Cruise operations management hospitality perspectives, third edition

This third edition has been updatedto include: • New content on: health, safety and security, sustainability, environmentalimpacts of cruise operations, changing and emerging markets, pr

Since the last edition of this book was published, there have been manyimportant developments in the industry This third edition has been updated

to include:

• New content on: health, safety and security, sustainability, environmentalimpacts of cruise operations, changing and emerging markets, profession-alism and talent management, innovation and digital technologies

• A new chapter on‘Leadership in the cruise industry’

• New international case studies throughout to provide a real-world insightinto the industry

• Additional online resources, including PowerPoint slides for instructorsand student quizzes to test knowledge

This comprehensive, accessible and engaging text is essential reading for allthose seeking to study cruise operations management whether for academic

or vocational reasons

Philip Gibson is currently a Visiting Research Fellow at the University ofPlymouth having recently retired as the Academic Director of the UniversityHotel School and Associate Head of School (Teaching and Learning) Heintroduced the BSc (Hons) Cruise Management in 2003 and was also thedriving force in developing the University Hotel School

Richard Parkman is a lecturer in leadership and programme leader for the BSc(Hons) Cruise Management at the University of Plymouth He is also theprogramme leader for Hospitality, Tourism and Cruise Management pro-grammes for HKU SPACE in Hong Kong and the Regional DevelopmentManager for the University of Plymouth

This page intentionally left blank

Cruise Operations Management

Hospitality Perspectives

Third Edition

Philip Gibson and Richard Parkman

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2019 Philip Gibson and Richard Parkman

The right of Philip Gibson and Richard Parkman to be identi fied as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,

or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including

photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or

retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi fication and

explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Routledge 2006

Second edition published by Routledge 2012

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gibson, Philip, 1955- author.

Title: Cruise operations mangement : hospitality perspectives /

Philip Gibson and Richard Parkman.

Description: Third Edition | New York : Routledge, 2019 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identi fiers: LCCN 2018022045 (print) | LCCN 2018030182 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315146485 (Master ebook) | ISBN 9781351379540 (Web PDF) | ISBN 9781351379533 (ePUB) | ISBN 9781351379526

(Mobipocket) | ISBN 9781138505162 (hardback : alk paper) |

ISBN 9781138505179 (paperback : alk paper) | ISBN 9781315146485 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Ocean travel Management | Cruise

by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd.

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/gibson

The elements of cruising 1

A history of cruising 8

The image of cruising 12

The cruise market 21

Acquisitions and mergers 21

Cruise brands 22

The economics of cruising 26

Summary and conclusion 27

The market 32

Cruise operators 33

The travel agent 35

Marketing actions and alliances 36

Wellness– including spa, beauty therapy and haircare 53

Shops 53

Photography 55

Casinos 55

Weddings, renewals of vows and celebratory items 57

Brand values and vessel classification 57

Summary and conclusion 62

The shipping industry 65

The legal environment 68

Ship nationality, registration andflag 68

Marine pollution 70

Safety of Life at Sea 72

Sanitation and cleanliness 75

Tourists and climate 88

Cruise ports by type 88

Primary cruising regions: the Caribbean 90

Primary cruising regions: Europe and the Mediterranean 97

Primary cruising regions: North America 106

Primary cruising regions: Asia, Oceania and the South Pacific 110

Other cruise destinations 114

Summary and conclusion 116

What is a cruise destination? 129

What makes a good port of call? 130

Analysis and evaluation 132

6 Working on board 160The roles and responsibilities on a cruise ship 160

The management of hotel services 164

The shipboard culture: managing a multicultural crew 168

Working on board: practical considerations 172

Service and quality 181

Quality for products and services 184

Operations and management 185

Managing guest services 189

Information 189

Influences on guest services: tipping 191

The human side of service quality 193

Guest service systems for cruise companies 193

Demography, profiles of cruise guests and specific

needs 194

Providing guest service 195

What is good practice for guest service? 196

Orientation for guest service 196

Summary and conclusion 199

The provision of food and drink on board 201

Supplies and services 202

Food production and service delivery systems 204

Organising people, products, processes, premises and

plant 215

Guest demands and operational capabilities 217

Control actions for food and drink operations 219

Planning wine lists 220

Food safety, health and safety and consumer protection 224

Summary and conclusion 230

Revenue or yield management 232

Costs, sales and markets 234

Administering accommodation 235

Aesthetics and ergonomics 236

Contents

Accommodation systems 238

Work schedules and routines 239

Dry dock 242

Environmental issues 243

Summary and conclusion 252

Summary and conclusion 272

Talent and training 275

Learning and motivation 289

Summary and conclusion 295

The context of leading on cruise ships 299

Leadership and management 301

Leadership theories 304

Emotional intelligence 305

Emotional labour 308

Surface acting and deep acting 309

Leading with emotions 310

Situational leadership 311

Leader–member exchange theory 312

Transformational leadership 315

Work communities and cultural communities at sea 315

Formal power structure hierarchies and community-based power 317Team leadership 320

Contents

Working and leading on board cruise ships– common influencing

factors 321

Summary and conclusion 324

Researching graduate employment on cruise ships 330

Research planning 330

Results andfindings 332

Implications 335

Developing an understanding of the cruise environment 336

The purser’s office and integrated practice 337

Summary and conclusion 358

A consideration of resources 360

Conclusion 375

Contents

2.1 The guest’s interface with the cruise company 38

4.6 Oceania and the South Pacific 111

6.4 Sous chefs on board Ventura undertaking a cookery

Figures

11.2 Safety drills 28211.3 The‘circumstantial curriculum’: an integrated theory of learning 290

12.4 Common elements of cruise ship work– influencing factors 32213.1 University of Plymouth BSc (Hons) Cruise Operations Manage-

Figures

1.1 Terminology found in the shipping and cruise industry 41.2 Market penetration rates 2016 expressed as a percentage of

1.7 Spaces per passenger and ratios passengers to crew 11

3.2 CLIA cruise industry waste management: practices and

3.3 Safety oversight undertaken by the US Coast Guard 74

4.9 Asia, Oceania and South Pacific destination facts 114

Tables

2.1 Carnival UK: generating competitive advantage 60

6.4 Victoria, Hotel Services Consultant, Carnival UK 1788.1 The executive corporate chef and menu planning 2268.2 Ross, Food and Drink Assistant Manager, Carnival UK 2289.1 Managing accommodation on a Grand-class ship 244

11.2 Emma, formerly of Carnival UK and BSc Cruise Management

13.8 Ben, BSc (Hons) Cruise Management student on work

Cruise Operations Management: Hospitality Perspectives is the third edition ofthe Cruise Operations Management series thatfirst appeared in 2006 Origin-ally designed as a book to accompany the introduction of the BSc (Hons)Cruise Management at the University of Plymouth, the book has gone on tohelp aspiring cruise officers and students of the cruise industry to make sense

of this complex and very different employment area

This new textbook stays true to its original focus as a vocational textbookpredominantly for those seeking employment in the cruise industry Allchapters have been updated and developed with an international reader inmind, and a number of new case studies have been included that give thereader an opportunity to reflect on real-world challenges in the context of theindustry There is a new chapter on‘Leadership in the Cruise Industry’ written

by my co-author Richard Parkman, which is based on information he hascollected while completing his PhD

Contemporary topics that are addressed in various parts of the book are:

• The scale of new-build ships and their impact on destinations

• Leadership challenges post Costa Concordia

• Professionalism and talent management

• Innovation

• Service quality and consistency

• Competition– the major corporations and new entrants

• Flags of convenience

• Environmental issues

• Social media and digital technologies

• Ethics and public perception of the industry

The book is also suitable to support teachers or lecturers who wish toaddress this subject area Where appropriate, chapters include case studytasks and chapter exercises or chapter questions that can be used to checklearning, develop understanding or to highlight key issues They are con-structed to be at various levels so as to suit particular learning needs

In order to write this book, I have interviewed a very large number of cruiseindustry professionals from cabin stewards to captains and chief executives tonewly appointed junior managers Many of the contributors of material forthe book are my former students and I am very grateful to them for all theirsupport and gracious donation of their time and knowledge It is great to see

so many of them carving out successful careers with the help of their degree I

am particularly grateful to Ovi Herman, the Manager of Guest Operationswith Princess Cruises and formerly Manager of Guest Relations at CelebrityCruises, for his advice and guidance and to Chris Lodge, the Learning andDevelopment Director at Carnival UK, for his support

I would also like to thank my wife Carol who, like myself, was a formerassistant purser on the P&O Cruise ship Oriana (almost 40 years ago!) and hashelped to get the book ready by proofreading and providing very welcomefeedback Finally I’d like to thank my former colleague Richard Parkman forhis help and in contributing a chapter to the book and wish him the very bestwith developing cruise education at the University of Plymouth

Philip Gibson

The world of cruising is in a constant state of evolution, driven mainly but notexclusively by large corporations and reflecting changes to the wellbeing ofsocieties globally In many ways the industry is a barometer for the world’spolitical and economic health in that cruises are targeted at those marketswhich show opportunity and potential, and consequently ships are deployed

to visit countries that are perceived to be safe and guest friendly

Despite the passage of time since the first edition of this book was lished, there remains a deficit of literature focusing on contextualised opera-tional management on board cruise ships In part, this is because the industryhas undergone a quiet renaissance over the last three decades, steadilyincreasing in scale and scope without the fanfare and academic attentionthat accompanies land-based tourist activities This growth has come aboutbecause of the regulatory advantages presented to companies that trade onthe high seas and because of the constantly evolving market for cruising.This book is set in this multicultural context of business opportunism andreflects predominantly on the operational hotel aspects of the industry It isthe third edition of the Cruise Operations series and is designed to beaccessible for a wide range of students who are interested in finding outabout this intriguing world The first edition of the book was intended tosupport the introduction of a new undergraduate degree programme at theUniversity of Plymouth in the United Kingdom and, while this edition alsoholds true to that aim, it is also of use to those seeking to study the industrywhether for academic or vocational reasons

pub-Each chapter is designed to delve into aspects of the industry that would berelevant to a student who might be seeking to work in the hotel department

of a cruise ship In order to develop understanding of this context, it ispossible to view the book as having three distinct parts The first part is allabout the context and the market Chapter 1 addresses broad issues concern-ing the cruise market as an industry together with a discussion about origins.Chapter 2 considers sales and cruise products Chapter 3 describes the industry

and reflects on the regulatory aspects that impact maritime operations after, Chapter 4 examines cruise geography and Chapter 5 highlights itineraryplanning issues.

There-The book continues by considering the second part concerning operationalaspects in detail starting with Chapter 6 which provides details about working

on board Chapter 7 then discusses customer service as a core discipline Otheroperational aspects such as managing food and drink and managing facilitiesare analysed in Chapters 8 and 9 respectively Chapter 10 develops a morecomprehensive overview of the vital issues of health, safety and security bybuilding on those parts of Chapter 3 thatfirst identified the challenges.Thefinal part is made up of four chapters that create a synthesis for thebook by firstly examining talent management and training issues in Chapter

11 A new chapter on leadership in the cruise industry appears as Chapter 12.Chapter 13 considers a broad range of research or case studies that can beused to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the cruise context.The final chapter, Chapter 14, provides a useful list of key resources for thereader

The book doesn’t claim to be a compendium of knowledge for all readers,and the authors are aware that there will be some claims that may goinstantly out of date, but that is the nature of all knowledge and this text-book is intended to add to the body of work for this subject area and be ofuse to the target readership

Introduction

This page intentionally left blank

reflecting on the economics of cruising.

The elements of cruising

Mancini (2011, p 3) believes that the definition of a cruise is best stated asbeing ‘a vacation trip by ship’ However, this brief and unassuming phraseavoids identifying the broad range of variety that is encompassed by today’scruise industry– contemporary cruises, traditional cruises, adventure or expedi-tion cruises, world cruises, coastal cruises, repositioning cruises, ferry cruises,river cruises and cruise conferences There are universities at sea for people withmotivation to learn, cruise ships fitted out with apartments, themed cruises,cruises to nowhere, short break cruises, luxury cruises, budget cruises – thevariations are extremely diverse

The legal definition of a cruise ship in the United States (Cornell Law, 2017) is:

‘a passenger vessel over 100 gross tons, carrying more than 12 passengers forhire, making a voyage lasting more than 24 hours any part of which is on the

high seas, and for which passengers are embarked or disembarked in the UnitedStates or its territories’ In Europe, the definition is worded differently (Depart-ment for Transport, 2016):‘a “cruise” means a transport service by sea or inlandwaterway, operated exclusively for the purpose of pleasure or recreation, sup-plemented by accommodation and other facilities, exceeding two overnightstays on board.’

Papathanassis and Beckmann (2011) identified, from an academic discipline,that cruise business activities can fall under the guise of maritime tourism,cruise tourism or indeed maritime leisure The focus of this textbook ispragmatic in that it seeks to provide graduates or entry-level managers withinsights into the cruise industry so they can study the complexities of thisworld for employment or research reasons Therefore, this focus reflects ahospitality and tourism-oriented world view to portray the professional,customer-specific aspects of operating a cruise ship

The cruise industry has grown and continues to grow enormously in scale It isfrequently regarded as being a small but significant sector in the tourism industry(Lück, Maher, & Stewart, 2010) While the term‘sector’ fits well when consider-ing the cruise business in comparison with, for example, land-based packagetourism, it is insufficient when recognising its inherent qualities and attributes,which support the claim that this is an industry in its own right In many respects

it is helpful to consider some of the evidence that supports this claim within thisintroduction, but readers will be able to make a more informed judgementhaving read the whole book

The four Cs– culture, contracts, context and community – are presented as aparadigm to highlight factors that categorise the cruise business as an industry (seeFigure 1.1) As is the case for many industries, the boundaries between the cruiseindustry and others, such as the maritime industry and the tourism or leisureindustries, are indistinct (Gibson, 2008) But, by examining the four Cs, an under-standing of identity begins to emerge that is helpful in making sense of the uniqueissues that underpin the cruise business model (Gibson, 2009)

Culture

(at sea)

Contracts

(for maritimeemployees)

Figure 1.1 The four Cs that underpin why cruising is an industry

Contemporary cruise operations

• Culture: cruise culture is formed by a mix of maritime and hospitalityculture The culture is manifest in the distinctive language that hasemerged (see Table 1.1) and made more visual through the use of uni-forms, ranks, and ship and cruise routines.

• Contracts: cruise contracts reflect the need to operate a vessel 24/7, withcrew living and working on board and subject to international ratherthan national regulations

• Context: the context of being on a cruise ship means that the landscapeand/or seascape changes with the cruise The destinations add both apromisingly attractive dimension for travellers and a potential politicalissue for the freedom of passage when travelling The other aspect ofcontext is that the ship is at sea with all that means in terms of weather,escapism and safety

• Community: cruise crew communities are frequently multinational, ing and living in close contact with fellow crew members, subject toshipboard regulations and in a position where they must be seen to fit

work-in and be effective

The business of operating what is in many cases a large-scale mobile touristdestination at sea is unique and the complexities support the claim that thisworld is best referred to as the International Cruise Industry

According to the Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) – the cruiseindustry’s trade organisation – 25.8 million people were expected to take acruise in 2017 (CLIA, 2016) A sizablefigure, but not enormous when taken incontext and compared to other studies during the same time frame; forexample, 4 billion people travelled by aircraft in 2016 (World Economic Forum,2017), and 24.47 million tourists visited Bangkok in Thailand and 19.88 milliontourists visited London (Mastercard International, 2016) The increase in cruisepassenger numbers has remained relatively steady at around 7% per year forapproximately four decades (Bayley, 2010; Dowling & Weeden, 2017; Gibson,2012; Ward, 2010) This contrasts with the stated average of 4% since 2010 thathas been reported by the United Nations World Tourism Organization(UNWTO, 2017)

There are approximately a million people employed directly by the cruiseindustry in cruise companies at sea and ashore and in other directly relatedroles (CLIA, 2016) Ward (2017) believes there are around 350 cruise ships and

70 cruise brands– figures that are constantly changing as new ships are builtand old ships removed from service The two largest cruise operators areCarnival Corporation and Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd (RCCL) Carnival oper-ated nine brands with 102 ships and employed 100,000 shipboard staff and20,000 shoreside staff by the end of 2016 (Carnival Corporation, 2017) RCCLoperated three brands with 49 ships and employed 60,000 shipboard staff and6,000 shoreside staff by the end of 2016 (Royal Caribbean Corporate, 2016)

Contemporary cruise operations

Table 1.1 Terminology found in the shipping and cruise industry

Aboard: on a ship Knot: speed at sea (approx 1.85 kilometres

or 1.15 miles per hour)About: to turn a ship around Latitude: measurement of location north

and south of the equatorAft: back of a ship Leeward: sheltered from the wind

All hands: all crew members Longitude: measurement of location east

and west of the standard meridianBeam: widest point of a ship Mess (crew or officer): staff dining areaBerth: bed-space; or place where a

ship is tied up (moored)

Midship: middle part of a shipBuoy: marker orfloat in the sea Moor: to tie a ship up

Bow: front of a ship Muster drill: lifeboat drill or exerciseBridge: part of a ship where

rough waters or high windsDisembark: to go ashore Port: destination with a harbour; or

left-hand sideDock: place in harbour where a

ship can tie up or moor (berth)

Registry: where a ship is documentedDry dock: place where a ship is

= 1.8 metres)

Stabiliser: device used to reduce a ship’sroll

Forward: to the front of a ship Starboard: right-hand side

Free port: signifies special low tax

member around which a hull is built

Windward: facing the usual wind direction

Indirectly, the industry provides employment for other third-party businessesincluding: food suppliers; engineering services; manufacturers: port agentsand authorities; transport companies; tourist companies; hotels; destinationcompanies; car-hire and employment agencies.

In the last ten years, and despite a period of economic uncertainty, ment in the construction of new vessels has continued to feature strongly forthe industry, resulting in a period of balanced growth supported by theintroduction of new ships, a few new cruise brands and the latest class ofmega-cruise ships (Kalosh, 2016b) Industry analysts suggest that over the nextten years the number of available berths is likely to increase by 50%, with thepotential number of cruise passengers reaching 35 million by 2026 (Kalosh,2017)

invest-CLIA (2016) reports that members involved in selling cruises remain dent about the future They state demand has increased by 62% over the lastten years and that future generations of cruise guests are likely to comprisemillennials (those born between the 1980s and 2000) and generation Xers(those born between 1965 and the 1980s) Internationally, the potentialmarket remains very strong with only relatively small percentages of whatcould be seen to be a select group of various countries’ populations havingcruised before (see Tables 1.2 and 1.3) Yet even in this rather constrainedmarket there is a broad range of choice in terms of cruise brands and ships(Weaver, 2008)

confi-Inevitably, the number of people cruising is directly related to the deployment ofships So, if more ships are located at a point of embarkation to suit certainnationalities, it stands to reason numbers of guests from those countries shouldincrease Emerging markets such as China, with a population of 1.379 billion, are acase in point There are a number of developments in China that mean key cruisebrands are repositioning ships to take advantage of a growing demand in the area

Table 1.2 Market penetration rates 2016 expressed as a percentage ofpopulations

Source: IRN Research, 2016; Royal Caribbean Corporate, 2016; Vago, 2017

Contemporary cruise operations

Growth doubled in 2016 because of the increased capacity, and the pattern is likely

to remain strong in the future (Rozario, 2017)

Bayley (2010) comments on the way that cruise brands are deployed

in response to changing patterns of demand For example, a financial turn affecting consumer confidence could mean ships are deployed elsewhere

down-to take advantage of a stronger market Bayley exemplified this further bynoting that while all regions remain underpenetrated, European markets haddemonstrated buoyant growth and as a result increasing numbers of vesselswere deployed in order to capitalise on this potential With 330 million people

in North America and 500 million in Europe, there appear to be obviousopportunities in targeting these large markets when contrasting with thefigures in Table 1.3 Yet, as the years progress and political, economic, socialand cultural changes occur, cruise markets also change Asian, Pacific and LatinAmerican markets with their vast populations are also on the radar for poten-tial growth because of their emerging potential and very low levels of marketpenetration

It could be argued that our planet, Earth, is in one significant sense misnamed.This is because 71% of the surface is covered by water (Lutgens, 1992) Air travelhas been cited as a major influence in supporting changing leisure activities, yeteven a novice can recognise the opportunities for considering sea- and water-based vacations using ships asfloating resorts According to Day and McRae (2001),

a cruise ship provides easy access to some of the world’s most popular destinations,and this simple statement holds the key to the current success that the industryenjoys This can be exemplified by examining Table 1.4 and completing the task atthe end of this chapter

Table 1.3 Numbers of cruise guests in 2016

Region or country Total number of population who have taken a cruise

Rest of the world 2.03 million

Source: IRN Research, 2016; Royal Caribbean Corporate, 2016; Vago, 2017

Contemporary cruise operations

For many tourists, the cruise experience embodies a series of powerful tors; it is often perceived to be safe, social, customer friendly and service-oriented(Cartwright & Baird, 1999) The ship provides a mobile, consistent, easily acces-sible base to act as a home away from home while the tourist samples the port ofcall The tourist adapts to the shipboard life and learns to relax into a vacationroutine (Gibson, 2003): a routine that can be interspersed by a choreographedrange of ship or land activities.

motiva-However, the notion of ‘cruising’ also generates negative perceptions forsome individuals Dickinson and Vladimir (1997) conducted interviews withpeople who either had not considered going or did not want to go on acruise They revealedfive specific factors that demotivate the potential tourist(see Table 1.5)

Hung and Petrick (2010) undertook research, based on a survey of 564 cruiseguests and 333 non-cruisers, to identify a measurement scale for cruisingmotivation Their findings identified that people cruised in order to addressissues associated to:

Table 1.4 Top 20 city destinations 2016

Source: Mastercard International, 2016

Table 1.5 Factors that demotivate potential cruisers

Cost cruising is perceived to be expensive

Exclusivity cruising is thought to be a domain for the wealthy and elitist in

terms of social groupingsFamily

making

Source: Adapted from Dickinson and Vladimir, 1997

Contemporary cruise operations

• Self-esteem and social recognition

• Escape/relaxation

• Learning/discovery and thrill

• Bonding

The complexity that cruise operators arefinding within this mix of motivators

is the nuanced position each guest is likely to present based on that dual’s cultural and national identity

indivi-A history of cruising

Considerable insight can be gained when charting the history of cruising in terms

of identifying not only where and how the concept of cruising arose, but also intrying to predict where it is going Table 1.6 is not intended to be inclusive butrather toflag up significant moments over the last 200 years

Much is said about the size of contemporary mega-cruise ships Table 1.6 lights this trend, which developed with the introduction of scaled-up shipsthroughout the last decade of the 20th century, leading to the launch of Cunard’sQueen Mary 2 (QM2) and then Royal Caribbean’s Oasis of the Seas Increasinglythese mega-cruise ships can be seen as destinations in their own right, withsophisticated onboard facilities and a much enhanced product linked to econo-mies of scale achieved through the construction of larger vessels (Dawson, 2000).This aspect of cruising has captured the public’s attention, and the implicationsare of course important in terms of the way these large vessels impact ondestinations and also open the door for new generations of cruise guests Theseaspects will be examined later in this book However, in basic terms, the size ofcruise ships provides interesting comparisons (see the space per guest and crewratio in Table 1.7)

high-Currently, the largest vessels can carry around 6,000 customers and the smallestfewer than 100 customers Royal Caribbean’s Harmony of the Sea (just under227,000 GRT) was the largest cruise ship at sea in 2017; her preceding sister ships,Oasis of the Sea and Allure of the Sea, were each respectively the largest cruiseships when they entered service Cunard Lines’ Queen Mary 2 is 150,000 GRT,Mediterranean Shipping Company’s (MSC) Meraviglia weighs in at 171,598 GRT,Norwegian Cruise Lines’ (NCL) Norwegian Joy is 167,425 GRT and Dream Cruises’Genting Dream is 150,695 GRT At the other end of the scale, Hebridean IslandCruises’ Hebridean Princess is 2,112 GRT, Celebrity Xpedition is 2,842 GRT andSeaDream 1 is 4,333 GRT

Scale varies depending on purpose Large vessels accommodate largernumbers and can provide opportunities for greater diversity on board RoyalCaribbean International’s Oasis-class ships and their smaller cousins the Freedom-class ships are destinations in their own right Smaller vessels can be moreintimate and provide access to ports, which larger ships cannot visit because ofContemporary cruise operations

Table 1.6 A history of cruising

1801 The tug Charlotte Dundas goes into service and becomes thefirst

practical steam-driven vessel

1818 Black Ball Line introduces the Savannah, 424 GRT (see Figure 1.2

for an explanation of this term), carrying eight customers, whichbecomes thefirst ship to cross the Atlantic from New York toLiverpool The journey takes 28 days

1835 First advertised cruise around the Shetland and Orkney islands

This cruise never actually took place, however, and it wasn’t until

1886 that the North of Scotland and Orkney and ShetlandShipping Company operated short-break cruises

1837 Peninsular Steam Navigation company founded (later to become

the Peninsular and Oriental Steam and Navigation Company, andnow the more familiar name of P&O)

1840 Samuel Cunard establishes thefirst transatlantic steamship

1843 Isambard Kingdom Brunel’s ship the Great Britain, 3270 GRT, is

launched It is thefirst iron-hulled, propeller-driven customervessel

1844 P&O cruises from London to Vigo, Lisbon, Malta, Istanbul and

Alexandria aboard the Iberia (1833)

1858 Customers pay to join the Ceylon, a P&O vessel, for what is

considered thefirst cruise

1867 Author Mark Twain features a P&O voyage from London to the

Black Sea in his novel The Innocents Abroad

1881 The Ceylon is refitted to become a purpose-built customer ship

1910 White Star introduces the Olympic, 46,329 GRT, and, the year

after, the Titanic (which sinks having collided with an iceberg on

12 April 1912)

1911 The Victoria Louise becomes thefirst vessel to be built exclusively

for cruising

1912 Cunard introduces the Laconia and Franconia as custom-built

cruise and line voyagers

1920–1933 In the USA during Prohibition,‘booze cruises’ from US ports allow

customers to drink and gamble while visiting ports in Cuba,Bermuda and the Bahamas

1922 Cunard’s Laconia, a relatively small ship at 20,000 GRT and with

2,000 customers in three-class accommodation, sails on a worldcruise

1929 P&O’s Viceroy of India is introduced It is the most impressive ship

of the time, featuring thefirst use of turbo-electric power andthefirst onboard swimming pool It is a dual-purpose liner (UK toIndia) and luxury cruiser

Table 1.6 continued

1930s Union Castle offers holiday tours to South Africa at highly

competitive rates of £30 (third class), £60 (second class) and £90(first class)

1934 The luxury cruise liner RMS Queen Mary is launched With 1,174

officers and crew and 2,000 customers, the ratio is less than 2:1

1934 United States Lines builds SS America, an oil-fired liner capable of

speeds up to 25 knots It is commissioned as a troop carrier in1941

1938 SS Normandie, 83,000 GRT, undertakes a 21-day cruise: New

York–Rio de Janeiro–New York The cost per customer is from US

$395 to US$8,600

1939 The Second World War starts Cruise ships such as the Queen

Mary and Queen Elizabeth are converted as troop carriers

1958 Thefirst transatlantic commercial jet-aircraft crossing leads to the

demise of the liner market and the downturn of business formany cruise companies

1966 The cruise industry recovers– mainly centred on the UK

1970s New cruise companies are established, with 1% of holidaymakers

taking cruise holidays Cruise companies work closely with lines to develop combinedfly–cruise products TV series The LoveBoat airs in 1977

air-1979 Onboard revenue represents 5% of total revenue

1984 Carnival Cruises airsfirst TV commercial

1986 Windstar, a vessel with computerised sails, is introduced,

marry-ing the romance of sail with modern comforts

1990s Consolidation and globalisation occurs, leading to mergers and

acquisitions

1999 Eagle-class vessels such as Voyager of the Sea and Grand Princess

are introduced, bringing higher levels of sophistication, economy

of scale and the concept of the vessel as a destination

2000s Segmentation and lifestyle cruising Sustained growth for the

North American market (8% annually) from 1980 to 2000

2000 Royal Caribbean International’s (RCI) Explorer of the Sea (137,308

GRT) is introduced

2002 There are an estimated 700 million tourists worldwide, of whom

10.3 million are cruise tourists 2.4% of the US population, 1.3%

of the UK population and less than 1% of Europe’s populationcruise annually

2003 Cunard’s Queen Mary 2 (150,000 GRT) is launched

2003 Carnival Corporation becomes the largest cruise operator when

they merge with P&O Princess Cruises

2009 Royal Caribbean’s Oasis-class ship Oasis of the Seas enters service

– at 220,000 GRT she becomes the world’s largest cruise ship

Table 1.6 continued

2006 NCL launches the freestyle concept

2010 The total worldwide cruise market is estimated to be almost US

$30 billion, with Carnival Corporation in control of a 51.6% share

of worldwide revenue and Royal Caribbean 25.6%

2011 Carnival Corporation announces its 100th ship

2015 Increasing numbers of cruise ships are being built using liquefied

natural gas (LNG) as a fuel source

2016 Cruise ships embrace Internet technologies to ensure guests

GRT Passengers

(pax)

Crew Spaceperpax(ft³)

Ratiopax tocrew

Cruises

2015 143,730 4,100 1,350 35.06 3.04:1Norwegian

the depth of the ship’s keel, the length of the vessel or the constraints ofmanoeuvrability at the destination The relationships in terms of ratios (crew tocustomers, customer space per customer, size of cabin, public areas) all play apart depending on the type of cruise tourist The passenger space ratio iscalculated by dividing GRT by the maximum number of passengers to provide anumber that defines cubic space per passenger (see Figure 1.2).

Currently the QM2 has one of the highest ratios of space to passengers atjust over 49.08 (150,000 GRT divided by 3,056 passengers) At the other end ofthe scale, budget vessels might be as low as 28 Ratios of crew to passengerstend to reflect a 2:1 ratio for premium lines and 1.5:1 for luxury vessels (seeTable 1.7)

The image of cruising

The cruise industry is diverse, and it appears that this is indicative of thefuture direction for cruise developments The following case studies presentfive contrasting cruise experiences Table 1.8 provides an easy comparison of

A ship’s speed is measured in knots 1 knot equates to 1 nautical mile per hour A nautical mile is the equivalent to 1,852 metres or 1.15 land miles.

A ship’s size can be described by referring to capacity, dimensions or tonnage

Capacity

A cruise ship’s capacity is expressed in terms of the total numbers of officers, crew and customers Cruise companies frequently plan using lower-berth capacity (referring to the number of beds in a cabin), implying that capacity for some ships could be increased if capacity included upper berths (some cabins can have bunk beds or two-tier bedding arrangements).

Dimensions

The length of a ship is measured from the bow, or forward end (fore), to the stern, or after end (aft) Fore and aft are commonly used terms.

The beam is the width at the widest point (amidships).

The draft or draught of a ship measures the depth of a ship as the vessel sits in the water

Tonnage

Ships tend to be described and compared in terms of gross registered tonnage (GRT) According to Branch (1996), GRT is calculated by dividing the volume in cubic feet of a vessel’s closed-in spaces by 100 A vessel ton is100 ft³ Tonnage is frequently made use of

by port authorities when calculating charges when a ship requires a pilot and for harbour fees The word ‘tonnage’ is derived from tun,a medieval term meaning ‘barrel’

Figure 1.2 Ship measurements

Contemporary cruise operations

their basic features The‘flag’ or country of registration is important because

it refers to the legal status of the ship (see Chapter 3 for more information)

CASE STUDY 1.1

Celebrity Eclipse

The Celebrity Eclipse (see Figure 1.3) was the third Solstice-classship to enter service for Celebrity Cruises in 2010 This class of ship

is said to be more energy efficient because of the qualities of the

Table 1.8 Comparison chart

Eclipse

The World Residences

metres

29.8 metres

Designed for the modern British holidaymaker

Unlimited dom for your dream vacation

free-Where extraordinary happens

Contemporary cruise operations

Figure 1.3 Celebrity Eclipse

hull design, the use of hull coatings to make the ship travelthrough water more smoothly and the use of specially configuredlighting systems The ship is said to be ‘sophisticated, stylish andcontemporary’ (Cruise Critic, 2017b)

Like many ships, the vessel provides a lot of choice in types

of staterooms, options for dining and bars, and leisure andrelaxation options The ship is unique in providing a space forprofessional glass blowing, but it also reflects the Celebritybranding in terms of design, colour schemes, ambience andatmosphere Real grass is grown as a lawn on an upper deck,and there is an Apple product shop, an Internet café, a full-scale theatre, a selection of shops, a sophisticated spa, a variety

of swimming pools and many other experiences on board.While the ship has spent many years catering for the UKmarket, it is now scheduled to be deployed in South America.The company has plans in place to ensure cultural aspects ofthe region influence the itinerary and the experience on board(Kalosh, 2016a)

Contemporary cruise operations

CASE STUDY 1.2

The World

The World (40,000 GRT) (see Figure 1.4) was a radical and novelconcept when it was first introduced (Synnove Bye, 2003) Thisvessel was built by the Fosen shipyard in Norway to continuouslycircumnavigate the world and provide individual investors withtheir own apartments and use of the ship’s luxurious facilitieswhile it travels to carefully selected destinations (The World, 2017).The ship has 165 private apartments, reputedly owned by 142families (some own more than one apartment), each with a fullyequipped kitchen (galley) and decorated by the residents’ ownchoice of designer The majority of residents are from North America,followed by Australians, New Zealanders, Britons, South Africans andEuropeans (Maxwell, 2017) Entry-level apartments are said to be forthose with personal wealth in excess of US$10 million, and apart-ments can cost between US$2.5 million to US$16.5 million

The facilities include: four distinctive restaurants, a nightclub, acasino, a theatre, an art gallery, a spa andfitness centre, two pools,

a full-sized tennis court, a golf centre (including a real grass puttinggreen), a retractable marina and a dive centre The ship also hasthree emergency hospital wards

Figure 1.4 The World

Contemporary cruise operations

The itinerary in a typical year includes 140 ports in 40 countries.The ship targets prestigious events, including sporting occasionssuch as the British Open, the Grand Prix in Monaco and theCannes Film Festival Vacations can be booked for as long as anindividual wants (minimum of three days).

The ship is 15 years old, but because of the adopted pattern ofbusiness it is unlikely to age as a typical mass-market ship might(Maxwell, 2017) It is said an average of 150–200 guests are likely

to be on board at any one time

The crew is described as being ‘international’ The captain andnautical staff are European Hotel senior staff members are Amer-ican and European Stewards and service personnel are Filipino andIndonesian In total, the design is intended to create an environmentthat is intimate, contemporary and luxurious The company empha-sises that the size of the ship, coupled with the facilities and services,more easily achieves this aim

CASE STUDY 1.3

Britannia

P&O Cruises’ Britannia was named by Queen Elizabeth II in March

2015 in a ceremony on the quayside at Southampton (seeFigure 1.5) The Queen’s own royal yacht was named Britannia(the original Britannia is now a tourist attraction located in Leith,just outside Edinburgh) At 143,730 GRT and carrying a maximum

of 4,100 guests, the new Britannia is, at the time of writing, thelargest ship ever built exclusively for the British market As is thecase for spectacular new additions to a brand’s fleet of ships, theBritannia was named as P&O Cruises’ ‘flagship’ and highlighted asbeing sophisticated and glamorous in terms of design and facilities(P&O Cruises, 2017)

P&O Cruises is part of Carnival Corporation and as such issupported by the considerable purchasing power and coordinatedmanagement that a large organisation can bring The ship wasdesigned using the same platform as the Royal-class ships andconfigured to be attractive to the British market

Contemporary cruise operations

Figure 1.5 The Queen names Britannia

Cruise ships are frequently, although not necessarily totally,deployed to suit language-specific markets Multilanguage mar-kets bring certain complications and challenges, such as havingmultilingual guest-facing crew or creating spaces that meet theneeds of culturally specific groups, but as a brand P&O Cruises has

a singular focus on the British market

Mega-cruise ships provide scale, and as a result there is tunity for the space on board to be used to offer a wide range ofleisure activities Britannia provides multiple options for dining(ten restaurants), socialising (eight bars and a variety of lounges)and entertainment (seven entertainment venues) The ship isfamily- and multigenerational-friendly This caters for a growingtrend that sees groups and generations of family members sharingvacation experiences

oppor-The ship is registered in Southampton, which means that dings cannot be performed at sea The other ships in thefleet areregistered in Bermuda, allowing this legal ceremony to be per-formed on board Bermuda recently also introduced a ruling thatallows same-sex weddings to take place (Honeywell, 2017)

wed-Contemporary cruise operations

The ship makes use of themes including‘Strictly Come Dancing’and ‘Food Heroes’ featuring celebrity chefs to tap into currentlypopular social connections (or the zeitgeist) (Ireland, 2017) Indeedfood plays a significant role on board, with the establishment of acookery club, a cookery classroom, and an Indian restaurant calledSindhu, and the work of Michelin-starred chefs is showcased in anumber of restaurants.

The crew is multinational Officers are frequently but not sively British, and there is a noticeable bias towards Indian or Filipinocrew in guest-facing areas The brand prides itself on the tradition ofP&O Cruises and presents an image that the ship provides choice,quality and value

The AIDAdiva is one of 11 ships that comprise the current AIDAfleet (AIDA, 2017), and while it may not be the largest vessel, it istypical of a form of design that was introduced to maximisespace while providing a wide variety of choice The ship has theusual mix of options in terms of bars, lounges and theatres, but

in keeping with AIDA’s focus on their German market the shiphas also more fully developed the concept of‘club ship’ cruising(Spiegel, 2012) This encourages social interaction through afocus on activities, sports, open dining and a more casual atmo-sphere (Cruise Critic, 2017a) Dining on board is based around theconcept of open choice, and there are many options including: apizzeria, a sushi bar, a vinotek (fine wine shop), a steakhouse,and an Italian restaurant

Contemporary cruise operations

Figure 1.6 AIDAdiva

The ship uses German as the language on board and operates with atypically international crew and German or German-speaking officers.The vessel is usually deployed for Northern European/Baltic cruising inthe summer and Caribbean cruising in the winter months AIDA is abrand operated by Carnival Corporation

CASE STUDY 1.5

Independence of the Seas

When the Independence of the Seas (see Figure 1.7) was introduced in

2008, it was the largest cruise ship afloat However, as is the nature ofcruise trends, this accolade was held for but afleeting moment Whenthe Independence was introduced, in close order after sister shipsFreedom of the Seas and Liberty of the Seas, it marked a time thatwas seminal for the owning company and for the industry (Brida &

Contemporary cruise operations