Marco polo was in china new evidence from currencies, salts and revenues

Marco Polo Was in China Monies, Markets, and Finance in East Asia, 1600–1900 Edited by Hans Ulrich Vogel VOLUME The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/mmf Marco Polo Was in China New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues By Hans Ulrich Vogel Leiden • boston 2013 Cover illustration: Detail from Tranquillo Cremona (1837–1878), Marco Polo davanti al Gran Khan dei Tartari, 1863 For the complete picture see Fig 34 in this book The illustration was provided by Photoservice Electa/anelli by courtesy of Ministro per i Beni e le Attività Culturali and Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna, Rome Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Vogel, Hans Ulrich  Marco Polo was in China : new evidence from currencies, salts and revenues / by Hans Ulrich Vogel   p cm — (Monies, markets, and finance in East Asia, 1600–1900, ISSN 2210–2876 ; v 2)  Includes bibliographical references and index  ISBN 978-90-04-23193-1 (hbk : alk paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-23698-1 (e-book) Money—China—History Taxation—China—History Salt—Taxation—China—History Polo, Marco, 1254–1324 I Title  HG1282.V64 2013  332.4’51—dc23 2012035046 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface ISSN 2210-2876 ISBN 978-90-04-23193-1 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-23698-1 (e-book) Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA Fees are subject to change This book is printed on acid-free paper This book is dedicated to my wife Beatriz Puente-Ballesteros medical doctor and historian of intercivilisational encounters in medicine between Jesuits, Chinese and Manchus for her love, encouragement and support and in memory of Herbert Franke (1914–2011) the great German sinologist and specialist on Yuan economic, social, political and cultural history CONTENTS List of Figures, Maps and Tables  Preface from Mark Elvin  Préface de Philippe Ménard  Preface from the Author  Acknowledgments  Transliteration and Conventions  xi xvii xxi xxiii xxvii xxxi I Introduction  1. Structure and Contents of this Book  2. Approaches and Methods  3. Cons and Pros for Marco Polo’s Stay in China  3.1. Authorship of the Book  3.2. Complexities of Manuscript Transmission  3.3. Nature, Style, Intentions and Receptions of the Book  3.4. Itinerary and Data  3.5. Persian Rendering of Chinese Place Names  3.6. Aspects of Chinese and Mongol Civilization and Culture  3.7. “Latins” at Khubilai’s Court  3.8. Participation in the Xiangyang Siege  3.9. Governorship in Yangzhou  3.10. Missions of the Polos  3.11. The Polos and Chinese Sources  3.12. Return from China  3.13. Golden Tablets of Authority  11 14 17 22 36 39 43 67 67 68 69 74 80 84 II Paper Money in Yuan China  89 1. Marco Polo on Yuan Paper Money (1275–1291)  106 2. Other Western, Persian and Arabic Mediaeval Authors on Yuan Paper Money  109 3. The Short-lived Issue of Yuan-style Paper Money in Persia in 1294  113 viii contents 4. Chinese Sources on Paper Money during the Yuan Period (1271–1368)  4.1. Aspects of Production  4.2. Aspects of Circulation  5. Yuan Paper Money: Comparing Marco Polo’s Account and Chinese Sources  118 120 159 212 III. Cowry Monies Circulating in Yunnan and Southeast Asia  1. Marco Polo on Cowry Currencies (1275–1291)  2. Chinese Sources on Yunnan Cowry Currencies during the Yuan Period (1271–1368)  2.1. Exchange Rates  2.2. Denominations  2.3. Cowry Imports  2.4. Cowry Currency in Private Transactions  2.5. Cowry Money in Public Revenue and Finance  3. Yunnan Cowry Currencies: Comparing Marco Polo’s Account and Chinese Sources  227 230 IV Salt Production and Salt Monies in Yunnan and Tebet  1. Marco Polo on Salt Production in Yunnan (1275–1291)  2. Marco Polo on Salt Currencies in Tebet and Caindu (1275–1291)  3. Chinese Sources on Salt Currencies (Late Eighth to Mid-Twentieth Centuries)  3.1. Nanzhao Kingdom (Late Eighth Century)  3.2. Yuan Period (Early Fourteenth Century)  3.3. Ming Period (Mid-Fifteenth Century)  3.4. Qing Period (Eighteenth to Nineteenth Centuries)  3.5. Republican Period (Mid-1930s)  3.6. People’s Republic of China (1950s)  4. Salt Forms Produced by Yunnan Saltworks (Early Eighteenth Century)  4.1. Dry-boiled Salt Forms  4.2. Salt Forms Made by Hand or Moulds  5. Salt Currencies: Comparing Marco Polo’s Perceptions and Chinese Sources  5.1. Weight of Salt Currencies  5.2. Value of Salt Currencies  271 272 234 236 238 239 258 262 267 285 297 298 299 299 301 307 307 309 311 312 315 315 317 contents ix 5.3. Salt Prices in Caindu and Other Regions of China  318 5.4. Circulation and Monetary Functions of Salt Currencies  324 5.5. Salt Monies, Governments and Markets  328 V Production, Revenue and Trade of Salt in Changlu and Lianghuai  1. Marco Polo on Salt Production Techniques in Changlu  2. Marco Polo on the Salt Production and Distribution Zone of Lianghuai  3. Did Marco Polo Hold an Office in Yangzhou?  VI. Tax Revenue of Hangzhou and Its Territory  1. Marco Polo’s Millions: The Salt Tax Revenue  2. Total Annual Revenue as Reported by the Venetian  3. Commercial Taxes in Le devisament dou monde  4. Marco Polo on Levies in Overseas Trade in Quanzhou  331 332 339 348 365 366 379 391 394 VII Administrative-Geographical Divisions in Yuan China  399 VIII Conclusions  419 Appendices Appendix 1: Compilation of Passages on the Production and Use of Paper Money in the Yuan Empire from Selected Manuscript and Print Versions of Marco Polo’s Account  Appendix 2: Compilation of Passages on the Production and Use of Chinese Paper Money and Salt Revenue in the Accounts of Other Western, Persian and Arabic Authors  Appendix 3: Coins of Venice  Appendix 4: The Weight Measures libbra and saggio of Venice  Appendix 5: The Weight of the miskal  Appendix 6: Relationship between the Persian System of balish, sum and miskal, the Chinese System of ding, liang and qian, and Marco Polo’s saggi and grossi  Appendix 7: Compilation of Passages on Chinese Salt Money, Salt Production and Salt Revenue from the Most Important Manuscript and Print Versions of Marco Polo’s Account  Appendix 8: Tables and 27  429 439 471 474 475 477 491 529 x contents Bibliography 1. Marco Polo Editions  547 2. Other Primary Sources  554 3. Secondary Literature  562 Index  629 Index Abacan, 52n156 Abakha, Ilkhan, 74, 87 Adam, Salimbene de, 21 Admont manuscript version (V 12), 33, 34, 372, 381, 515–17 See also German manuscript versions Africa: cowry money in, 229, 260n79, 268; salt money in, 286–87, 326, 327 Ahmad (finance minister), 51, 55, 63, 165, 166, 167n153 Airaldi, Gabriella, 16n22, 31 Ajul (Agul), 52 alchemy, paper money as, 106, 112, 214, 436 Allsen, Thomas T., 116, 415 Almeida, António de, 24n43 America, pre-Columbian, 287–88 Anin, 231, 232, 241, 259n72, 269, 411 Annam, 232, 257, 268, 420 See also Vietnam annual grants (suici), 94–95, 100, 181 Anqing, 203, 416 Antong (Hantum), 70 Aobo tu (Illustrated Boiling of Sea Water; Chen Chun), 334 Apusca (envoy), 81 Arabic language, 41, 63; guidebooks in, 415–16, 425 Arabic sources: on cities, 415–17; on cowry money, 232; on denominations, 159; on monetary institutions, 124; vs MP, 2, 4, 213, 399, 410, 411, 420, 424; and MP’s official post, 364; on paper money, 109–13, 119; on salt money, 6, 293; on salt production, 333, 340 See also particular authors Aragon manuscript version (V 14a), 381, 519 Arakan, 229, 232, 268 See also Burma archaeological remains, 287, 419, 425; of cowry money, 228, 235; of metal currencies, 193, 368; of paper money, 4, 9, 97, 103–5, 121–38, 146–57, 158, 213, 529–41 Arghun, Ilkhan, 72, 73, 80, 82, 117 Arigh Böke, 94 Astley’s Voyages, 5n5, 43n104 astrology, 45, 61 astronomy, 66 Backus, Charles, 296 Bacon, Roger, 22 Baochao tongkao (Comprehensive Investigation on Paper Money; Wu Qi), 215 Barbaro, Josaphat, 469 Barbieri, Alvaro, 21, 22, 40, 86, 295, 505 Barros, João de, 49 Bayan, 41n97, 52 Beijing See Cambaluc Bembo, Cardinal Pietro, 291 Bencao tujing (Materia Medica with Illustrations; Su Song), 335, 336n10 Benedetto, Luigi Foscolo, 21, 24, 292, 293 Benedict the Pole, 73n266 Bengal: cowry money in, 229, 232, 239, 242–43, 266, 268; and silver, 171, 242; trade with, 241 See also India Bernholz, Peter, 224n230, 225, 308 Bertolucci Pizzorusso, Valeria, 30, 31–32, 33 beverages, 45–46, 65 bills of exchange, 89, 90 Biruni, al-, 268 Bloch, Marc, 326 Bodley 264 (early French ms.; B2), 17, 431n3 Bolad Akha, 78, 79, 87, 115–16, 118, 349, 415 Boluo, 78–80, 115–16, 349, 361 Bonaguisi, Amelio, 5n5 Boni, Giovanni Battista Baldelli, xxiii Boniface VIII, Pope, 117 Borlandi, Franco, 26, 38 Borneo, 82, 257, 287 Bracciolini, Poggio, 15n19, 24n43, 294n55 Bretschneider, Emil, 124 Bridia, C de, 73n266 bronze, 84, 243 bronze coins: vs paper money, 92, 94, 102, 163, 209; restrictions on, 91, 190; shortages of, 89, 96 Brown, J Coggin, 282 Brunello, Franco, 66 Buddhism, 52n157, 58, 411 Bugu Khan, 52 Burma, 51, 420; cowries from, 253, 261; cowry money in, 229, 239; MP’s missions to, 69, 74, 289; salt money in, 286; and silver, 171, 242 630 index cacao beans, 288 Cai Meibiao, 41, 75, 76 Caichu (Xiezhou), 200, 421 Caindu (Sichuan), 60, 275; Mongol conquest of, 328–29; paper money in, 200; salt money in, 210, 290–91, 295, 296, 299, 322, 323, 324, 328; salt prices in, 318–23 Cambaluc (Dadu; Beijing), 53, 176, 413, 414, 416, 420; mint in, 106, 108, 121–24, 166, 412, 436–38; paper money in, 100, 199 Canal, Martin de, 30 Canpiciou See Ganzhou Cao Jian, 367 Caomuzi (Book of Master Plants; Ye Ziqi), 401, 403, 405 Carajan (Dali, Yunnan), 52, 60, 410, 411, 416; cowry money in, 232, 233, 237, 239, 252, 253, 257, 264, 269; exchange rates in, 243, 264; gold in, 243, 244; horses from, 241, 242; mining in, 247, 248; paper money in, 201; salt money in, 322; salt production in, 273, 282; silver in, 248–49 Carile, Antonio, 26 Carpini, Giovanni dal Piano del, 21, 29, 50, 73n266, 87, 411 Catalan manuscript (V 14), 381, 518–19 Catholic church, 31–32, 35, 58, 75 Ceylon (Sri Lanka), 71, 82, 167, 170, 268 Champa, 51, 360 Chang’an, 200, 416 Changlu salt region (Hebei), 6, 201, 331, 332–39, 420 Changzhou, 51, 203 Charles de Valois, 19, 30–31 Chen Bingying, 126 Chen Chun, 334 Chen Dezhi, 71, 377n33 Chen Gaohua, 383 Chen Ran, 326 Chengdu (Sichuan), 200, 201, 206, 413, 421 Chepoy, Jean de, 19, 30 Chepoy, Thibaut de, 19, 30, 31 Chinese language: Mongols’ knowledge of, 42; MP on, 44–45; MP’s knowledge of, 41; MP’s name in, 74; on paper money, 105, 116, 117, 134; and seals, 157; written, 43, 44–45 Chinese sources: on commercial taxes, 392, 393; on cowry money, 229, 232, 234–69, 400; on distribution of paper money, 183–212; elitist nature of, 77, 298, 424; on government administration, 359; on mining, 244–50; vs MP, 212–26, 267–69, 419–25; on paper money, 110, 118, 120–212, 399; on Polos, 14, 74–80, 82; on salt money, 295, 297–309, 315–30, 324, 400; on salt production, 333; on salt revenues, 375, 377, 379; on tax revenues, 365–66, 380; on trade, 161; travel accounts, 28 Chinggis Khan, 51, 93 chopsticks, 43, 47 Christianity, 52n157, 72, 294; Nestorian, 58, 353, 357–58, 411 See also Catholic church Chuzhou, 204, 210, 211, 345, 346, 400 Circulation Storehouses (xingyong ku), 96, 122, 164, 168, 178, 184–89 cities: military garrisons in, 405–6; MP on, 23, 29, 38, 56n177, 61–62, 399–417, 422 See also particular cities Clemente V, Pope, 31 Clunas, Craig, 5n5 coal, 62, 281, 393 Cogatai, 52n156 coinage: bronze, 89, 91, 92, 94, 96, 102, 163, 190, 209; iron, 89, 90, 91, 101; restrictions on, 91, 101, 190; shortages of, 89, 90, 95, 96 See also copper cash Coja, 11n14, 81 Coloman, 411 Confucianism, 43, 58 Consolat del mar, 267 Conti, Nicolò de, 15n19, 294n55 copper, 243, 244, 247, 303–5, 544 copper cash, 89–90, 170; distribution of, 191–98; exchange rates for, 303; vs paper money, 96, 99, 211, 212, 214; restrictions on, 101; and salt money, 324, 328; shortages of, 95; surviving examples of, 193; in Yunnan, 303–5 cormorant fishing, 43, 47 counterfeiting, 160, 175, 253, 315; of cowry money, 230, 266; MP on, 213, 420; punishments for, 114, 138, 140, 173–74 cowry money, 2, 4, 8, 226, 227–69, 412; distribution of, 254–55, 269; donations in, 258–59; monetary functions of, 260, 269; MP on, 230–34, 267–69, 288, 410, 420; in multiple currency systems, 230; vs paper money, 190, 210, 262, 263, 265, 269; and place names, 399–400; private sector use of, 229, 234, 236, 238, 252, 258–62; public sector use of, 229, 234, 236, 238, 252, 260, 265; in Qing dynasty, index 301; regulations on, 250–53, 269; and salt money, 286, 307, 324, 325, 328, 329; surviving examples of, 228, 235, 254–55, 257; taxes paid in, 237, 238, 243, 252, 263, 264–65, 269, 329, 383–84, 542; varieties of, 260–62; in Yunnan, 4, 227–69, 289, 300 cowry shells: characteristics of, 230, 260; illegal, 253, 261, 266, 269; imports of, 234, 239–41, 250–57, 264; size of, 256–57, 261, 262; sources of, 231, 233; types of, 256–57, 261–62 Cremona, Tranquillo, 352 Creußner, Fritz, 34 Critchley, John, 14, 19, 20, 24, 70 Cruz, Gaspar da, 49 Cui Bin, 41–42 culture, Mongol vs Chinese, 13, 43–44; MP on, 43–67 currencies: in complementary currency circuits, 327; equivalences of, 477–90; of Jin dynasty, 90–91; MP on, 57, 419, 420, 422, 425; and multiple currency systems, 230; as theme, 26, 27; Venetian, 471–73; weights of, 475–76; Yuan, xix, 412 See also coinage; copper cash; cowry money; gold; paper money; salt money; silver Da Yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang (State Codex of the Yuan), 367 Da Yuan tongzhi tiaoge (Regulations of the Comprehensive Rules of the Great Yuan), 250–51, 252 Da Yuan yitong zhi (The Great Yuan Comprehensive Geographical Account), 415 d’Abano, Pietro, 50 d’Acqui, Jacopo, xxiii, xxiv, 18, 44, 50 Dadu See Cambaluc Dali kingdom See Carajan Daoism, 43, 52n157, 58 Daoyi zhilüe (An Account of Barbarians of the Islands; Wang Dayuan), 28 David, Sir Percival, 291n47 Davies, John F., 344 De consuetudinibus et condicionibus orientalium regionum See Pipino manuscript version De falso credita et ementita Constantini donatione declamatio (A notification of protest . . .; Valla), xvii 631 de Rachewiltz, Igor, xvii, 45, 74n271, 76, 85, 424n10; on MP’s accuracy, 12, 36; on MP’s official post, 75, 349n33, 351 Delle navigationi e viaggi See Ramusio printed version Deluz, Christiane, 411–12, 414 demonetarization, rates of, 215–17 denominations, 157–59; of cowry money, 229, 233, 234, 236, 238–39; in design, 136; MP on, 213, 420; of paper money, 96–98, 100, 102, 103, 107, 109, 110, 114, 121, 129–130, 131, 191; in stele inscriptions, 191–98; of Zhiyuan chao, 102, 103, 191; of Zhongtong chao, 96–98, 100, 191 devisement du monde, Le (Descriptions of the World; Marco Polo; V (A1)), xxii, xxiii, 205, 493 See also French manuscript versions Deyell, John, 242 Dian culture, 235, 243, 244, 257n67 Diannan yanfa tu (Illustrations of the Salt Production Methods of Yunnan; scroll; Li Bi), 310–14 Dieu, Léon, 293–94 divisament (also devisement or divisement) dou monde, Le (Descriptions of the World; Marco Polo; V 1), xxiv; different titles, 16n21; accuracy of, 36–39, 419–25; additions to and deletions from, 291–95; authorship of, 13, 14–17; exaggerations in, 67–68, 69, 73, 74; historiography on, 8–9; modes of reading, 35–36; nature and style of, 13, 22–36; original text of, 10, 17–18; prologue to, 2–3, 36; readers of, 30–36; versions of, 10–11, 13, 17–22, 30–36, 41, 291–95, 429–38, 491–528 See also Franco-Italian manuscript version Dong Shixuan, 71 Dong Xianqing, 286, 325n130 Du Fu, 47 du Halde, Jean-Baptiste, 124 Duolubudai, 167 Edward I (king of England), 74 Egypt, 31, 45, 171, 268, 462 elephants, 53, 54 Elger, Ralf, 424 Elvin, Mark, 216n222, 243n44 Esen Temür, 52 Ethiopia, salt money in, 286–87, 317–18 Europe, 308; cowries in, 267–68; “Latins” from, 13–14, 67; salt production in, 632 index 316n117, 339, 421; silver in, 169, 171 See also Venice Exchange Notes Storehouses ( jiaochao ku), 143–44, 176, 184 exchange rates: for copper cash, 303; for cowry money, 229, 233, 234, 236–38, 252, 263–64; for gold, 237–38, 243, 249, 252, 264, 290, 295–96, 319, 322, 368, 373–75, 376, 382–84; official vs market, 323, 376, 379, 388; for paper money, 158, 368, 374–75, 382–84; for salt money, 290, 295–96, 317–18, 320–21, 323; and salt revenues, 378–79; for silver, 236–38, 243, 249, 264, 303, 319, 322, 368, 373–75, 384; and tax revenues, 373–76, 387, 388 Falang (Franks), 67 Falco, Nicolaus, 15n19 Fan Chuo, 245, 297, 298, 316, 317; on salt money, 324, 327, 328, 330 Fan Wenhu (Vonsainchin), 52 Fang Guoyu, 10n9, 289, 410; on cowry money, 263–64; on salt money, 288n35, 316, 318, 325, 327, 329, 330 Fang Hui, 250 Faucon, Jean-Claude, 37, 376n31, 423 Faxian, 229 Fernandes, Valentim, 35 Fernandes printed version (V 15), 381, 520–21 Fernández de Santaella, Rodrigo, 34–35, 521 See also Santaella versions Fitch, Ralph, 240–41 Florence, 27, 169 footbinding, 43, 46–47 Forbes, Andrew D W., 241 Fracastero, Girolamo, 291 Frampton printed version (V 19), 373, 381, 525–26 Franco-Italian manuscript version (V 1), xviii, xxivn7, 7n7, 14, 15, 16n21, 294; on cities, 38, 416; on cowry money, 236n21; on denominations, 157; language of, 38, 41; on languages, 40–41; mercantile themes in, 25–27; on MP’s official post, 350, 362; on Nine Kingdoms, 370; vs other versions, 17, 19–20, 21, 22, 33–34, 68n251; on paper money, 98, 106–9, 181, 205, 206, 208, 210, 212, 429–30; on printing, 128; readers of, 30; on salt money, 293; on seals, 145; on tax revenues, 372, 381, 389 Franke, Herbert, 5n5, 39; on inflation, 225; on paper money, 96, 121, 176, 179, 181, 216; on tax revenues, 383; on trade, 161, 166 French manuscript versions, (V (B1), V 3, C3), 17, 19n30, 22, 30-31, 32, 37, 98, 106–9, 125, 128, 145, 157, 181, 205, 206, 208, 236n21, 285n25, 292, 293, 294, 337, 338, 350, 369, 372, 381, 389, 431–33, 493–98 Fujian: archaeological finds in, 123; foreign trade in, 395, 396; MP in, 57, 62, 226; paper money in, 187, 190, 204, 212, 399; porcelain in, 64; sea salt in, 331, 332; sugar in, 65 funerary practices, 60, 411 Fuzhou, 370, 395, 416, 533; Manicheans in, 58n191; paper money in, 204, 211; printing blocks from, 123–24; and trade, 167 gambling, 57 Ganpu, 204, 253, 395, 397, 416 Gansu, 69n253, 77, 79, 411; paper money in, 186, 190, 199, 209 Ganzhou (Canpiciou), 77, 79, 413, 416; paper money in, 199, 210 Gao Yingyan, 48, 49 Garnier, M Francis, 306 Gastaldi, Giacomo, 291 Gaykhatu, Ilkhan, 85, 113, 114 Genoa, 25, 27, 40, 87, 169; MP in prison in, 16, 18, 19n29, 38, 82, 357; Yilioni family from, 88n317, 351, 353 Genoese versions, 32 German manuscript version (V 12), 33, 34 See also Admont manuscript version and Heydnische Chronik German printed version (V 13), 381, 517–18 Ghazan Khan, 11n14, 74, 81, 82, 116, 117, 475 Ghisi codex, 33, 292 Ghisolfi, Buscarello de, 73 Ghisolfi, Corrado de, 73 Ghisolfi, Percivalle de, 73 Glazemaker, Jan Hendrik, 54 Glazemaker printed version (V 20), 381, 526–28 Goez, Bento de, 49 gold: as coins, 169; and cowry money, 233, 237–38, 252, 263, 268–69; as currency, 2, 92, 99, 226, 269, 412; equivalences in, 380–81; exchange of, 4, 107, 108, 252, 290; exchange rates for, 38, 237–38, 243, 249, 252, 264, 290, 295–96, 319, 322, 368, 373–75, 376, 382–84; mining of, 243, 244–45, 246, 247; monetary functions of, 95, 96, 266; MP on, 410, 420; and paper index money, 99, 100, 190, 210; and Persian paper money, 115; and place names, 399; private sector use of, 269; public sector use of, 269; restrictions on, 101, 102, 161–63, 170; and salt money, 295–96, 317–21, 323, 324, 325; vs silver, 169–70; state control of, 160–73, 214, 246; and tax revenues, 376, 377–79, 380–82, 389; taxes paid in, 384, 386, 545; in Yunnan, 2, 38, 243, 244, 264, 269, 289 Gonzalez de Mendoza, Juan, 24n43, 49 Gordon, Withold, 83 government administration, Yuan, 7, 348–64; Chinese sources on, 355, 356, 359; consultative nature of, 390, 425; and cowry money, 262–66; and foreign trade, 395–96, 397, 398; foreigners in, 357–59; geographic divisions of, 399–417; local, 329, 389–91; monopolies of, 271, 318, 319, 392, 395–96, 397, 398, 420, 422, 423; MP as official in, 4, 7, 13n16, 14, 23, 24, 68, 348–364, 350, 362, 389–391, 411, 415, 423–425; MP on, 400, 401–4, 420, 422, 423; officials in, 57, 266; paper money in, 199, 201; and salt money, 295–96, 298, 315, 318, 319, 323, 328–30; and salt tax revenues, 271, 367–68 Grand Canal, 56 Great Wall, 43, 48–50 Greek language, 41 Grynäus, Simon, 34, 524 Grynäus printed version (V 5), 381, 501–3 Guangdong, 298, 405; foreign trade in, 253, 397, 398; paper money in, 124, 189, 190, 534; sea salt in, 331, 332 Guanghai, 331, 332 Guangxi prefecture (Yunnan), 301, 303, 304, 325 Guangxi province, 242, 298; and cowry money, 253, 254; paper money in, 187, 188, 189, 190 guest prostitution, 60 Guizhou, 190; copper mining in, 303–5; and cowry money, 232, 253; salt money in, 324, 325, 327 Haeger, John W., 5n5, 414 Haenisch, Erich, 2n2 Hafiz-i Abru, 467–68 Han dynasty, 244–45, 296 Hangzhou (Kinsay) region, 61, 412, 413, 416; foreign trade in, 395, 397; military in, 405; Mongol raid on, 171; MP in, 61, 69, 633 361–62; MP on, 406–7, 422, 423; paper money in, 203; revenues from, xxiv, 7, 365–98 See also Liangzhe (Hangzhou) salt zone Hanshu [History] Records of the [Western] Han [Dynasty], 244 Hao Bin, 367 Hao Jing, 406n36 Harrison, Tom, 287 Haw, Stephen G., 289, 421; on MP, 41, 65n237, 77, 87, 351, 419, 420; on salt production, 338 Hayton (Hetum) of Armenia, 15n19, 31, 110, 111, 267, 447 He Zhenru, 314 Hedin, Sven, 306 Hedong salt lake, 279, 332 Heers, Jacques, 24 Hejian salt zone, 331, 332, 400 Helin, 122, 188, 403 Henan, 369, 404; paper money in, 185, 186, 189, 202–3, 209, 393 Herriott, James Homer, 292, 292n47 Heydnische Chronik (Steidl; V 12), 33, 515 See also Admont manuscript version and Heydnische Chronik German printed version (V 13), 381, 517–18 Ho-boung Village saltworks (Yunnan), 285, 312 Ho Hon-wai, 326n135 Hogendorn, Jan, 230, 257, 267 horses, 170, 241–42, 299; and cowry money, 252, 264, 265 Hosie, Alexander, 296 Hou Hanshu ([History] Records of the Later Han [Dynasty]), 245n48 Hsiao Ch’i-ch’ing, 405 Hu Diyu, 214 Hu Sihui, 45–46 Huai salt region (Jiangsu), 331, 337, 339–48 Huai’an, 202, 339, 400 Huaidong Circuit, 345, 347, 353, 355–56, 364 Huainan, 91, 370, 371–72, 400, 401 Huang Jin, 48–49 Huang Peilin, 276 Huang Shijian, 45, 48, 49 Huayang guozhi (Record of the Country South of Mount Hua; Chang Qu), 245n48 Hucker, Charles O., 180, 402 Hügächi, 52 Huimin (Chinese Muslims), 241, 251 See also Muslims 634 index huizi (account notes), 91, 93, 101, 196, 216, 223 Hülegü, Ilkhan, 72, 113 Hüllmann, Karl Dietrich, 5n5 hunting, 53 Husihui, 65–66 Ibn Battuta, 44, 45, 47, 50, 268, 424, 462–63; on cities, 417; on paper money, 110, 111, 112, 129, 176 Ibn Fadlallah Al-‘Umari, 110, 127, 424, 458–59 Ichimaru Tomoko, 191 Idrisi, 268 Ilioni (Yilioni) family, 351, 353 Imperial Belt Treasury ( yudai ku), 53 “In Return for Dispersing his Wealth, Heaven Bequeaths an Heir in Old Age” (San jiacai tian ci laosheng er; play; Wu Hanchen), 127 India, 167, 241, 393; cowries from, 268; and cowry money, 229, 233, 239; missions to, 71–72, 82; MP’s missions to, 69, 74; paper money in, 115n45; and silver, 169, 171 See also Bengal indigenous peoples, 282, 305; and salt money, 297–98, 300, 301, 306, 315, 326–27 inflation, 223–25, 388; MP on, 215; and paper money, 91, 100, 101, 104, 179, 215, 376; and Persian paper money, 115; and salt money, 308–9 iron coins, 89, 90, 91, 101 Islam, 52n157, 58, 411, 417 See also Muslims Islamic countries, 169–70 Isolo, 74 Iwamura Shinobu, 121n56 Jackson, Peter, 19n30, 21, 73 Jacoby, David, 19n29, 75 Jahn, Karl, 113 Jami‘ al-tavarikh (Collected Chronicles; Rashid al-Din), 415 Jandesek, Reinhold, 24n43, 29n58, 294n55 Japan, 51 Java, 66, 260 Jesuits, 75 Jiangling (Chinangli; Ji’nanlu), 407–8 Jiangnan, 55, 65, 369–72, 404, 407; cowry money in, 251, 252, 253, 261, 264; Mongol conquest of, 100, 101; paper money in, 123, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195, 211; silver in, 193, 196, 197 Jiangsu See Huai salt region Jiangzhe, 369, 404, 406; military in, 55; MP in, 349; paper money in, 185, 186, 189, 195, 203–4, 209; revenues from, 384–88, 393 jiaochao (exchange notes), 93 jiaozi 交子 (“exchangelings”), 90 Jin dynasty (Jurchen): administrative divisions of, 401, 403; and currency, 90–91; paper money in, 89, 91, 93, 95, 128, 129, 131, 134, 138, 145; and silver, 171 Jin Shiyang, 303, 304 Ji’nan, 201, 408, 410, 422 Johnson, Marion, 230, 257, 267 Judaism, 58 Julian, Friar, 73n266 Jurchen people, 41, 46, 90–91 Kaidu, 14n17, 51, 122 Kaiping (Shangdu), 53, 142, 199, 416 Kaplan, Edward H., 215n220 Karakorum, 5n5, 38, 412, 413 keshigten (Khan’s bodyguard), 55, 56, 77 Khalkha Dijirom, 56 Khita’i, ‘Ali Akbar, 469 Khitan people, 41, 46, 89 Khubilai Khan, xxiv, 46, 84, 115, 166; and Boluo, 78–79; Chinese of, 42; missions of, 74, 80–81; monetary policy of, 92, 94, 95–96; and MP, 52, 69, 70, 71, 118 Khutulun, 14n17, 51 Kinsay See Hangzhou Kökechin, Princess, 11n14, 72, 80–83, 87, 116 Korea, 171, 403 Kozlov, P K., 121, 136 Kunming (Yachi, Yunnanfu), 200, 237, 243, 264, 266, 269, 411, 416 Kuroda Akinobu, 159, 168, 169n158, 171, 242 Langjing saltworks (Yunnan), 283 Laos, 232, 239, 241, 268 Larner, John, 17, 18, 23, 29, 44, 67, 88, 183, 414 Latin language, 44, 45 Latin versions, 31–32, 33, 34, 293, 381, 498–505 See also Grynäus printed version; Pipino manuscript version; Z manuscript of Toledo “Latins,” 13–14, 67 Lattini, Brunetto, 30 Laufer, Berthold, 124 lead mining, 305 legal system, 56–57; and counterfeiting, 114, 138, 140, 173–74; and paper money, 161–65 index Leslie, Donald Daniel, 417 Li Bi, 309–10 Li Jiarui, 243, 259 Li Jing, 299 Li Tan, revolt of, 51, 69, 96, 408 Li Xun, 260 Li Yiyou, 126 Li Yuandao, 237 Li Zefen, 371 Liang Rui, 241 Lianghuai salt zone, 6, 331, 332, 337, 339–48, 370, 378; MP on, 364, 400 Liangzhe (Hangzhou) salt zone, 331, 332, 407; MP on, 400; revenues from, 371–72, 376–78, 384, 385 Liao kingdom, 89 Lijiang Prefecture (Yunnan), 248, 274, 275, 305–6 Lin Chaomin, 289, 329, 410 Lin’an prefecture, 247, 252, 253, 254, 269, 301, 303 Linschoten, Jan Huyghen van, 24n43 liquor, 392, 393, 543 Liu Bingzhong, 94 Liu Su, 94 Liu Zheng, 263 Lopez, Robert Sabatino, 353 Loredan, Giovanni, 87 Lu Shirong, 162, 395, 396 Lucalongo, Pietro de, 73 Lunheng (Discourses Weighed in the Balance; Wang Chong), 244–45 luxury goods: appraisal of, 107, 167–68, 172, 214; exchange of, 4, 107, 108, 166–68, 171–72; MP on, 420; state monopoly of, 160–73, 214; taxes on, 395 Maeda Naonori, 10n9, 121; on inflation, 223, 225; on monetary institutions, 185–89; on paper money, 131, 133, 198–99, 205, 209, 210, 211; on silver, 165 Magalhães, Gabriel de, 106n36 Maldive Islands, 256, 257, 262, 268 Manchus, 46 See also Qing dynasty Mandeville, Jehan de, 23, 24n43, 34, 110, 464–66 Manggala, Prince, 52 Manshu (Yunnan zhi; Book of the Southern Barbarians; A Record of Yunnan; Fan Chuo), 245, 273 Mansizabal, 287 Manzi (Southern China), 44, 56; administrative divisions of, 405; Mongol conquest of, 223, 225, 392, 395; Nine 635 Kingdoms of, 369–70, 400, 406–7; paper money in, 170, 200, 212; revenues from, 380, 384, 389; salt in, 371–72 Mar Sarghis (Ma Xueliujisi; Dominus Sergius), 58, 357–58, 359, 362–63, 390 Marco Polo and the Discovery of the World (Larner), 17 Marco Polo Bridge (Pulisanghin), 38 Marco Polo conference (Tianjin, 2000), Marco Polo’s Book (Critchley), 19 Marignolli, Giovanni de, 24n43, 50, 73, 75 marriage customs, 59 Martaban, 232, 268 Martini, Martino, 49 marvel stories, 23, 29, 35 Mas’udi, al-, 268 McCartney, George, 50 Meliadus (Rustichello da Pisa), 14 Ménard, Philippe, 20, 21, 32, 33, 40n94, 41, 82; on manuscript versions, 292, 294, 295 merchant guidebooks, 22–28, 36, 415–16, 425 merchants, 31, 55, 73, 87; associations of (ortogh), 75–76, 94, 95, 100, 170, 396; and bills of exchange, 90; and cities, 412; and exchange of goods for paper money, 4, 107, 108, 161, 165, 166–68, 171–72, 214–15; foreign, 161, 172–73; MP on, 214–15; and paper money, 94, 95, 100, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114; and taxes, 391, 394; Uighur, 94, 100, 170 Mézières, Philippe de, 466–67 Mieqie Anshan, 167 military, Mongol, 55–56; in cities, 405–6; costs of, 90–91, 94, 100, 109, 112, 122, 181; and missions, 77; MP on, 51, 422; and paper money, 94, 100, 109, 112, 122; and silver, 171, 193 Ming dynasty: cowry money in, 238, 257, 258, 265; and Great Wall, 48, 49; and manuscript versions, 293; paper money in, 109, 125, 128, 129, 132, 134, 145, 157; salt money in, 299–301, 330; salt production in, 278, 279, 280, 341, 344 Mingshi (History of the Ming), 125n69, 127 Minhaj As-Siraj, 268 Mishu jianzhi (Revised Record of Secret Books; Wang Shidian, Shang Zhiweng), 127 miskal, 237, 368, 375, 382, 387; weight of, 475–76 monetary institutions, 9, 141–44; centralisation of, 124, 143; MP on, 213; 636 index and paper money, 120, 121–24; reforms of, 102, 161, 163, 164, 168, 173, 184, 223, 225, 376, 378; regional, 96, 101, 122–23, 124, 130, 137, 141, 183, 209; and seals, 152, 157; spatial distribution of, 184–212, 226 monetary substitutes, 6, 190, 210, 212, 226, 288, 308 Monfrin, Jacques, 14n17, 19n29 Möngke, 94 Mongol Oirat Code, 56 Mongolian language, 40–42, 74 Mongols: and Chinese culture, 13, 42, 43–67; conflicts among, 53; conquest of Southern China by, 51, 91, 100–101, 122, 169, 223, 225, 235, 244, 258, 328–29, 392, 395; distrust of Chinese by, 55; and footbinding, 46; and Islam, 411; MP on, 18, 19, 43–67; in Persia, 113; religion of, 59; and tea, 45–46 See also military, Mongol; Yuan dynasty monsoons, 66, 82 Montecorvino, Giovanni da, 31, 42, 44, 73, 75 Moule, Arthur Christopher, 369 Mukhali (general), 78–79, 361 Münkler, Marina, 16n22 Münküyev, N Ts., 85 musk trade, 75, 76n276, 86, 170, 242, 290; and salt money, 296, 317 Muslims, 20, 46, 53, 55n173, 69, 166, 167n153, 241, 251, 359, 417 Nangiadai, 52 Nanzhao Kingdom, 243, 244, 245, 258; horses of, 241–42; salt in, 273, 274, 296, 298, 330 Nasr al-Din, 37n85, 52 Natigai, 59 Nayan, 37n85, 51, 85, 360 Nestorianism, 58, 353, 357–58, 411 New Guinea, 288, 316n117, 324 Ningxia, 63, 79, 360; paper money in, 96, 137, 146n120, 199, 209n206, 210, 529 Nokhai, Prince, 19 Nongsang jiyao (Fundamentals of Agriculture and Sericulture), 65 Northern Song dynasty, 89, 90 Öchicher, 70 Odorico da Pordenone, 15n19, 24n43, 44–47, 75, 447–56; on footbinding, 46, 47; and Great Wall, 50; on paper money, 110, 111, 127; on salt, 364, 378–79, 423; on Yangzhou, 353, 364 Ưgưdei Khan, 172 Oliverio, Jacopo de, 353 Olschki, Leonardo, 25, 411 Öngüt, 51 Orissa, 232, 266, 268 Otagi Matsuo, 79 Ottimo manuscript version (V 8), 29n56, 29n58, 32n70, 507 See also Tuscan manuscript versions Oulatay, 81 Palladius (Pjotr Iwanowitsch Kafarow), 1n2 Pang Wenxiu, 128, 133 Panlongan zhuren sheshi changzhu ji (Record of the People’s Charity Contributions for Resident Priests of the Panlong Temple), 259 Pantoja, Diego de, 24n43 paper money, xxi, 2, 8, 89–226; administration of, 120, 121–24; as alchemy, 106, 112, 214, 436; amount in circulation, 215–23; chronology of, 93–104; circulation of, 159–212, 399; colours of, 107, 111, 121, 126, 127–28, 213; convertability of, 163–64, 165; vs cowry money, 190, 210, 262, 263, 265, 269; denominations of, 96–98, 100, 102, 103, 107, 109, 110, 114, 121, 129–30, 131, 191; depreciation of, 163, 164, 171, 215, 225, 226, 319, 322, 323, 377, 384; designs on, 131–34; destruction of used, 176–77; distribution of, 95, 121–22, 182, 183–212, 214; donations in, 266; equivalences of, 99, 100, 158–59; exchange of luxury goods for, 4, 107, 108, 161–62, 165, 166–168, 171–172, 214–215; exchange of used, 160, 168, 174–79, 185, 213, 215, 216, 424; exchange rates for, 158, 368, 374–75, 382–84; falsification of, 173–74; and gold, 99, 100, 190, 210; and inflation, 91, 100, 101, 104, 115, 179, 215, 225, 308, 376; languages on, 103, 105, 116, 117, 134, 135, 150, 151, 152, 156; and legal system, 161–65; legends on, 131–40; military use of, 94, 100, 109, 112, 122; MP on, 106–9, 119, 213, 343, 399, 412, 420, 429–38; and MP’s official post, 363, 364; official use of, 94–95, 100, 181, 199, 201, 213, 266, 329; periodisation of, 145–46, 152, 191–98; in Persia, 113–18, 160, 174, 226; printing of, 45, 114, 116, 121, 123–24, 128–29; in private transactions, 181–83, 213; production of, 106, 114, 120–59, 215; raw materials for, index 64n237, 107, 110, 114, 116, 121, 124–28, 213; and salt money, 190, 210, 295, 324; vs salt money, 190, 210, 226; and salt revenues, 271, 367–68; seals on, 97, 103, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 116, 121, 127, 128–29, 137, 144, 145–57; serial numbers on, 135, 145; in Sichuan, 200, 210, 399; and silver, 92, 99, 100, 115, 158–59, 190, 211, 242; sizes of, 129–31, 213; Song, 89, 101, 122, 126, 128, 190, 209, 220, 223; sources on, 109–13, 118, 119, 120–212, 399, 439–70; in Southern China, 101, 170, 200, 212, 220, 223; surviving examples of, 4, 9, 97, 103–5, 121–38, 146–57, 158, 213, 529–41; and tax revenues, 96, 101, 179–81, 183, 377–82, 384, 386, 387, 393; in Yunnan, 200–201, 210, 266, 289, 399 pasta, 65 Pauthier, Guillaume, 115, 340, 349, 350, 376n31, 469, 496; on tax revenues, 365, 367, 368 Pegolotti, Francesco di Balduccio, 22, 24, 26–27, 28, 171, 459–62; on paper money, 110, 111, 112, 159 Pegu, 229, 232, 268 Pelliot, Paul, 234, 349 Peng Hai, 13n16, 68n251, 69n253, 71, 77–80, 400n4; on MP, 289–90, 424; on MP’s official post, 353–54, 357, 360–62 Peng Xinwei, 215–20 People’s Republic of China (PRC), 307–8 Persia: MP in, 19, 69, 74; paper money in, 113–18, 160, 174, 226 Persian language, 44; place names in, 13, 39–42 Persian sources: on cities, 415–17; on denominations, 159; on monetary institutions, 124; vs MP, 213, 399, 410, 411, 420, 424; and MP’s official post, 364; on paper money, 109–13, 119; on Polos, 82; on salt money, 293; on salt production, 333, 340 Petech, Luciano, xxii Phags-pa script, 41, 137; on paper money, 103, 105, 134, 135, 150, 151, 152, 156; on seals, 157, 177 Philip IV (king of France), 117 Philippines, 256, 257 Pipino, Francesco, 31–32, 34, 50 Pipino manuscript version (V 4), 17, 18, 20, 21, 31–32, 294, 498–501; Arabic/Persian words in, 41; on counterfeiting, 173, 174; on paper money, 106–9, 181, 205, 206, 433–34; on printing, 128; on salt money, 637 293; on seals, 145; on tax revenues, 372, 381 place names, 36–37, 38, 399; Persian, 13, 39–42 Pliny the Elder, 286n27 Polo, Maffeo (uncle), xxiv, 12, 50; missions of, 14, 72, 76; and tablets of authority, 84, 85; at Xiangyang siege, 13n16, 67, 68n251 Polo, Marco (MP): biases of, 45, 66; death of, 44, 50; exaggerations by, 67–68, 69, 73, 74; itinerary of, 13, 36–37; language abilities of, 40–41, 70; as merchant, 16n22, 24–28, 36, 423; missions of, 69–75, 84–85; nickname of, xxiii, 7; notes of, 38; official posts of, 4, 7, 13n16, 14, 23, 24, 68, 75, 348–64, 389–91, 411, 415, 423–25; possessions of, 85–86; as prisoner, 16, 17, 18, 19, 38, 82, 357; return of, 14, 80–84, 116; wealth of, xxiv, 76; wife of, 87 See also divisament dou monde, Le Polo, Marco (uncle; lo grando: of Soldachia), xxiii Polo, Nicolò (father), xxiii, xxiv, 12, 38; as first “Latin,” 67; missions of, 14, 72, 76; and tablets of authority, 84; at Xiangyang siege, 13n16, 67, 68n251 porcelain, 64, 207; and cowry money, 234, 267 porcellani (little pigs; cowries), 268 Portuguese printed version (V 15), 381, 520–21 postal service, Mongol, 57, 76, 85, 361, 362 Pozza, Marco, xxiii Pratica della Mercatura (Pegolotti), 22, 459–62 See also Pegolotti, Francesco di Balduccio prices, 96, 184; and paper money, 182, 375–76; of salt, 318–23, 376 printing, 43, 126; with moveable type, 136, 145; MP on, 420; of paper money, 45, 114, 116, 121, 123–24, 128–29 Qiandao huiyao (State Regulations of the Qiandao Period), 345 Qianziwen (One Thousand Character Primer), 135 Qielie (Qielai), 251 Qin Shihuang, 48 Qing dynasty: salt money in, 301–6; salt production in, 276, 278, 341, 344 Qingyuan, 253, 395, 396, 397, 398 Qiu Chuji, 48 638 index Quanzhou (Zayton), 28n54, 73, 207; foreign trade in, 64n236, 167, 253, 394–98; MP on, 7, 62n223, 416; MP’s return from, 69, 82, 360, 414; Muslims in, 424n10; paper money in, 204, 211 Rada, Martín de, 46, 49 Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, xxiv, 21, 22, 32, 33, 38, 51, 291; on tax revenues, 371; on tea, 46 Ramusio printed version (V 11), 17, 68n251, 381, 513–15; authenticity of, 294; on counterfeiting, 173, 174; on distribution of paper money, 205, 206, 208; on missions, 81n208; on MP’s official post, 350, 363; on Nine Kingdoms, 369; on paper money, 106–9, 129, 144, 181, 434–36; on printing, 128; on salt, 296; on salt money, 291–95, 318, 326, 328; on seals, 145, 152, 157; on tax revenues, 372 Rashid al-Din, 74, 87, 349, 475; on cities, 414n63, 415, 417; on Kökechin mission, 11n14, 81; on paper money, 113, 116, 214n215, 445–46 Reichert, Folker, 15n19, 35, 112 religion: and currencies, 258–59, 266; and geography, 411, 412; and Khubilai Khan, 52; and missions, 72, 76; MP on, 57–59, 422 See also Catholic church; Christianity; Islam; Nestorianism Renzong, Emperor, 102 Republican period (China), 307 rhubarb, 64n237 Riccardus, Friar, 73n266 Ricci, Matteo, 24n43, 49 Richthofen, Ferdinand von, 306 Rome, ancient, 286 Rossabi, Morris, 69 Rubroek, Willem van, 22, 29, 50, 52n157, 73n266, 87, 411; on Chinese script, 44–45; on paper money, 111, 112, 128, 129, 439 Rustichello da Pisa (Rusticiaus de Pise), 14–19, 26, 30, 31, 33n70, 38; exaggerations by, 39, 67, 68, 74, 351, 409 Ryukyu Islands, 256, 257 Sadr al-Din, 113, 115 Saianfu (Xiangyangfu), 203, 409 Saiyid Ajall Shams al-Din ‘Umar [al-Bukhari], 251, 262–63, 329 salamander (asbestos), 8n8, 62–63 salt, 271–348; in barter trade, 308; dry-boiled, 311–12; earth, 334, 335–38, 420; forms of, 309–15; government monopoly of, 271, 366–79; handmoulded, 312–14; lake, 332, 338, 339; MP on, 271–72, 364, 400, 410, 419, 420–22, 425, 491–528; prices of, 318–23, 376; sea, 279, 319, 331, 332, 334, 339, 344, 420, 422; tax revenues from, 280, 366–79, 400, 543; taxes on, 180, 181, 271, 272, 276, 319, 343, 344, 361; trade in, 241, 242, 271, 272 salt administration, 9; in Lianghuai region, 339–48; and local government, 390; and MP, 349, 362, 364, 422–23; in Yunnan, 273 salt money, 2, 5–6, 8, 412; ambiguous nature of, 317, 326, 327; in Caindu, 210, 290–91, 295, 296, 299, 322–24, 328; Chinese sources on, 295, 297–309, 315–30, 400; and cowry money, 260, 286, 307, 324, 325, 328, 329; in Ethiopia, 286–87, 317–18; exchange rates for, 290, 295–96, 317–18, 320–21, 323; government control of, 271, 295–96, 298, 315, 318, 319, 323, 328–30; and indigenous peoples, 297–98, 300, 301, 306, 315, 326–27; monetary functions of, 324–28, 329; MP on, 268, 271, 285–97, 315–30, 410, 420, 491–528; vs paper money, 190, 210, 226, 295, 324; and place names, 399; in PRC, 307–8; in pre-Columbian America, 287–88; private sector use of, 315, 323, 325–26, 330; public sector use of, 329; and salt forms, 314–15; surviving examples of, 287; in Tebet, 210, 272, 282, 290–91, 295, 317, 318, 324, 327, 331; weight of, 295, 315–17; in Yunnan, 6, 272, 282, 289, 322, 331 salt production, xix, 5, 8, 57, 296–97; in Changlu region, 6, 201, 331, 332–39, 420; in Europe, 316n117, 339, 421; in Lianghuai region, 339–48; maritime, 319; in Ming dynasty, 278, 279, 280, 341, 344; and place names, 399; in Qing dynasty, 276, 278, 341, 344; quotas for, 320–21; revenues from, 7, 271–72, 280, 386; and salt money, 301, 303, 305–6, 309, 317; in Sichuan, 271, 272, 273, 280–81, 297, 332; from wells, 420–22; in Yunnan, 271, 272–85, 297, 309–15 Saman, 78, 361 Samarqandi, ‘Abd ar-Razzaq as-, 468–69 Santa Maria della Misericordia confraternity, xxiii Santaella versions: (V 16), 293, 372, 381, 521–22; (V 17), 523–24 index Sanyang tuzhi (Chaozhou gazetteer), 405 Sarezana, Ventura de, 73 Savignone, Andalo da, 73 Schurmann, Herbert Franz, 180, 383, 396 Schütte, Hans-Wilm, 39, 43, 128, 350–51 Science and Civilization in China (Needham), 281 seals: for counterfeiting, 175; and destruction of notes, 176, 177; languages on, 157, 177; on letters, 117; MP on, 145, 152, 157, 213; on paper money, 97, 103, 105, 107, 109–11, 114, 116, 121, 127–29, 137, 144, 145–57; on used notes, 178 Sédillot, René, 327 Segre, Cesare, 15, 16 Sessa printed version (V 10), 17, 22, 295, 372, 381, 512–13 Sévérac, Jordan Catala de, 457–58 sexuality, 20, 59, 60 Shaanxi: Branch Secretariat of, 185, 189, 190, 200, 209, 403; paper money in, 105, 123, 126, 136, 185, 186, 216, 532 shamans, 60 Shan states, 242 Shandong: military in, 405; paper money in, 93, 164, 175, 534; sea salt in, 271, 331, 332 Shang dynasty, 235 Shang Ting, 94 Shang Zhiweng, 127 Shangdu See Kaiping Shanghai: currencies in, 483, 484, 531; foreign trade in, 253, 395, 397 Shazhou, 199, 411, 416 Shen Gua, 47 Shi Jianjun, 290 Shi Weimin, 383 Shu Kingdom, 296 Siam, 241; and cowry money, 229, 231, 232, 239, 253, 261, 268 Sichuan, 329, 404; currencies in, 2, 89, 90, 200, 210, 253, 324, 399; and Nine Kingdoms, 369, 370; salt production in, 271, 272, 273, 280–81, 297, 332, 421–22 See also Caindu; Chengdu; Tebet silk: as currency, 95, 96, 258; and paper money, 93, 126; production of, 407; taxes paid in, 180, 383–84, 393, 542; trade in, 170, 241, 242, 351 silver, 2, 4; in Central Asia, 169, 171; and cowry money, 233, 236–38, 268–69; currencies based on, 96, 98, 102, 158, 216, 218–23; as currency, 92, 94, 95, 226, 269, 412; denominations of, 239; distribution 639 of, 191–98; donations in, 266; in Europe, 169, 171; exchange of, 107, 108, 165; exchange rates for, 236–38, 243, 249, 264, 303, 319, 322, 368, 373–75, 384; government monopoly of, 160–73, 214; importance of, 168–71; mining of, 243, 246, 247, 248; MP on, 243, 248, 410, 420; and paper money, 92, 99, 100, 115, 158–59, 190, 211, 242; and place names, 399; private sector use of, 161–63, 170, 242, 269; public sector use of, 266, 269; reserves of, 92, 93, 94, 96, 102; restrictions on, 101, 102, 161–63, 170; and salt money, 287, 304, 305, 306, 317–18, 319, 320–21, 324, 325, 330; surviving examples of, 9; taxes paid in, 280, 383–84, 386, 392, 545; in Yunnan, 244, 249–50, 269, 289 Silvestri, Domenico, 50 Simon of Saint-Quentin, 73n266 slavery, 86 Smith, John Masson, 475 Sögätü, 52 Solagna, Guglielmo di, 15n19 Soltania, Archbishop of, 110, 111, 159, 174, 215, 456–57 Song dynasty: administrative divisions of, 401, 403, 407; and cities, 413–14; demonetarization in, 217, 220; paper money in, 89, 126, 128, 190, 209, 216; salt production in, 334, 341, 422 See also Northern Song dynasty; Southern Song dynasty Song Yingxing, 337 Sorg, Anton, 34 Southeast Asia: cowry money in, 4, 227–69; missions to, 69, 71, 74 See also particular countries and regions Southern China See Manzi Southern Song dynasty: administrative divisions of, 400, 404, 405; currencies of, 90, 91, 101, 171, 196, 212, 220, 223; Mongol conquest of, 100–101, 122, 169; and Nanzhao horses, 242; Nine Kingdoms of, 369–71; salt administration in, 340 Southwest Silk Road (Cowry Currency Road), 239–40, 250, 253, 256, 257, 326 Spanish versions, 34–35; printed (V 18), 524–25 Sri Lanka (Ceylon), 71, 82, 167, 170, 268 Stabilisation Storehouses (pingzhun ku), 184–89, 205, 209–11 Stange, Hans O H., 5n5 stele inscriptions, 191–98 640 index Streicher, Fr., 5n5 Su Song, 335, 336n10 sugar, 65–66 Sulu Islands, 257 Sumatra, 66, 257 Suwar al-aqalim (Configuration of Climes; Rashid al-Din), 415 Suzhou, 41n97, 64n237, 407, 410, 416, 422; paper money in, 189, 199, 203 Swiss National Bank, 217, 222 Sylhet (Bengal), 242 Szceśniak, Boleslaw, xxiii Tabakat-i-Nasiri, 268 tablets of authority (paizi), 14, 76, 84–88, 361 Tadinfu (Dongpinglu), 201, 407–9, 410 Tagir, Sulaiman al-, 268 Taipingjisi, 358 Taiyuan, 200, 251, 336, 413, 416 Taizhou, 202, 400; and MP’s official post, 364; salt production in, 337, 339, 341, 345, 346, 347 Tang dynasty, 242, 244, 257; salt in, 274, 276, 296 Tang Shenwei, 335–36, 339 Tangut language, 45 Tangut Xixia kingdom, 89 tax revenues, 542–46; from Hangzhou region, xxiv, 7, 365–98; MP on, 368–69, 379–81, 384–85, 387–91, 419, 422–23, 425; and paper money, 96, 101, 179–181, 183, 377–382, 384, 386, 387, 393; and place names, 399; from salt, 280, 366–79, 400, 543; total, 379–91 taxes, 6, 7; and bills of exchange, 90; commercial, 391–93, 394, 543–44; in cowry money, 237, 238, 243, 252, 263, 264–65, 269, 329, 383–84, 542; on foreign trade, 394–98; in gold, 384, 386, 545; in kind, 383–85, 386; on mining, 246; and MP’s official post, 364; and paper money, 96, 101, 115, 179–81, 183; relief from, 57; on salt, 180, 181, 271, 272, 276, 319, 343, 344, 361; and salt money, 287, 315; in silk, 180, 383–84, 393, 542; in silver, 95, 280, 383–84, 386, 392, 545; on tea, 46, 180, 181, 543; of Yunnan salt, 279–80 tea, 90, 241; drinking of, 43, 45–46; taxes on, 46, 180, 181, 543 Tebet (western Sichuan), 6; MP on, 74, 295, 420; paper money in, 210, 399; salt money in, 272, 282, 290–91, 295, 317, 318, 324, 327, 331; salt prices in, 323 textiles: as currency, 95, 298; MP on, 53, 63–64; and paper money, 107, 168; taxes paid in, 180, 383–84, 543; trade in, 167, 299, 308 See also silk Thailand See Siam Theodolus, 73–74 Tiangong kaiwu (Heaven, Work and the Inception of Things; Song Yingxing), 337 Tibetan language, 45 Tibetans, 296 See also Tebet tin mining, 247 Toaldo, Giuseppe, 292 Toghril, 51 Toghun Temür (Shundi emperor), 73 Tongking (Jiaozhou), 240, 253, 260 tongxing jiaochao (exchange notes to be circulated), 96 Tongzhou: and MP’s official post, 361, 364; paper money in, 202; salt in, 337, 339, 341, 345–47, 400 trade: barter, 302, 308; horses, 252, 264, 265, 299; in local vs foreign goods, 395; musk, 75, 76n276, 86, 170, 242, 290, 296, 317; prohibitions on, 161–63, 170; salt, 241, 242, 271, 272; salt money in, 296, 317, 325–26; silk, 170, 241, 242, 351; and silver, 161–63, 170, 242, 269; tea, 90, 241; in textiles, 167, 299, 308; with water buffaloes, 299 trade, foreign: and currency, 89; government monopoly on, 395–96, 397, 398; with India, 241; MP on, 394, 398; protection of, 172–73; taxes on, 394–98 See also luxury goods Trauzettel, Rolf, 5n5 Trebizond, 249 tribute payments, 180n182, 241, 326; in cowry money, 263, 265, 269 Trigault, Nicolas, 24n43 Tu Ji, 78n283 Tucci, Ugo, 24, 25, 27, 43 Túghlák, Mahomed, 115n45, 226 Turkic languages, 40–42, 44 Tuscan manuscript versions (V 8), 15, 32–34, 41, 293, 295, 372, 381, 507–10 Uematsu Tadashi, 401 Uighur language, 41, 42, 45 Uighur people, 60, 359; as merchants, 94, 100, 170 index umbrellas, 55 Uzzano, 27 Valla, Lorenzo, xvii, xix Velho, Bartholemeu, 49 Velser, Michael, 34 Venetian language, 38n87 Venetian versions: (V 7), 18n27, 20, 21, 32, 33, 34, 41, 293, 295, 372, 381, 505–7; (V 9), 510–11 Venice, 31, 267–68, 272 Vicentini, Enrico Abramo, 35 Vietnam, 69, 74, 232 Vilione, Antonio, 353 Vilione, Domenico, 88, 351, 353 Vilione, Katarina, 351 von Glahn, Richard, 128, 136n99, 163, 164, 260, 329, 410 von Tscharner, Horst, 33 Wang Chong, 244–45 Wang Dayuan, 28 Wang Sheng, 264, 269 Wang Shidian, 127 Wang Wentong, 94 Wang Yun, 48 Wang Zhu, 52 Wassaf, 174, 377–78, 379, 423, 439–45 water buffaloes, 280, 288, 297, 299 Watson, Andrew M., 169 Wehr, Barbara, 17, 19, 21, 294 weights and measures, 9, 27; of currencies, 236–37, 295, 315–17, 475–76; Venetian, 474 See also miskal Western sources: on denominations, 159; on monetary institutions, 124; vs MP, 213, 399, 410, 420, 424; and MP’s official post, 364; on paper money, 119; on salt money, 293 women, 46–47, 87 Woni (Hani) barbarians, 259, 269 Wood, Frances, 5, 12, 17, 20–22, 43, 48; on cities, 415; on cowries, 267; on manuscript versions, 291–92, 293, 295n58; on MP’s official post, 349; on salt, 271, 273, 280; on tablets, 85 Wu Hanchen, 127 Wu Jie, 216 Wu Qi, 215–17, 220–23 Xiangwei, 78, 361–62 Xiangyang, 416; MP on, 422; siege of, 4, 5n5, 13n16, 14, 67–68, 409 641 Xiasha saltworks, 334, 335, 336 Xiezhou salt lake, 338, 339, 421 Xin Tangshu (New History of the Tang), 258 Xixia Kingdom, 69n253, 89 Xu Xiake, 304 Xuzhou, 63, 201, 422n5 Yachi See Kunming Yajima Hikoichi, 171n165 Yan Xinzhai, 175 Yang Lianzhenjia, 166 Yang Lien-sheng, 225 Yang Zhijiu, 10n9, 12n16, 45, 66, 81, 359 Yangzhou, 370, 407, 410, 416, 422; administrative structure of, 348–64; arms industry in, 351, 361; Italian gravestones in, 87, 351, 353; military in, 405; MP as official in, 4, 7, 13n16, 14, 68, 348–64, 389–91; MP on, 400, 422; MP’s missions to, 69; and salt, 341, 342, 346–47, 348, 378, 379, 447 Yangzijiang (Yangzi River), 37n85, 341, 343, 403–4 Yanjing (Zhongdu), 121, 142, 184 Yanyuan saltworks (Sichuan), 296–97 Ye Ziqi, 401, 405 Yelü Chucai, 93, 391 Yemen, 250 Yinshan zhengyao (Proper and Essential Things for the Emperor’s Food and Drink; Hu Sihui), 45–46, 66 Yizheng, 343–44, 364 Yokkaichi Yasuhiro, 170 Yongchang See Zardandan Yongle dadian (Great Encyclopedia of the Yongle Reign-period), 80–81 Yu Ji, 71 Yu Xilu, 357–58 Yuan dynasty: administrative structure of, 348–64, 369–71, 399–417; monetary policy of, 91–92, 94, 95–96, 101; multiethnic policy of, 40 See also government administration, Yuan; Mongols Yuan yitong zhi (Comprehensive Account of Administrative Geography of the Yuan; Beilan), 299 Yuanshi (History of the Yuan), 1, 42; on administrative divisions, 402–3, 406, 408, 409, 410; Boluo in, 77–78, 79, 349; on commercial taxes, 392, 393; on demonetarization, 217; on denominations, 192; on gold, 246; on 642 index government administration, 355, 356; on luxury goods, 166, 167; on Mongol missions, 72; and MP, 80, 360, 362, 420, 424; on Nine Kingdoms, 370; on paper money, 215, 216; on salt money, 318; on salt production, 421–22; on taxes, 179, 180, 181 Yue Shi, 164 Yule, Henry, 39n90, 85, 98, 112, 357; on administrative divisions, 343, 401; on cowry money, 234, 236–37; on exchange rates, 368; on MP’s official post, 349–50; on Nine Kingdoms, 369; on paper money, 158, 447; on place names, 407–8; on salt, 317–18, 340 Yule translations, 458, 460–62; on Odoric, 455–56; on tax revenues, 365, 372, 376n31, 378; (V 21), 290, 436–38 Yunlongjing saltworks (Yunnan), 284 Yunnan: cowry money in, 4, 227–69, 289, 300; currencies in, 2, 289, 303–5; denominational systems in, 238–39; exchange rates in, 38, 243, 264; gold in, 2, 38, 243, 244, 264, 269, 289; mining in, 243–50; Mongol conquest of, 235, 258; MP on, 74, 268, 289–90, 420; paper money in, 200–201, 210, 266, 289, 399; salt money in, 6, 272, 282, 289, 322, 331; salt production in, 271, 272–85, 297, 309–15; vs Sichuan, 281–82 See also Carajan Yunnan tujing zhishu (Records of Yunnan [Province] with Maps [and Illustrations]), 299–301 Yunnan zhi (Records of Yunnan; Fan Chuo), 298, 328 Yunnan zhilüe (Draft Account of Yunnan), 259, 299 Z manuscript of Toledo (Zelada Codex; V 6), 15, 17, 19, 20–22, 32, 33, 39n91, 44n113; Arabic/Persian words in, 41; authenticity of, 294; on MP’s official post, 363; on Nine Kingdoms, 369; on paper money, 106n37, 205, 208, 210, 211, 434; rediscovery of, 291n47; on salt money, 291–92, 503–5; vs Sessa version, 295n58; on tax revenues, 371, 372, 381; on women, 47 Zardandan (Yongchang), 245, 411; cowry money in, 264, 265, 269; paper money in, 201; salt money in, 299, 322; silver mining in, 243, 248–49; war of, 51 Zelada, Francisco Xavier de, 292 Zhang Bi, 127 Zhang Dehui, 48 Zhang Gui, 166 Zhang Guowang, 346 Zhang Xilong, 10n9 Zhang Yi, 52 Zhao Rugua, 28n54 Zhejiang, 271, 332, 371, 372 Zheng Jiefu, 210–11 Zhenghe pharmacopoeia (Chongxiu Zhenghe jingshi zhenglei beiyong bencao), 335–36, 339 Zhenjiang, 63, 203, 404, 416; local government in, 390; Nestorians in, 58, 357–59, 362 Zhenzhou, 68n251, 203, 339, 347, 401n9, 403 Zhida yinchao (Zhida Silver Notes), 102; amount in circulation, 216, 218–23 Zhishun Zhenjian zhi (Local Gazetteer of Zhenjiang from the Zhishun Reign-period; Yu Xilu), 357–58 Zhiyuan chao (Zhiyuan tongxing baochao; Zhiyuan Treasure Notes to be Circulated in All [Routes]): amount in circulation, 216, 218–23; blocks for printing, 124; convertability of, 164; on counterfeiting, 173; denominations of, 98, 102, 103, 191; depreciation of, 164; exchange rates for, 374; introduction of, 143, 163; legends on, 132–40; and periodisation, 145; sizes of, 129–31; surviving examples of, 121, 126, 129–31, 151–57, 529–41 Zhong Changyong, 276 Zhongtang shiji (Records from the Court), 167–68 Zhongtong chao (Zhongtong yuanbao jiaochao; Zhongtong Primordial-treasure Exchange Notes): amount in circulation, 216, 218–23; convertability of, 164; counterfeiting of, 173; denominations of, 96–98, 100, 191; depreciation of, 102, 377, 388–89; equivalences of, 378, 379; exchange rates for, 374–75; introduction of, 182; legends on, 132–40; periodisation of, 145; seals on, 157; and silver, 169; sizes of, 130–31; surviving examples of, 104–5, 121, 126, 130–31, 146–51, 209n206, 529–41; and taxes, 380–82, 383, 387, 392 Zhongtong lichao (Zhongtong Fractional Notes), 98, 100 index Zhongtong yinhuo (Zhongtong [Paper] Currency Based on Silver), 96, 98, 158 Zhongxing huiyao (State Regulations of the First Two Reign-periods), 345–46 Zhou dynasty, 235 Zhu Jiang, 353, 354, 359 643 Zhu Xuan, 127 Zhufan zhi (A Description of Barbarous People; Zhao Rugua), 28n54 zinc mining, 305 Zurficar, 62 ... Cataloging -in- Publication Data Vogel, Hans Ulrich Marco Polo was in China : new evidence from currencies, salts and revenues / by Hans Ulrich Vogel   p cm — (Monies, markets, and finance in East... Markets, and Finance in East Asia, 1600–1900 Edited by Hans Ulrich Vogel VOLUME The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/mmf Marco Polo Was in China New Evidence from Currencies, Salts. .. Chine impériale, et aussi par un important travail Salt Production Techniques in Ancient China (Leiden, Brill, 1992) Le présent ouvrage Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts