(BQ) Part 1 book “Articular cartilage” has contents: Structure and function of cartilage, articular cartilage development, articular cartilage pathology and therapies, cartilage injuries, current and emerging therapies for articular cartilage repair and arthritis.
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE SECOND EDITION ARTICULAR CARTILAGE SECOND EDITION Kyriacos A Athanasiou Eric M Darling Grayson D DuRaine Jerry C Hu A Hari Reddi CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20160519 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-0622-3 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Athanasiou, K A (Kyriacos A.), author | Darling, Eric M., author | Hu, Jerry C., author | DuRaine, Grayson D., author | Reddi, A H., 1942author Title: Articular cartilage / Kyriacos A Athanasiou, Eric M Darling, Jerry C Hu, Grayson D DuRaine, and A Hari Reddi Description: Second edition | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2016 | Preceded by Articular cartilage / Kyriacos A Athanasiou [et al.] 2013 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016021888 | ISBN 9781498706223 (alk paper) Subjects: | MESH: Cartilage, Articular Classification: LCC QM142 | NLM WE 300 | DDC 612.7/517 dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016021888 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To Thasos and Aristos, please remember that pursuit of excellence is the virtuous objective Αφιερωμένο στους Θάσο και Άριστο Αίεν αριστεύειν —KAA To my past and present mentors, who have contributed to my professional success, and to my friends and family, who have contributed to my success in everything else —EMD To Irene, Demitri, and Donovan, who make this all worthwhile —GDD To my family, my friends, and our past and current students; I think of everyone on my treks, and wish that you could see what I see —JCH I dedicate this to Professor Kyriacos Athanasiou, a pioneer in articular cartilage biomechanics and tissue engineering —AHR This page intentionally left blank Contents Foreword to Second Edition xv Foreword to First Edition xix Authors .xxv List of Abbreviations .xxix Chapter Structure and Function of Cartilage 1.1 Cartilage in the Body 1.1.1 Hyaline 1.1.2 Elastic 1.1.3 Fibrous 1.1.4 Cartilage’s Role in the Joints 1.2 Chondrocytes and Their Cellular Characteristics 11 1.2.1 Genetic, Synthetic, and Mechanical Phenotype 11 1.2.2 Cytoskeletal Structure 15 1.2.2.1 Microfilaments 16 1.2.2.2 Intermediate Filaments 17 1.2.2.3 Microtubules 17 1.2.3 Mechanotransduction and Homeostasis in Cartilage Tissue 18 1.2.4 Pericellular Matrix Structure 25 1.3 Cartilage Matrix Characteristics and Organization 27 1.3.1 Fluid Components 28 1.3.2 Zonal Variation within Cartilage 30 1.3.2.1 Articulating Surface 31 1.3.2.2 Superficial/Tangential Zone 32 1.3.2.3 Middle/Transitional Zone 32 1.3.2.4 Deep/Radial Zone 32 1.3.2.5 Tidemark and Calcified Zone 33 1.3.3 Collagens in Cartilage 34 1.3.3.1 Tissue-Level Organization 38 1.3.3.2 Collagen Cross-Linking and Biomechanical Properties 40 vii Contents 1.3.4 Cartilaginous Proteoglycans 42 1.3.4.1 Core Proteins and Glycosaminoglycans 42 1.3.4.2 Aggrecan’s Role in Articular Cartilage Compressive Properties 47 1.3.4.3 Minor Proteoglycans 47 1.3.5 Additional Molecules Critical for Articular Cartilage Function 48 1.3.5.1 Boundary Lubrication by SZP/PRG4 49 1.3.5.2 Molecules for Structural Integrity 51 1.4 Articular Cartilage Biomechanical Properties 51 1.4.1 Compressive Characteristics 54 1.4.2 Tensile Characteristics 57 1.4.3 Shear Characteristics 59 1.4.4 Friction and Wear Characteristics 60 1.5 Chapter Concepts 63 References 64 Chapter Articular Cartilage Development 83 2.1 Cellular Behavior during Embryogenesis 88 2.1.1 Limb Precursor Cell Origin 88 2.1.1.1 Cell Adhesion Molecules 89 2.1.1.2 Initiation of Limb 96 2.1.2 Chondrocyte Differentiation and Joint Development 106 2.1.2.1 Synovial Joint Formation 108 2.1.3 Tissue Hypertrophy and Ossification 109 2.2 Articular Cartilage Growth and Maturation 112 2.2.1 Postnatal through Childhood, Adolescence, and Skeletal Maturity 112 2.2.2 Matrix Changes with Maturation and Aging 113 2.2.3 Aging and Disease 114 2.2.4 Cellular Changes 115 2.2.4.1 Aging Cells .115 2.3 Signaling Pathways during Development and Maintenance of Articular Cartilage 117 viii Contents 2.3.1 Signaling Factors 117 2.3.1.1 Morphogens and Growth Factors 117 2.3.1.2 Mechanical Stimuli .119 2.3.1.3 Oxygen Tension 120 2.3.2 Signaling Cascades 121 2.3.2.1 Morphogen Signaling 121 2.3.2.2 BMP/TGF-β Superfamily 121 2.3.2.3 Receptors and Smads 123 2.3.2.4 MAPK and Rho GTPase Signaling in Articular Cartilage 126 2.3.3 Transcription Factors 134 2.3.4 Cartilage Homeostasis 137 2.4 Chapter Concepts 139 References 141 Chapter Articular Cartilage Pathology and Therapies 163 3.1 Arthritis 163 3.1.1 Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis 164 3.1.1.1 Osteoarthritis 164 3.1.1.2 Rheumatoid Arthritis 166 3.1.2 Etiology and Epidemiology 167 3.1.2.1 Genetic and Metabolic Defects 169 3.1.2.2 Crystal Pathologies 173 3.1.2.3 Biomechanics, Loading, and Injury 175 3.1.2.4 Epidemiology 184 3.1.3 Changes in the Matrix 186 3.1.4 Cellular Changes 190 3.1.5 Costs of Arthritis 194 3.2 Cartilage Injuries 195 3.2.1 Osteochondral and Chondral Defects and Microfractures 195 3.2.2 Causes of Cartilage Injuries 200 3.2.3 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three-legged Japanese stone lantern Each of the three legs supports the whole, analogous to the three main pillars of tissue engineering: cells, signals, and scaffolds Total joint bioreactor Total joint bioreactor: in the future such a bioreactor can be employed in tissue engineering toward producing a living total joint assembled from multiple engineered tissues Such a bioreactor would provide mechanical stimuli along multiple physiologically relevant axes 256 ... 14 1 Chapter Articular Cartilage Pathology and Therapies 16 3 3 .1 Arthritis 16 3 3 .1. 1 Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis 16 4 3 .1. 1 .1 Osteoarthritis 16 4 3 .1. 1.2 Rheumatoid Arthritis... and Function of Cartilage 1. 1 Cartilage in the Body 1. 1 .1 Hyaline 1. 1.2 Elastic 1. 1.3 Fibrous 1. 1.4 Cartilage s Role in the Joints 1. 2 Chondrocytes... 11 5 2.2.4 .1 Aging Cells .11 5 2.3 Signaling Pathways during Development and Maintenance of Articular Cartilage 11 7 viii Contents 2.3 .1 Signaling Factors 11 7 2.3 .1. 1 Morphogens