-nut, 286, 531 Okra, 38, 298, 402, 545 I carnauba, 224, 531 Olea europaea, 129, 218, 453, 549 Oleaceae, 549 cohuIlP, 223, 531 date, 13, 442, 443, 531 Oleoresins, 180-191,276 dwarf fan, 53, 531 Olibanum, 192,542 gomuti, 238, 531 Olive, 129, 218, 298, 301, 453 454, hat, 48, 531 549 ivory-uut, 13, 252, 531· Olive oil, 218-219, 227 oil, 221, 222, 531 Onion, 228, 298, 301, 389-391, 532 palmyra, 46, 238, 531,' ' Opiulll, 255, 274, 278, 279, 288, 290292 raffia, 50, 225, 531 sago, 243, 244, 531 Opopanax, 193, 542, 548 tagua, 252, 531 Opopanax Chironium, 193,548 \ INDEX ~9 Palm, toddy, 46, 238, 5at:' wax, 224, 225, 531 wine, 45, 531 Palm oil, 221-222, 227 Palm-kernel oil, 222, 2zt Palm leaves, 61 Palm sugar, 238-239 Palm wine, 368, 522 Palma istle, 41, 532 Palrnaceae, 23, 531 Palmarosa oil, 199, 203, 209, 529 Palmetto, 141, 531 Palmyra fiber, 46 Panama rubber, 157-158,5