Part 1 book “Marketing an introduction” has contents: Company and marketing strategy - partnering to build customer relationships, the marketing environment, managing marketing information, consumer and business buyer behavior, product, services and branding strategy, product, services and branding strategy, … and other contents.
AN INTRODUCTION THIRD EDITION GARY ARMSTRONG PHILIP KOTLER MICHAEL HARKER ROSS BRENNAN ‘A highly readable text which I enjoyed and students will enjoy too The authors have produced a clear, well-organised, informative and interesting book which guides the reader through each concept, combining theory and practice in an engaging way A valuable resource for any student of marketing.’ Caroline Miller, Keele University ‘Clear and easy to read with insightful and relevant material covering all the things that are necessary in a modern textbook This text is valued highly by tutors and students - keep up the good work!’ Catherine Canning, Glasgow Caledonian University Marketing: An Introduction is your clear, comprehensive and concise guide to the key ideas in marketing, focusing on how to deliver improved customer value in order to achieve marketing success The third European edition of this classic text has been updated with the latest ideas in marketing and with numerous new European marketing examples and case studies The authors prompt students to discover the concepts of marketing and translate them into real commercial practice for themselves PUTTING YOU IN CONTROL OF YOUR JOURNEY THROUGH MARKETING: • You will be guided through the core ideas, processes and issues that underpin marketing today and how these translate into marketing practice, helping you develop your own working understanding • You will be presented with a wide variety of current examples and case studies from all over Europe that demonstrate commercial marketing as it is happening today • You will be provided with the most up-to-date coverage of current issues in marketing, such as use of social media, community management, sustainability, and changes in marketing metrics • Your learning experience will flow seamlessly between the book and the online environment, which includes the authors’ twitter feed at @IntrotoMKT Gary Armstrong is Crist W Blackwell Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Undergraduate Education in the Kenan-Flagler Business School at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Philip Kotler is S.C Johnson & Son Distinguished Professor of International Marketing at the Kellogg Graduate School of Management, Northwestern University Michael Harker is Lecturer in Marketing at University of Strathclyde Business School, Glasgow Ross Brennan is Professor of Industrial Marketing at the University of Hertfordshire Business School MARKETING AN INTRODUCTION THIRD EDITION ARMSTRONG KOTLER HARKER BRENNAN About the authors MARKETING AN INTRODUCTION MARKETING www.downloadslide.net GARY ARMSTRONG PHILIP KOTLER MICHAEL HARKER ROSS BRENNAN THIRD EDITION www.pearson-books.com CVR_ARMS7518_03_SE_CVR.indd 01/07/2015 16:22 www.downloadslide.net MARKETING AN INTRODUCTION A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net At Pearson, we have a simple mission: to help people make more of their lives through learning We combine innovative learning technology with trusted content and educational expertise to provide engaging and effective learning experiences that serve people wherever and whenever they are learning From classroom to boardroom, our curriculum materials, digital learning tools and testing programmes help to educate millions of people worldwide - more than any other private enterprise Every day our work helps learning flourish, and wherever learning flourishes, so people To learn more please visit us at www.pearson.com/uk A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net MARKETING AN INTRODUCTION THIRD EDITION GARY ARMSTRONG University of North Carolina PHILIP KOTLER Northwestern University MICHAEL HARKER University of Strathclyde, Glasgow ROSS BRENNAN University of Hertfordshire Business School A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk Authorised adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Marketing: An Introduction, 12th Edition, ISBN 0133451275 by Armstrong, Gary; Kotler, Philip, published by Pearson Education, Inc, Copyright © 2011 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage retrieval system, without permission from Pearson Education, Inc European adaptation edition published by Pearson Education Ltd, Copyright © 2015 First published 2009 (print) Second edition 2012 (print and electronic) Third edition published 2015 (print and electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 2009 (print) © Pearson Education Limited 2015 (print and electronic) The rights of Gary Armstrong, Philip Kotler, Michael Harker and Ross Brennan to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the authors’ and the publisher’s rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the authors or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners The screenshots in this book are reprinted by permission of Microsoft Corporation Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-1-292-01751-8 (print) 978-1-292-01754-9 (PDF) 978-1-292-01752-5 (eText) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for the print edition is available from the Library of Congress 10 19 18 17 16 15 Print edition typeset in 10/12 pt Sabon MT Pro by 71 Print edition printed and bound by L.E.G.O S.p.A., Italy NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS-REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net BRIEF CONTENTS Preface About the authors Case matrix Acknowledgements Publisher’s acknowledgements PART ONE DEFINING MARKETING AND THE MARKETING PROCESS Is marketing for everyone? Marketing: managing profitable customer relationships Company and marketing strategy: partnering to build customer relationships PART TWO UNDERSTANDING THE MARKETPLACE AND CONSUMERS Making an effort to understand your customers The marketing environment Managing marketing information Consumer and business buyer behaviour PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX Putting marketing into action Segmentation, targeting and positioning: building the right relationships with the right customers Product, services and branding strategy Developing new products and managing the product life cycle Pricing: understanding and capturing customer value 10 Marketing channels and supply chain management 11 Retailing and wholesaling 12 Communicating customer value: advertising, sales promotion and public relations 13 Communicating customer value: personal selling and direct marketing PART FOUR EXTENDING MARKETING A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd xii xviii xx xxiv xxv 40 72 73 74 108 146 186 187 188 228 268 296 332 364 392 434 470 Can marketing save the world? 471 14 Marketing in the digital age 15 The global marketplace 16 Ethics, social responsibility and sustainability 472 Appendix Marketing plan Appendix Marketing metrics Appendix Careers in marketing Glossary Index 576 510 542 588 594 602 612 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net CONTENTS Preface About the authors Case matrix Acknowledgements Publisher’s acknowledgements xii xviii xx xxiv xxv PART ONE DEFINING MARKETING AND THE MARKETING PROCESS Is marketing for everyone? MARKETING: MANAGING PROFITABLE CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPS Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Marketing European football What is marketing? Marketing defined The marketing process Understanding the marketplace and customer needs Customer needs, wants and demands Market offerings – products, services and experiences Customer value and satisfaction Exchanges and relationships Markets Designing a customer-driven marketing strategy Selecting customers to serve Choosing a value proposition Marketing management orientations MARKETING AT WORK 1.1 Managers on marketing Preparing a marketing plan and programme MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Building customer relationships Managing marketing relationships The changing nature of customer relationships Partner relationship management Capturing value from customers Creating customer loyalty and retention Growing share of customer Building customer equity MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts The new marketing landscape The new digital age Rapid globalisation The call for more ethics and social responsibility The growth of not-for-profit sector marketing MARKETING AT WORK 1.2 Metaphors in marketing A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 17 19 19 20 20 22 24 25 25 26 26 28 28 28 29 29 30 31 So, what is marketing? Pulling it all together THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references COMPANY AND MARKETING STRATEGY: PARTNERING TO BUILD CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPS Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY BT: strategy in turbulent times Company-wide strategic planning: defining marketing’s role Defining a market-oriented mission Setting company objectives and goals MARKETING AT WORK 2.1 Maersk Line Designing the business portfolio Planning marketing: partnering to build customer relationships Partnering with other company departments Partnering with others in the marketing system MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Marketing strategy and the marketing mix Customer-centred marketing strategy Developing the marketing mix Managing the marketing effort Marketing analysis Marketing planning Marketing implementation MARKETING AT WORK 2.2 Implementing customer relationship strategy at Danfoss Marketing department organisation Marketing control Measuring and managing return on marketing THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references 33 34 36 36 40 40 41 42 43 44 46 47 48 52 52 53 54 55 55 57 59 59 60 61 61 64 64 65 67 68 68 PART TWO UNDERSTANDING THE MARKETPLACE AND CONSUMERS 72 Making an effort to understand your customers 73 THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT 74 Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts 74 75 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net viii CONTENTS CASE STUDY The boycott of Arla Foods in the Middle East The company’s microenvironment The company Suppliers Marketing intermediaries Customers Competitors Publics The company’s macroenvironment Demographic environment MARKETING AT WORK 3.1 TOMS shoes: ‘be the change you want to see in the world’ MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Economic environment Natural environment Technological environment MARKETING AT WORK 3.2 The two-edged sword of social media Political environment Cultural environment MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Responding to the marketing environment THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references MANAGING MARKETING INFORMATION Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Visit Scotland! Assessing marketing information needs Developing marketing information Internal data MARKETING AT WORK 4.1 Air France–KLM : flying high with CRM Marketing intelligence Marketing research Defining the problem and research objectives Developing the research plan Gathering secondary data Primary data collection Implementing the research plan Interpreting and reporting the findings MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Analysing marketing information Customer relationship management Distributing and using marketing information MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Other marketing information considerations Marketing research in small businesses and non-profit organisations International marketing research Public policy and ethics in marketing research MARKETING AT WORK 4.2 Doubleplusgood market research THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references CONSUMER AND BUSINESS BUYER BEHAVIOUR Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Airbus A380 A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd 76 78 78 79 79 80 80 80 81 81 84 88 89 92 93 94 97 101 104 104 105 106 106 108 108 109 110 113 114 114 115 119 120 121 121 122 124 131 131 131 131 132 133 134 134 134 135 137 138 141 142 142 146 146 147 148 Consumer markets and consumer buyer behaviour Model of consumer behaviour Characteristics affecting consumer behaviour The buyer decision process MARKETING AT WORK 5.1 Understanding what older consumers want The buyer decision process for new products Consumer behaviour across international borders MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Business markets and business buyer behaviour Business markets MARKETING AT WORK 5.2 GE: building B2B customer partnerships Business buyer behaviour THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references 150 150 151 163 166 168 170 170 171 171 172 174 181 183 183 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMERDRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX 186 Putting marketing into action 187 SEGMENTATION, TARGETING AND POSITIONING: BUILDING THE RIGHT RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE RIGHT CUSTOMERS 188 Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Baltika: segmenting the beer market in Russia and the West Market segmentation Segmenting consumer markets MARKETING AT WORK 6.1 Sebiro – segmentation in men’s clothing Segmenting business markets Segmenting international markets Requirements for effective segmentation MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Target marketing Evaluating market segments Selecting target market segments Socially responsible target marketing MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Positioning for competitive advantage Positioning maps Choosing a positioning strategy MARKETING AT WORK 6.2 Ryanair’s value proposition: less for much less Communicating and delivering the chosen position THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references PRODUCT, SERVICES AND BRANDING STRATEGY Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts 188 189 190 192 192 196 202 203 206 207 207 207 207 212 213 214 214 215 219 222 223 224 224 228 228 229 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net CONTENTS CASE STUDY Alfred Dunhill Ltd: reconciling tradition and innovation in product and brand management What is a product? Products, services and experiences Levels of product and services Product and service classifications Product and service decisions Individual product and service decisions Product line decisions Product mix decisions Branding strategy: building strong brands Brand equity Building strong brands MARKETING AT WORK 7.1 Naming brands: just how much does a name matter? Managing brands MARKETING AT WORK 7.2 Cloon Keen Atelier: developing a premium brand Services marketing Nature and characteristics of a service Marketing strategies for service firms Additional product considerations Product decisions and social responsibility International product and services marketing THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references DEVELOPING NEW PRODUCTS AND MANAGING THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Google: innovation at the speed of light New-product development strategy Idea generation Idea screening Concept development and testing Marketing strategy development Business analysis Product development Test marketing Commercialisation Organising for new-product development MARKETING AT WORK 8.1 Electrolux: cleaning up with customer-centred, team based new-product development MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Product life-cycle strategies Introduction stage Growth stage Maturity stage Decline stage MARKETING AT WORK 8.2 VW and Alfa Romeo: German engineering with Italian chic? THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references 230 232 232 233 234 237 237 243 244 245 245 247 248 254 255 256 257 258 261 261 262 263 265 265 268 268 269 270 271 273 275 275 277 278 278 279 279 280 281 283 283 286 286 286 288 288 292 293 293 PRICING: UNDERSTANDING AND CAPTURING CUSTOMER VALUE 296 Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Primark – the high cost of low prices? 296 297 298 A01_ARMS7518_03_SE_FM.indd What is a price? Factors to consider when setting prices Customer perceptions of value Company and product costs Other internal and external considerations affecting price decisions MARKETING AT WORK 9.1 Rolex: much more than just a watch MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts New-product pricing strategies Market-skimming pricing Market-penetration pricing Product mix pricing strategies Product line pricing Optional-product pricing Captive-product pricing By-product pricing Product bundle pricing Price adjustment strategies Discount and allowance pricing Segmented pricing Psychological pricing MARKETING AT WORK 9.2 Quick, what’s a good price for ? We’ll give you a cue Promotional pricing MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Geographical pricing Dynamic pricing International pricing Price changes Initiating price changes Responding to price changes Public policy and pricing THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Navigating the key terms Notes and references 10 MARKETING CHANNELS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT Chapter objectives THE WAY AHEAD Previewing the concepts CASE STUDY Pinturas Fierro: slow but safe growth Supply chains and the value-delivery network The nature and importance of marketing channels How channel members add value Number of channel levels Channel behaviour and organisation Channel behaviour Vertical marketing systems Horizontal marketing systems Multichannel distribution systems Changing channel organisation MARKETING AT WORK 10.1 Steam-powered marketing: disintermediation in the computer game industry Channel design decisions Analysing consumer needs Setting channel objectives Identifying major alternatives Evaluating the major alternatives Designing international distribution channels Channel management decisions Selecting channel members Managing and motivating channel members Evaluating channel members Public policy and distribution decisions ix 300 301 301 304 306 307 313 314 314 314 315 315 315 316 316 317 317 317 318 319 320 321 322 322 323 324 325 325 327 328 329 330 330 332 332 333 334 336 337 337 338 339 340 341 343 343 344 345 347 347 348 348 349 350 350 350 351 351 352 03/07/15 5:28 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 317 process it into chicken manure pellets for use by farmers or by gardeners General farmyard manure is a highly desirable, natural fertiliser and soil improver which you can buy from any garden centre or agricultural supplier Product bundle pricing Using product bundle pricing, sellers often combine several of their products and offer the bundle at a reduced price For example, fast-food restaurants bundle a burger, fries and a soft drink at a combo price Theatres and sports teams sell season tickets at less than the cost of single tickets Resorts sell specially priced holiday packages that include airfare, accommodations, meals and entertainment And computer makers include attractive software packages with their PCs Price bundling can promote the sales of products that consumers might not otherwise buy, but the combined price must be low enough to get them to buy the bundle.14 PRICE ADJUSTMENT STRATEGIES Companies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations Here we examine the seven price adjustment strategies summarised in Table 9.2: discount and allowance pricing, segmented pricing, psychological pricing, promotional pricing, geographical pricing, dynamic pricing and international pricing Discount and allowance pricing Most companies adjust their basic price to reward customers for certain responses, such as early payment of bills, volume purchases and off-season buying These price adjustments – called discounts and allowances – can take many forms The many forms of discounts include a cash discount, a price reduction to buyers who pay their bills promptly A typical example is ‘2/10, net 30,’ which means that although payment is due within 30 days, the buyer can deduct per cent if the bill is paid within 10 days Utility companies often this with the gas and electricity companies A quantity discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy large volumes Such discounts provide an incentive to the customer to buy more from one given seller, rather than from many different sources A functional discount (also called a trade discount) is offered by the seller to tradechannel members who perform certain functions, such as selling, storing and record keeping A seasonal discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy merchandise or services out of season For example, lawn and garden equipment manufacturers offer seasonal discounts to TABLE 9.2 Price adjustment strategies Strategy Description Discount and allowance pricing Reducing prices to reward customer responses such as paying early or promoting the product Segmented pricing Adjusting prices to allow for differences in customers, products or locations Psychological pricing Adjusting prices for psychological effect Promotional pricing Temporarily reducing prices to increase short-term sales Geographical pricing Adjusting prices to account for the geographical location of customers Dynamic pricing Adjusting prices continually to meet the characteristics and needs of individual customers and situations International pricing Adjusting prices for international markets M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 317 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 318 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX retailers during the autumn and winter months to encourage early ordering in anticipation of the heavy spring and summer selling seasons Seasonal discounts allow the seller to keep production steady during an entire year Allowances are another type of reduction from the list price For example, trade-in allowances are price reductions given for turning in an old item when buying a new one Trade-in allowances are common in the car industry but are also becoming more common with smartphones, which contain valuable elements and components which can be recycled profitably Promotional allowances are payments or price reductions to reward dealers for participating in advertising and sales support programmes Segmented pricing Companies will often adjust their basic prices to allow for differences in customers, products and locations In segmented pricing, the company sells a product or service at two or more prices, even though the difference in prices is not based on differences in costs Segmented pricing takes several forms Under customer-segment pricing, different customers pay different prices for the same product or service Museums, for example, may charge a lower admission for students and for retired people Under product-form pricing, different versions of the product are priced differently but not necessarily according to differences in their costs Using location pricing, a company charges different prices for different locations, even though the cost of offering each location is the same For instance, concert halls vary their seat prices because of audience preferences for certain locations, and UK universities charge higher tuition fees for students from outside the EU Finally, using time pricing, a firm varies its price by the season, the month, the day and even the hour Some public utilities vary their prices to commercial users by time of day and weekend versus weekday Holiday resorts may give weekend and seasonal discounts Rail fares vary – expensive for those travelling to work in the early morning, but cheaper for leisure travellers during the day In the airline industry, segmented pricing is called revenue management The airlines, for example, routinely set prices hour by hour – even minute by minute – depending on seat availability, demand and competitor price changes European air travellers are now used to logging on to a budget airline’s website to get a price for a flight – say, from Frankfurt to Barcelona for a fun weekend – and then, when they check back an hour or two later (or even a minute or two), finding that the price has changed That is the consumer experience of dynamic time pricing in the budget airline industry Segmented pricing: at any given moment, easyJet may have many thousands of prices in the market All of those prices need to be managed, all of the time Source: Alamy Images/G.I Dobner M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 318 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 319 For segmented pricing to be an effective strategy, certain conditions must exist The market must be segmentable and the segments must show different degrees of demand The costs of segmenting and watching the market cannot exceed the extra revenue obtained from the price difference Of course, the segmented pricing must also be legal Most importantly, segmented prices should reflect real differences in customers’ perceived value Otherwise, in the long run, the practice will lead to customer resentment and ill will Psychological pricing Price says something about the product For example, many consumers use price to judge quality A €100 bottle of perfume may contain only €3 worth of scent, but some people are willing to pay the €100 because this price indicates something special In using psychological pricing, sellers consider the psychology of prices and not simply the economics For example, consumers usually associate price with quality; they generally assume that a higher-priced product also offers higher quality When they can judge the quality of a product by examining it or by calling on past experience with it, they use price less to judge quality But when they cannot judge quality because they lack the information or skill, price becomes an important quality signal: Some years ago, Heublein produced Smirnoff, then America’s leading vodka brand Smirnoff was attacked by another brand, Wolfschmidt, which claimed to have the same quality as Smirnoff but was priced at one dollar less per bottle To hold on to market share, Heublein considered either lowering Smirnoff ’s price by one dollar or holding Smirnoff ’s price but increasing advertising and promotion expenditures Either strategy would lead to lower profits and it seemed that Heublein faced a no-win situation At this point, however, Heublein’s marketers thought of a third strategy They raised the price of Smirnoff by one dollar! Heublein then introduced a new brand, Relska, to compete with Wolfschmidt Moreover, it introduced yet another brand, Popov, priced even lower than Wolfschmidt This clever strategy positioned Smirnoff as the elite brand and Wolfschmidt as an ordinary brand, producing a large increase in Heublein’s overall profits The irony is that Heublein’s three brands were pretty much the same in taste and manufacturing costs Heublein knew that a product’s price signals its quality Using price as a signal, Heublein sold roughly the same product at three different quality positions Another aspect of psychological pricing is reference prices – prices that buyers carry in their minds and refer to when looking at a given product The reference price might be formed by noting current prices, remembering past prices or assessing the buying situation Sellers can influence or use these consumers’ reference prices when setting price For example, a company could display its product next to more expensive ones in order to imply that it belongs in the same class Department stores often sell women’s clothing in separate departments differentiated by price: clothing found in the more expensive department is assumed to be of better quality For most purchases, consumers not have all the skill or information they need to figure out whether they are paying a good price They not have the time, ability or inclination to research different brands or stores, compare prices and get the best deals Instead, they may rely on certain cues that signal whether a price is high or low For example, the fact that a product is sold in a prestigious department store might signal that it is worth a higher price Interestingly, such pricing cues are often provided by sellers A retailer might show a high manufacturer’s suggested price next to the marked price, indicating that the product was originally priced much higher Or the retailer might sell a selection of familiar products for which consumers have accurate price knowledge at very low prices, suggesting that the store’s prices on other, less familiar products are low as well The use of such pricing cues has become a common marketing practice (see Marketing at Work 9.2) M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 319 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 320 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX Quick, what’s a good price for . . ? We’ll give you a cue MARKETING AT WORK 9.2 It’s Saturday morning and you stop by your local supermarket to pick up a few items for tonight’s garden barbecue Cruising the aisles, you’re bombarded with price signs, all suggesting that you just can’t beat this store’s deals A kg bag of Heat Beads barbecue briquettes goes for only £3.97 Cans of Heinz Baked Beans are four for £1.86 An aisle display advertises big bags of Walker’s potato crisps at an ‘everyday low price’ of just £1.99 And a sign on top of a huge mass of Coke 10-packs advertises Pricing cues such as sales signs and prices ending in can be effective in two for £5.50 signalling low prices to consumers and increasing sales for the retailer These certainly look like good prices, Source: Getty Images/Tim Boyle but are they? If you’re like most shoppers, you don’t really know In a Harvard Business Review Unfortunately, some retailers not always use such article, two pricing researchers conclude: ‘for most of the signs truthfully Still, consumers trust sale signs Why? items they buy, consumers don’t have an accurate sense ‘Because they are accurate most of the time,’ say the of what the price should be’ In fact, customers often researchers ‘And besides, customers are not that easnot even know what prices they are actually paying In ily fooled.’ They quickly become suspicious when sale one recent study, researchers asked supermarket shopsigns are used improperly pers the price of an item just as they were putting it into ● Prices ending in Just like a sale sign, a at the end their shopping carts Less than half the shoppers gave the of a price often signals a bargain You see such prices right answer everywhere For example, browse the websites of disTo know for sure if you’re paying the best price, you’d counters such as Aldi or Carrefour and you will see have to compare the marked price with past prices, prices that a lot of prices end in ‘In fact, this pricing tactic of competing brands and prices in other stores For most is so common’, say the researchers, ‘you’d think cuspurchases, consumers just not bother Instead, they tomers would ignore it Think again Response to this rely on a most unlikely source ‘Remarkably . . . they pricing cue is remarkable.’ Normally, you’d expect that rely on the retailer to tell them if they’re getting a good demand for an item will fall as the price goes up Yet price,’ say the researchers ‘In subtle and not-so-subtle in one study involving women’s clothing, raising the ways, retailers send signals [or pricing cues] to customers, price of a dress from €34 to €39 increased demand by telling them whether a given price is relatively high or a third By comparison, raising the price from €34 to low.’ In their article, the researchers outline the following €44 yielded no difference in demand common retailer pricing cues: But are prices ending in accurate as pricing cues? ● Sale signs The most straightforward retail pricing cue is ‘The answer varies,’ the researchers report: a sale sign It might take any of several familiar forms: Some retailers reserve prices that end in for ‘Sale!’, ‘Reduced!’, ‘New low price!’, ‘Price after distheir discounted items For instance, J Crew and count!’ or ‘Now two for only . . !’ Such signs can be Ralph Lauren generally use 00-cent endings on very effective in signalling low prices to consumers and regularly priced merchandise and 99-cent endings increasing sales for the retailer The researchers’ studon discounted items Comparisons of prices at ies in retail stores and mail-order catalogues reveal major department stores reveal that this is comthat using the word ‘sale’ beside a price (even without mon, particularly for apparel But at some stores, actually varying the price) can increase demand by prices that end in are a miscue – they are used more than 50 per cent on all products regardless of whether the items are ● While sales sign can be effective, overuse or misuse discounted can damage both the seller’s credibility and its sales M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 320 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING ● Signpost pricing (or loss-leader pricing) Unlike sale signs or prices that end in 9, signpost pricing is used on frequently purchased products about which consumers tend to have accurate price knowledge For example, you probably know a good price on a 10-pack of Coke when you see one New parents usually know how much they should expect to pay for disposable nappies Research suggests that customers use the prices of such ‘signpost’ items to gauge a store’s overall prices If a store has a good price on Coke or Pampers or Persil, they reason, it probably also has good prices on other items Retailers have long known the importance of signpost pricing, often called ‘loss-leader pricing’ They offer selected signpost items at or below cost to pull customers into the store, hoping to make money on the shopper’s other purchases ● Price-matching guarantees Another widely used retail pricing cue is price matching, whereby stores promise to meet or beat any competitor’s price Department store John Lewis, for example, uses ‘Never Knowingly Undersold’ as its catchphrase If you find a better price within 28 days on something you bought at John Lewis, the retailer will refund the difference While this is certainly a promise that John Lewis will fulfil if necessary, it is not a promise that it expects to have to meet very often, because the company monitors prices carefully and always aims to give the lowest local price for every product Evidence suggests that customers perceive that stores offering price-matching guarantees have overall lower prices than competing stores, especially in markets where they perceive price comparisons to be relatively easy But are such perceptions accurate? ‘The evidence is mixed,’ say the researchers Consumers can usually be confident 321 that they will pay the lowest price on eligible items However, some manufacturers make it hard to take advantage of price-matching policies by introducing ‘branded variants’ – slightly different versions of products with different model numbers for different retailers At a broader level, some pricing experts argue that price-matching policies are not really targeted at customers Rather, they may serve as a warning to competitors: ‘If you cut your prices, we will, too.’ If this is true, price-matching policies might actually reduce price competition, leading to higher overall prices Used properly, pricing cues can help consumers Careful buyers really can take advantage of signals such as sale signs, 9-endings, loss leaders and price guarantees to locate good deals Used improperly, however, these pricing cues can mislead consumers, tarnishing a brand and damaging customer relationships The researchers conclude: Customers need price information, just as they need products They look to retailers to provide both Retailers must manage pricing cues in the same way that they manage quality No retailer interested in [building profitable long-term relationships with customers] would purposely offer a defective product Similarly, no retailer who [values customers] would deceive them with inaccurate pricing cues By reliably signalling which prices are low, companies can retain customers’ trust – and [build more solid relationships] Sources: Quotes and other information reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review; excerpt from ‘Mind Your Pricing Cues’ by Eric Anderson and Duncan Simester, September 2003, Copyright © 2003 by the Harvard Business School Corporation; all rights reserved See also Joydeep Srivastava and Nicholas Lurie, ‘Price-Matching Guarantees as Signals of Low Store Prices: Survey and Experimental Evidence’, Journal of Retailing, 80(2), 2004, pp 117–28; and Michael J Barone, Kenneth C Manning and Paul W Minard, ‘Consumer Response to Retailers’ Use of Partially Comparative Pricing’, Journal of Marketing, July 2004, pp 37–47 Even small differences in price can signal product differences Consider a stereo priced at €300 compared with one priced at €299.95 The actual price difference is only cents, but the psychological difference can be much greater For example, some consumers will see the €299.95 as a price in the €200 range rather than the €300 range The €299.95 will more likely be seen as a bargain price, whereas the €300 price suggests more quality Some psychologists argue that each digit has symbolic and visual qualities that should be considered in pricing Thus, is round and even and creates a soothing effect (not to mention being considered lucky by the Chinese), whereas is angular and creates a jarring effect Promotional pricing With promotional pricing, companies will temporarily price their products below list price and sometimes even below cost to create buying excitement and urgency Promotional pricing takes several forms Supermarkets and department stores will price a few products as M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 321 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 322 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX loss leaders to attract customers to the store in the hope that they will buy other items at normal mark-ups For example, supermarkets often sell disposable nappies at less than cost in order to attract family buyers who make larger average purchases per trip Sellers will also use special-event pricing in certain seasons to draw more customers That is why a lot of retailers have post-Christmas sales to attract shoppers back into their stores Manufacturers sometimes offer cash rebates (‘cash back’) to consumers who buy the product from dealers within a specified time; the manufacturer sends the rebate directly to the customer Rebates have been popular with car companies and producers of durable goods and small appliances, but they are also used with consumer packaged goods Some manufacturers offer low-interest financing, longer warranties or free maintenance to reduce the consumer’s ‘price’ This practice has become a favourite of the car industry Or the seller may simply offer discounts from normal prices to increase sales and reduce inventories Promotional pricing, however, can have adverse effects Used too frequently and copied by competitors, price promotions can create ‘deal-prone’ customers who wait until brands go on sale before buying them Or constantly reduced prices can erode a brand’s value in the eyes of customers Marketers sometimes use price promotions as a quick fix instead of working through the difficult process of developing effective longer term strategies for building their brands In fact, one observer notes that price promotions can be addictive for both the company and the customer: ‘Price promotions are the brand equivalent of heroin: easy to get into but hard to get out of Once the brand and its customers are addicted to the short-term high of a price cut it is hard to wean them away to real brand building . . But continue and the brand dies by 1,000 cuts.’15 The frequent use of promotional pricing can also lead to industry price wars Such price wars usually play into the hands of only one or a few competitors – those with the most efficient operations The point is that promotional pricing can be an effective means of generating sales for some companies in certain circumstances But it can be damaging for other companies or if taken as a steady diet MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking the concepts Here’s a good place to take a brief break Think about some of the companies and industries you deal with that are ‘addicted’ to promotional pricing ● Many industries have created ‘deal-prone’ consumers through the heavy use of promotional pricing – fast food, cars, airlines, tyres, furniture and others Pick a company in one of these industries and suggest ways that it might deal with this problem ● How does the concept of value relate to promotional pricing? Does promotional pricing add to or detract from customer value? Geographical pricing A company must also decide how to price its products for customers located in different parts of the country or world Should the company risk losing the business of more distant customers by charging them higher prices to cover the higher shipping costs? Or should the company charge all customers the same prices regardless of location? We will look at five geographical pricing strategies for the following hypothetical situation The Peerless Paper Company is located in Rotterdam, Holland, and sells paper products to customers all over Europe The cost of transport is high and affects the companies from whom customers buy their paper Peerless wants to establish a geographical pricing policy It is trying to determine how to price a €10,000 order to three specific customers: Customer A (Oslo, Norway), Customer B (Milan, Italy) and Customer C (Lisbon, Portugal) M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 322 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 323 One option is for Peerless to ask each customer to pay the shipping cost from the Rotterdam factory to the customer’s location All three customers would pay the same factory price of €10,000, with Customer A paying, say, €100 for shipping; Customer B, €150; and Customer C, €250 Called FOB-origin pricing, this practice means that the goods are placed free on board (hence FOB) a carrier At that point the title and responsibility pass to the customer, who pays the freight from the factory to the destination Because each customer picks up its own cost, supporters of FOB pricing feel that this is the fairest way to assess freight charges The disadvantage, however, is that Peerless will be a high-cost firm to distant customers Uniform-delivered pricing is the opposite of FOB pricing Here, the company charges the same price plus freight to all customers, regardless of their location The freight charge is set at the average freight cost Suppose this is €150 Uniform-delivered pricing therefore results in a higher charge to the Oslo customer (who pays €150 freight instead of €100) and a lower charge to the Lisbon customer (who pays €150 instead of €250) Although the Oslo customer would prefer to buy paper from another local paper company that uses FOBorigin pricing, Peerless has a better chance of winning over the Portuguese customer Other advantages of uniform-delivered pricing are that it is fairly easy to administer and it lets the firm advertise its price internationally Zone pricing falls between FOB-origin pricing and uniform-delivered pricing The company sets up two or more zones All customers within a given zone pay a single total price; the more distant the zone, the higher the price For example, Peerless might set up a Northern Europe zone and charge €100 freight to all customers in this zone, and a Southern Europe zone in which it charges €250 In this way, the customers within a given price zone receive no price advantage from the company For example, customers in Milan and Lisbon pay the same total price to Peerless The complaint, however, is that the Milan customer is paying part of the Lisbon customer’s freight cost Using basing-point pricing, the seller selects a given city as a ‘basing point’ and charges all customers the freight cost from that city to the customer location, regardless of the city from which the goods are actually shipped For example, Peerless might set Paris as the basing point and charge all customers €10,000 plus the freight from Paris to their locations This means that a Rotterdam customer pays the freight cost from Paris to Rotterdam, even though the goods may be shipped from Rotterdam If all sellers used the same basing-point city, delivered prices would be the same for all customers and price competition would be eliminated Industries such as sugar, cement, steel and vehicles used basing-point pricing for years, but this method has become less popular today Some companies set up multiple basing points to create more flexibility: they quote freight charges from the basing-point city nearest to the customer Finally, the seller who is anxious to business with a certain customer or geographical area might use freight-absorption pricing Using this strategy, the seller absorbs all or part of the actual freight charges in order to get the desired business The seller might reason that if it can get more business, its average costs will fall and more than compensate for its extra freight cost Freight-absorption pricing is used for market penetration and to hold onto increasingly competitive markets Dynamic pricing Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers Fixed price policies – setting one price for all buyers – is a relatively modern idea that arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the end of the nineteenth century Today, most prices are set this way However, some companies are now reversing the fixed pricing trend They are using dynamic pricing – adjusting prices continually to meet the characteristics and needs of individual customers and situations For example, think about how the Internet has affected pricing From the mostly fixed pricing practices of the past century, the Web seems now to be taking us back into a new age M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 323 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 324 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX of fluid pricing The flexibility of the Internet allows web sellers instantly and constantly to adjust prices on a wide range of goods based on demand dynamics (sometimes called realtime pricing) In other cases, customers control pricing by bidding on auction sites such as eBay or negotiating on sites such as Priceline Still other companies customise their offers based on the characteristics and behaviours of specific customers.16 Dynamic pricing offers many advantages for marketers For example, Internet sellers such as Amazon (through its com and national web addresses in Europe) can mine their databases to gauge a specific shopper’s desires, measure his or her means, instantaneously tailor products to fit that shopper’s behaviour, and price products accordingly Many direct marketers monitor inventories, costs and demand at any given moment and adjust prices instantly For example, Dell uses dynamic pricing to achieve real-time balancing of supply and demand for computer components Buyers also benefit from the Web and dynamic pricing A wealth of websites – such as PriceRunner, Ciao, ShopGenie and shopzilla – give instant product and price comparisons from thousands of vendors For example, Ciao (www.ciao.de in Germany, www.ciao.fr in France, www.ciao.co.uk in the UK, www.ciao.es in Spain, and so on) lets shoppers browse by category or search for specific products and brands It then searches the Web and reports back links to sellers offering the best prices In addition to simply finding the vendor with the best price, customers armed with price information can often negotiate lower prices Buyers can also negotiate prices at online auction sites and exchanges Suddenly the centuries-old art of haggling is back in vogue Want to sell that antique pickle jar that’s been collecting dust for generations? Post it on eBay, the world’s biggest online flea market Want to name your own price for a hotel room or hire car? Visit Priceline (www.priceline.de in Germany, www.priceline.fr in France, www.priceline.co.uk in the UK, www.priceline.es in Spain, and so on) or another reverse auction site International pricing Companies that market their products internationally must decide what prices to charge in the different countries in which they operate In some cases, a company can set a uniform worldwide price For example, Boeing sells its aircraft at about the same price everywhere, whether in the USA, Europe or a Third World country However, most companies adjust their prices to reflect local market conditions and cost considerations The price that a company should charge in a specific country depends on many factors, including economic conditions, competitive situations, laws and regulations, and development of the wholesaling and retailing system Consumer perceptions and preferences also may vary from country to country, calling for different prices Or the company may have different marketing objectives in various world markets, which require changes in pricing strategy For example, Samsung might introduce a new product into mature markets in highly developed countries with the goal of quickly gaining mass-market share – this would call for a penetration pricing strategy In contrast, it might enter a less developed market by targeting smaller, less price-sensitive segments; in this case, market-skimming pricing makes sense Costs play an important role in setting international prices Travellers abroad are often surprised to find that goods that are relatively inexpensive at home may carry outrageously higher price-tags in other countries A pair of Levi’s jeans might sell for €90 in Paris and only €30 in New York A McDonald’s Big Mac selling for a modest €2.90 in the USA might cost €6.00 in Reykjavik, Iceland, and an Oral-B toothbrush selling for €2.49 in the UK may cost €10 in China Conversely, a Gucci handbag going for only €140 in Milan, Italy, might fetch €240 in the USA In some cases, such price escalation may result from differences in selling strategies or market conditions In most instances, however, it is simply a result of the higher costs of selling in another country – the additional costs of product modifications, shipping and insurance, import tariffs and taxes, exchange-rate fluctuations and physical distribution M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 324 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 325 Price has become a key element in the international marketing strategies of companies attempting to enter emerging markets, such as China, India and Brazil Consider Unilever’s pricing strategy for developing countries: There used to be one way to sell a product in developing markets, if you bothered to sell there at all: slap on a local label and market at premium prices to the elite Unilever – maker of such brands as Dove, Lipton and Vaseline – changed that Instead, it built a following among the world’s poorest consumers by shrinking packages to set a price even consumers living on $2 a day could afford The strategy was forged about 25 years ago when Unilever’s Indian subsidiary found its products out of reach for millions of Indians To lower the price while making a profit, Unilever developed single-use packets for everything from shampoo to laundry detergent, costing just pennies a pack The small, affordable packages put the company’s premier brands within reach of the world’s poor Today, Unilever continues to woo cash-strapped customers with great success For example, its approachable pricing helps explain why Unilever now captures 70 per cent of the Brazil detergent market.17 Thus, international pricing presents some special problems and complexities We discuss international pricing issues in more detail later (see Chapter 15) PRICE CHANGES After developing their pricing structures and strategies, companies often face situations in which they must initiate price changes or respond to price changes by competitors Initiating price changes In some cases, the company may find it desirable to initiate either a price cut or a price increase In both cases, it must anticipate possible buyer and competitor reactions Initiating price cuts Several situations may lead a firm to consider cutting its price One such circumstance is excess capacity Another is falling market share in the face of strong price competition In such cases, the firm may aggressively cut prices to boost sales and share But as the airline, fastfood and other industries have learned in recent years, cutting prices in an industry loaded with excess capacity may lead to price wars as competitors try to hold onto market share A company may also cut prices in a drive to dominate the market through lower costs Either the company starts with lower costs than its competitors, or it cuts prices in the hope of gaining market share that will further cut costs through larger volume Dell has used this strategy effectively in the PC market Initiating price increases A successful price increase can greatly increase profits For example, if the company’s profit margin is per cent of sales, a per cent price increase will increase profits by 33 per cent if sales volume is unaffected A major factor in price increases is cost inflation Rising costs squeeze profit margins and lead companies to pass cost increases along to customers Another factor leading to price increases is over-demand: when a company cannot supply all that its customers need, it may raise its prices, ration products to customers, or both When raising prices, the company must avoid being perceived as a price gouger Customers have long memories, and they will eventually turn away from companies or even whole industries that they perceive as charging excessive prices There are some techniques for avoiding this problem One is to maintain a sense of fairness surrounding any price increase Price increases should be supported by company communications telling customers why M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 325 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 326 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX prices are being raised Making low-visibility price moves first is also a good technique: some examples include dropping discounts, increasing minimum order sizes, and curtailing production of low-margin products The company sales force should help business customers find ways to economise Wherever possible, the company should consider ways to meet higher costs or demand without raising prices For example, it can consider more cost-effective ways to produce or distribute its products It can shrink the product or substitute less expensive ingredients instead of raising the price, as candy bar manufacturers often Or it can ‘unbundle’ its market offering, removing features, packaging or services and separately pricing elements that were formerly part of the offer IBM, for example, now offers training and consulting as separately priced services Buyer reactions to price changes Customers not always interpret price changes in a straightforward way They may view a price cut in several ways For example, what would customers think if Chanel No perfume, for which ‘la feminité est intemporelle’ (‘femininity is timeless’), were to cut its price in half? Or what if Sony suddenly cut its PC prices drastically? You might think that the computers are about to be replaced by newer models or that they have some fault and are not selling well You might think that Sony is abandoning the computer business and may not stay in this business long enough to supply future parts You might believe that quality has been reduced Or you might think that the price will come down even further and that it will pay to wait and see Similarly, a price increase, which would normally lower sales, may have some positive meanings for buyers What would you think if Sony raised the price of its latest PC model? On the one hand, you might think that the item is very ‘hot’ and may be unobtainable unless you buy it soon Or you might think that the computer is an unusually good performer On the other hand, you might think that Sony is greedy and charging what the market will bear Competitor reactions to price changes A firm considering a price change has to worry about the reactions of its competitors as well as those of its customers Competitors are most likely to react when the number of firms involved is small, when the product is uniform and when the buyers are well informed about products and prices How can the firm anticipate the likely reactions of its competitors? The problem is complex because, like the customer, the competitor can interpret a company price cut in many ways It might think the company is trying to grab a larger market share, or that it is doing A high price adds to the aura of exclusivity associated with prestigious brands such as Chanel Source: Getty Images/ WirelImage M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 326 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 327 poorly and trying to boost its sales Or it might think that the company wants the whole industry to cut prices to increase total demand The company must guess each competitor’s likely reaction If all competitors behave alike, this amounts to analysing only a typical competitor In contrast, if the competitors not behave alike – perhaps because of differences in size, market shares or policies – then separate analyses are necessary However, if some competitors will match the price change, there is good reason to expect that the rest will also match it Responding to price changes Here we reverse the question and ask how a firm should respond to a price change by a competitor The firm needs to consider several issues: Why did the competitor change the price? Is the price change temporary or permanent? What will happen to the company’s market share and profits if it does not respond? Are other competitors going to respond? Besides these issues, the company must also consider its own situation and strategy and possible customer reactions to price changes Figure 9.5 shows the ways a company might assess and respond to a competitor’s price cut Suppose the company learns that a competitor has cut its price and decides that this price cut is likely to harm company sales and profits It might simply decide to hold its current price and profit margin The company might believe that it will not lose too much market share, or that it would lose too much profit if it reduced its own price Or it might decide that it should wait and respond when it has more information on the effects of the competitor’s price change However, waiting too long to act might let the competitor get stronger and more confident as its sales increase If the company decides that effective action can and should be taken, it might make any of four responses First, it could reduce its price to match the competitor’s price It may decide that the market is price sensitive and that it would lose too much market share to the lower-priced competitor Cutting the price will reduce the company’s profits in the short term Some companies might also reduce their product quality, services and marketing communications to retain profit margins, but this will ultimately hurt long-term market share The company should try to maintain its quality as it cuts prices Alternatively, the company might maintain its price but raise the perceived value of its offer It could improve its communications, stressing the relative value of its product over that of the lower-priced competitor The firm may find it cheaper to maintain price and spend money to improve its perceived value than to cut price and operate at a lower margin FIGURE 9.5 Assessing and responding to competitor price changes M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 327 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 328 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX Or the company might improve quality and increase price, moving its brand into a higher price–value position The higher quality creates greater customer value which justifies the higher price In turn, the higher price preserves the company’s higher margins Finally, the company might launch a low-price ‘fighting brand’ – adding a lower-priced item to the line or creating a separate lower-priced brand This is necessary if the particular market segment being lost is price sensitive and will not respond to arguments of higher quality PUBLIC POLICY AND PRICING Price competition is a core element of a free market economy In setting prices, companies are not usually free to charge whatever prices they wish Many European and national laws govern the rules of fair play in pricing In addition, companies must consider broader societal pricing concerns Legislation is in place in all of the world’s major economies to prohibit anti-competitive pricing practices For example, in Europe the most important legislation affecting pricing is Article 81 of the EU Treaty Figure 9.6 shows the major public policy issues in pricing These include potentially damaging pricing practices within a given level of the channel (price fixing and predatory pricing) and across levels of the channel (retail price maintenance, discriminatory pricing and deceptive pricing).18 In the EU, anti-competitive business practices are prohibited by Article 81 of the EU Treaty: The following shall be prohibited as incompatible with the common market: all agreements between undertakings, decisions by associations of undertakings and concerted practices which may affect trade between Member States and which have as their object or effect the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition within the common market, and in particular those which: a b c d directly or indirectly fix purchase or selling prices or any other trading conditions; limit or control production, markets, technical development, or investment; share markets or sources of supply; apply dissimilar conditions to equivalent transactions with other trading parties, thereby placing them at a competitive disadvantage; e make the conclusion of contracts subject to acceptance by the other parties of supplementary obligations which, by their nature or according to commercial usage, have no connection with the subject of contracts.19 The aim of Article 81 is to promote free competition and free trade throughout the EU Many member states have their own further legislation to prevent anti-competitive practices in general and unfair pricing practices specifically FIGURE 9.6 Public policy issues in pricing Source: Reprinted with permission from Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, published by the American Marketing Association, L.D Compeau and D Grewel, ‘Pricing and Public Policy: A Research Agenda and Overview of Special Issue’, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Spring 1999, pp. 3–10, Figure M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 328 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 329 THE JOURNEY YOU’VE TAKEN Reviewing the concepts Before you leave pricing behind, let’s review the important concepts Price can be defined as the sum of all the values that customers give up in order to gain the benefits of having or using a product or service Pricing decisions are subject to an incredibly complex array of company, environmental and competitive forces Discuss the importance of understanding customer value perceptions and company costs when setting prices Good pricing begins with a complete understanding of the value that a product or service creates for customers and setting a price the captures that value The price the company charges will fall somewhere between one that is too high to produce any demand and one that is too low to produce a profit Customer perceptions of the product’s value set the ceiling for prices If customers perceive that the price is greater than the product’s value, they will not buy the product At the other extreme, company and product costs set the floor for prices If the company prices the product below its costs, its profits will suffer Costs are an important consideration in setting prices However, cost-based pricing is product driven The company designs what it considers to be a good product and sets a price that covers costs plus a target profit If the price turns out to be too high, the company must settle for lower mark-ups or lower sales, both resulting in disappointing profits Value-based pricing reverses this process The company sets its target price based on customer perceptions of the product value The targeted value and price then drive decisions about product design and what costs can be incurred As a result, pricing begins with analysing customer needs and value perceptions, and price is set to match customers’ perceived value Identify and define the other important external and internal factors affecting a firm’s pricing decisions Other internal factors that influence pricing decisions include the company’s overall marketing strategy, objectives, mix and organisation for pricing Price is only one element of the company’s broader marketing strategy If the company has selected its target market and positioning carefully, then its marketing mix strategy, including price, will be fairly straightforward Some companies position their products on price and then tailor other marketing mix decisions to the prices they want to charge M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 329 Other companies de-emphasise price and use other marketing mix tools to create non-price positions Common pricing objectives might include survival, current profit maximisation, market-share leadership, or customer retention and relationship building Price decisions must be coordinated with product design, distribution and promotion decisions to form a consistent and effective marketing programme Finally, in order to coordinate pricing goals and decisions, management must decide who within the organisation is responsible for setting price Other external pricing considerations include the nature of the market and demand, competitors’ strategies and prices, and environmental factors such as the economy, reseller needs and government actions The seller’s pricing freedom varies with different types of markets Ultimately, the customer decides whether the company has set the right price The customer weighs the price against the perceived values of using the product – if the price exceeds the sum of the values, consumers will not buy So the company must understand concepts like demand curves (the price–demand relationship) and price elasticity (consumer sensitivity to prices) Consumers also compare a product’s price with the prices of competitors’ products A company therefore must learn the customer value and prices of competitors’ offers Describe the major strategies for pricing imitative and new products Pricing is a dynamic process Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through its life cycle In pricing innovative new products, it can follow a skimming policy by initially setting high prices to ‘skim’ the maximum amount of revenue from various segments of the market Or it can use penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to penetrate the market deeply and win a large market share Explain how companies find a set of prices that maximises the profits from the total product mix When the product is part of a product mix, the firm searches for a set of prices that will maximise the profits from the total mix In product line pricing, the company decides on price steps for the entire set of products it offers In addition, the company must set 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net 330 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX prices for optional products (optional or accessory products included with the main product), captive products (products that are required for use of the main product), by-products (waste or residual products produced when making the main product) and product bundles (combinations of products at a reduced price) Discuss how companies adjust their prices to take into account different types of customers and situations Companies apply a variety of price adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations One is discount and allowance pricing, whereby the company establishes cash, quantity, functional or seasonal discounts or varying types of allowances A second strategy is segmented pricing, whereby the company sells a product at two or more prices to accommodate different customers, product forms, locations or times Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions, using psychological pricing to better communicate a product’s intended position In promotional pricing, a company offers discounts or temporarily sells a product below list price as a special event, sometimes even selling below cost as a loss leader Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price to near and distant customers Dynamic pricing involves adjusting prices continually to meet the characteristics and needs of individual customers and situations Finally, international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet conditions and expectations in different world markets Discuss the key issues related to initiating and responding to price changes When a firm considers initiating a price change, it must consider customers’ and competitors’ reactions There are different implications to initiating price cuts and initiating price increases Buyer reactions to price changes are influenced by the meaning customers see in the price change Competitors’ reactions flow from a set reaction policy or a fresh analysis of each situation There are also many factors to consider in responding to a competitor’s price changes The company that faces a price change initiated by a competitor must try to understand the competitor’s intent as well as the likely duration and impact of the change If a swift reaction is desirable, the firm should pre-plan its reactions to different possible price actions by competitors When facing a competitor’s price change, the company might sit tight, reduce its own price, raise perceived value, improve quality and raise price, or launch a fighting brand NAVIGATING THE KEY TERMS Allowances 318 Break-even pricing 305 By-product pricing 316 Captive-product pricing 316 Cost-plus pricing 305 Demand curve 311 Discount 317 Dynamic pricing 323 Fixed costs 305 Geographical pricing 322 Good value pricing 303 Market-penetration pricing 314 Market-skimming pricing 314 Optional-product pricing 315 Price 300 Price elasticity 312 Product bundle pricing 317 Product line pricing 315 Promotional pricing 321 Psychological pricing 319 Reference prices 319 Segmented pricing 318 Target costing 307 Target profit pricing 305 Total costs 305 Value-added pricing 303 Value-based pricing 301 Variable costs 305 NOTES AND REFERENCES Thomas T Nagle and Reed K Holden, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing, 4th edn (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005), ch Information obtained online at http://corporate.walmart.com/our-story, accessed January 2014 Information obtained online at http://franchisor.ikea.com, accessed May 2007 A Hinterhuber, ‘Towards Value-Based Pricing – An Integrative Framework for Decision Making’, Industrial Marketing Management, 33, 2004, pp 765–78 M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 330 02/07/15 5:17 pm www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER PRICING 331 Based on information from Anne Marie Chaker, ‘For a Steinway, I Did It My Way’, The Wall Street Journal, 22 May 2008; also www.steinway.com/steinway and www.steinway com/steinway/quotes.shtml, accessed November 2009 Erin Stout, ‘Keep Them Coming Back for More’, Sales & Marketing Management, February 2002, pp 51–2 See also Hinterhuber, ‘Towards Value-Based Pricing – An Integrative Framework for Decision Making’, op cit., pp 765ff; and Helen Atkinson, ‘Adding New Value’, Traffic World, 28 March 2005, pp 18–22 Extract from www.miele.co.uk, accessed January 2014 Information from www.which.co.uk, accessed 19 July 2011 See the Financial Times story: ‘France Targets Amazon to Protect Bookshops’ at FT.com 10 Ryan McCarthy, ‘Pricing: How Low Can You Go?’ Inc., March 2009, pp 91–2 11 Kenneth Hein, ‘Study: Trumps Price among Shoppers,’ Brandweek, March 2009, p 12 See Brian Chen, ‘WWDC: Apple Slashes Prices with iPhone 3G, Shipping in July’, June 2008, accessed at www.macworld.com/article/133838/2008/06/iphone3g.html; and Olga Kharif, ‘Can Apple Keep a Shine on the iPhone?’ BusinessWeek Online, 18 March 2009, accessed at www.businessweek.com 13 Michael Buettner, ‘Charleston, S.C.-Based Asphalt Innovations Turns Waste into Helpful Product’, Knight Ridder Tribune Business News, 18 October 2004, p 14 See Nagle and Hogan, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing, 4th edn (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2007), pp 244–7; Bram Foubert and Els Gijsbrechts, ‘Shopper Response to Bundle Promotions for Packaged Goods’, Journal of Marketing Research, November 2007, pp 647–62; Roger M Heeler et al., ‘Bundles = Discount? Revisiting Complex Theories of Bundle Effects’, Journal of Product & Brand Management, 16(7), 2007, pp 492–500; and Timothy J Gilbride et al., ‘Framing Effects in Mixed Price Bundling’, Marketing Letters, June 2008, pp 125–40 15 Tim Ambler, ‘Kicking Price Promotion Habit Is Like Getting Off Heroin – Hard’, Marketing, 27 May 1999, p 24 See also Robert Gray, ‘Driving Sales at Any Price?’, Marketing, 11 April 2002, p 24; Lauren Kellere Johnson, ‘Dueling Pricing Strategies’, MIT Sloan Management Review, Spring 2003, pp 10–11; and Peter R Darke and Cindy M.Y Chung, ‘Effects of Pricing and Promotion on Consumer Perceptions: It Depends on How You Frame It’, Journal of Retailing, 2005, pp 35–47 16 Louise Story, ‘Online Pitches Made Just for You’, New York Times, March 2008 17 Based on information found in ‘The World’s Most Influential Companies: Unilever’, BusinessWeek, 22 December 2008, p 47; and www.unilever.com/sustainability/people/consumers/ affordability/, accessed June 2009 18 For discussions of these issues, see Dhruv Grewel and Larry D Compeau, ‘Pricing and Public Policy: A Research Agenda and Overview of Special Issue’, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Spring 1999, pp 3–10; and Michael V Marn, Eric V Roegner and Craig C Zawada, The Price Advantage (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004), Appendix 19 Information online at http://europa.eu, accessed 20 July 2011 M09_ARMS7518_03_SE_C09.indd 331 02/07/15 5:17 pm ... 93 94 97 10 1 10 4 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 6 10 8 10 8 10 9 11 0 11 3 11 4 11 4 11 5 11 9 12 0 12 1 12 1 12 2 12 4 13 1 13 1 13 1 13 1 13 2 13 3 13 4 13 4 13 4 13 5 13 7 13 8 14 1 14 2 14 2 14 6 14 6 14 7 14 8 Consumer markets and consumer... Notes and references 15 0 15 0 15 1 16 3 16 6 16 8 17 0 17 0 17 1 17 1 17 2 17 4 18 1 18 3 18 3 PART THREE DESIGNING A CUSTOMERDRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY AND MARKETING MIX 18 6 Putting marketing into action 18 7... AT WORK 1. 2 Metaphors in marketing A 01_ ARMS7 518 _03_SE_FM.indd 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 17 19 19 20 20 22 24 25 25 26 26 28 28 28 29 29 30 31 So, what is marketing? Pulling it all