Food Policy in the United States This book offers a broad introduction to food policies in the United States Real-world controversies and debates motivate the book's attention to economic principles, policy analysis, nutrition science and contemporary data sources It assumes that the reader's concern is not just the economic interests of farmers, but also includes nutrition, sustainable agriculture, the environment and food security The book's goal is to make U.S food policy more comprehensible to those outside the agri-food sector whose interests and aspirations have been ignored The chapters cover U.S agriculture, food production and the environment, international agricultural trade, food and beverage manufacturing, food retail and restaurants, food safety, dietary guidance, food labeling, advertising and federal food assistance programs for the poor The author is an agricultural economist with many years of experience in the nonprofit advocacy sector, the U.S Department of Agriculture, and as a professor at Tufts University The author's wellknown blog on U.S food policy provides a forum for discussion and debate of the issues set out in the book Parke Wilde is Associate Professor, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, USA He has a Ph.D in Agricultural Economics from Cornell University He is past chair of the Food Safety and Nutrition Section of the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association and current member of the Food Forum of the Institute of Medicine Previously, he worked for the Community Nutrition Institute and for USDA's Economic Research Service Since 2004 he has run a highly respected blog, “U.S Food Policy: a Public Interest Perspective.” Food Policy in the United States An Introduction Parke Wilde First published 2013 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Parke Wilde The right of Parke Wilde to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wilde, Parke Food policy in the United States : an introduction / Parke Wilde p cm – (Earthscan food and agriculture) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-84971-428-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-84971-429-7 (pbk.) – ISBN 9780-203-12179-5 (e-book) Nutrition policy–United States I Title II Series: Earthscan food and agriculture TX360.U6W55 2013 363.80973–dc23 2012039666 ISBN: 978-1-84971-428-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-84971-429-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-12179-5 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by GreenGate Publishing Services, Tonbridge, Kent Contents List of illustrations Acknowledgments Acronyms Making food policy in the United States Agriculture Food production and the environment Food and agricultural trade Food manufacturing PARKE WILDE AND DANIEL HATFIELD Food retailing and restaurants PARKE WILDE AND DANIEL HATFIELD Food safety Dietary guidance and health Food labeling and advertising 10 Hunger and food insecurity 11 Nutrition assistance programs for children 12 Postscript – looking forward References Index Illustrations Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2 6.3 A social ecological framework for nutrition and physical activity decisions The USDA Economic Research Service food marketing dollar, 2010 The U.S Congress: selected committees and legislative branch agencies that are influential in U.S food policy The executive branch: selected federal departments and independent agencies that are influential in U.S food policy Agricultural value added in USDA farm resource regions U.S agricultural value added by industry, 2007 The U.S corn market, with a support price of $2.00 per bushel (hypothetical) The U.S corn market, with a deficiency payment target of $2.00 per bushel (hypothetical) Government payments from U.S farm programs, 1996–2010 Food energy per person in the food supply of the United States and the world, 1970–2007 Animal feed and corn ethanol are the leading uses of U.S corn production U.S greenhouse gas emissions, allocated to economic sectors, 2009 Government payments from U.S agricultural conservation programs, 1996–2010 U.S agricultural exports and imports, 1980–2011 A hypothetical model of trade in corn (maize) between the United States and the rest of the world A hypothetical model of trade in corn (maize) with a $0.50 tariff as a trade barrier FAO real food price index (2002-2004=100), 1996–2012 Market Price Support (MPS) shows the subsidy to U.S producers generated by trade barriers, 1996–2010 The Producer Support Estimate (PSE) represents the total subsidy to U.S producers generated by trade barriers and domestic programs, 1996–2010 Total value of shipments by food manufacturing sector, 2010 A model of price and quantity determination under (a) competitive markets, (b) monopoly and (c) oligopoly U.S consumer food spending, 1996–2010 Map of a hypothetical community food retail environment Map of the food retail environment in St Louis 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Map of a hypothetical marketing space for restaurant brands The theory of consumer choice (with original prices) The theory of consumer choice (with lower food prices) Changes in the official U.S Consumer Price Index (CPI) for major food categories from the early 1980s to the late 2000s Six food safety technologies for pork processing, with different costs and different percentage reductions in pathogen contamination Annual deaths from leading causes, per 100,000 population, in 1970 and 2007 Prevalence of overweight and obesity for men and women, as a percentage of the adult population, in the 1970s and 2000s USDA's MyPlate graphic and selected messages for consumers, 2011 Eating pattern comparison: usual U.S intake for adults (adjusted to a 2,000 Calorie level) as a percentage of the corresponding recommendation in the USDA Food Pattern A spectrum of food labeling and advertising policy stances, ranging from mandatory information to prohibition against false and misleading claims FDA illustration describing the interpretation of a sample Nutrition Facts Panel for a hypothetical packaged food product Annual revenue from mandatory assessments for the federal government's seven largest commodity checkoff programs, 2010 The prevalence of household food insecurity in the United States, 1995–2010, and the Healthy People 2010 target SNAP participants, people in poverty and unemployed people, 1985–2010 SNAP participants and unemployment rates across the States, 2008 An inframarginal or unconstrained consumer An extramarginal or constrained consumer Prevalence of obesity among children aged 2–19 years, by poverty level and sex, in two time periods The school nutrition “trilemma” Mean school lunches served per school day, 1985–2010 Distribution of lunches by reported cost per reimbursable lunch Mean monthly WIC participants, 1985–2011 Tables 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 Authorizing legislation: mandatory programs in a new Farm Bill for 10 fiscal years, 2013– 2022 Appropriations: agriculture and related agencies in a single fiscal year, 2013 U.S farms, by type, 2010 Six broad categories of farm policy interventions U.S government program payments and mean income for farm operators' households, by type, 2009 3.1 4.1 4.2 5.1 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.1 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 The negotiated solution to a hypothetical argument between a hog farmer and neighbors depends on property rights and assumptions about the value of a facility Six broad categories of trade policy interventions Leading international organizations use two classification systems for measuring producer support from trade policy and subsidy programs Four-firm concentration ratios (CR4) and Herfindahl-Hirschman Indices (HHI) for food manufacturing industries, 2007 A hypothetical example of a price index for three fruits and the actual Consumer Price Index (CPI) for fruits and vegetables, 1993–2010 Mean time use in primary activities for U.S persons (ages 15 and older), 2011 The top 10 pathogen-food combinations based on the annual burden of economic costs, illnesses and deaths Pesticide residue detections for fruits and vegetables sampled through USDA's Pesticide Data Program, 2008 Selected major U.S food safety agencies Selected comparisons of USDA Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) activities and responsibilities Age-adjusted death rates (per 100,000 population) for leading dietrelated diseases, by race and ethnicity status, 2007 Prevalence of overweight and obesity (as percentage of population), 1988–2008 Key recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 Elasticities show how beverage quantities respond to changes in prices and total beverage spending Selected milestones in food labeling law, 1906–2010 Ten adult-referenced survey items used for all households in the 12-month U.S Food Security Supplement Eight child-referenced survey items used for households with children in the 12-month U.S Food Security Supplement The effect of different constraints on the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP) Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) summary description (a) Food spending relative to the Thrifty Food Plan budget and (b) prevalence of household food insecurity, by income category and SNAP participation status, 2010 National School Lunch Program (NSLP) summary description School Breakfast Program (SBP) summary description Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) summary description Summary of public comments on selected issues in USDA's proposed new school meals standards, 2011 Boxes 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.2 9.1 9.2 10.1 10.2 10.3 11.1 11.2 11.3 The economics of price supports for corn The economics of deficiency payments Biotechnology Animal feed and biofuels The economics of international trade in corn The economics of trade barriers in corn Sugar politics Global trends in agricultural prices The economics of monopoly and oligopoly Patents and concentration in the seed industry Time use The economics of consumer choice The economics of choosing the right food safety technology in meat production Food safety and the environment Public access to information about food safety FDA safety review of genetically engineered salmon Conflicts of interest in nutrition science and dietetics Interest group influence on dietary guidance Animal welfare labels An example of voluntary regulation from the files of the National Advertising Division The Thrifty Food Plan Calculator The Food Stamp Challenge The economics of a targeted food benefit Effectiveness of nutrition education programs Specification choices in WIC research Targeted benefits in households with children Wilde, P.E (2011) “Food security policy in developed countries,” in J.Lusk, J.Roosen and J.Shogren (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the Economics of Food Consumption and Policy, Oxford University Press, New York, NY Wilde, P.E (2012) “The new normal: the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP),” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 94 (advance publication online) Wilde, P.E and Llobrera, J (2009) “Using the Thrifty Food Plan to assess the cost of a nutritious diet,” Journal of Consumer Affairs, 43, 274–304 Wilde, P.E and Ranney, C.K (2000) “The monthly food stamp cycle: shopping frequency and food intake decisions in an endogenous switching regression framework,” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 82, 200–213 Wilde, P.E., Troy, L and Rogers, B (2009) “Food stamps and food spending: an Engel function approach,” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 91(2), 416–430 Wilde, P.E., Wolf, A., Fernandes, M and Collins, A (2012) “Food-package assignments and breastfeeding initiation before and after a change in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(3), 560–566 Willett, W., Skerrett, P.J., Giovannucci, E.L and Callahan, M (2005) Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy: the Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating, Free Press, New York, NY Wilson, D and Roberts, J (2012) “Special report: how Washington went soft on childhood obesity,” Reuters, www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/27/us-usa-foodlobbyidUSBRE83Q0ED20120427, accessed November 13, 2012 Wilson, J.Q (1989) Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It, Basic Books, New York, NY Winne, M (2008) Closing the Food Gap: Resetting the Table in the Land of Plenty, Beacon Press, Boston, MA Wohlgenant, M.K (2011) Sweets for the Sweet: The Costly Benefits of the US Sugar Program, American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC Wooldridge, J.M (2009) Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason OH World Bank (2007) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, World Bank, Washington, DC World Bank (2009) World Development Report, 2010: Development and Climate Change, World Bank, Washington, DC World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research (2007) Food, Nutrition,Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective, American Institute for Cancer Research, Washington, DC Zemel, M.B., Richards, J., Mathis, S., Milstead, A., Gebhardt, L and Silva, E (2005) “Dairy augmentation of total and central fat loss in obese subjects,” International Journal of Obesity, 29(4), 391–397 Index Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 15, 141 adulterated 120, 132, 164 advertising 6–7, 137–138, 152–171, 186; by manufacturers 77–82, 92–93; by retailers and restaurants 106–109; to children 1, 138, 157–160, 170, 194, see also checkoff advocacy coalition 2, 6–8, 15, 217; animal welfare 155; farm policy 16, 33–34; food aid 131–132; nutrition assistance 213 agenda setting 8, 15 agricultural economics 2, 16, 29, 44, 87 Agricultural Income and Finance Outlook 17–18 Agricultural Marketing Service 117, 129 agricultural program see counter-cyclical, crop insurance, direct payment, price support, production quota, purchase and removal, supply control Agricultural Resource Management Survey 17–18, 31, 33 agriculture committee 7, 9–11, 15, 31, 63 American Clean Energy and Security Act 51 American Dietetics Association see Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics American Farm Bureau Federation 7, 32, 63 American Heart Association 156 American Institute of Cancer Research 141, 145 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 184, 190 American Soybean Association 32 American Time Use Survey 100, 112 American Veterinary Medicine Association 155 animal welfare 15, 52–53, 155, 171 anti-hunger organization 7, 33, 198, see also Bread for the World, Feeding America, Food Research and Action Center, Oxfam appropriations committee 9, 11, 15, 205, 212 bakery 7, 33, 78, 80–81, 86, 88, 107, 146 baseline 10–11, 15 beef 7, 20, 155; demand expansion 22, 30, 167–170; environmental impact 40, 43; manufacturing 77, 88, 90–92; safety 119, 122–124; trade 58, 70–71 behavioral economics 148, 150–151 Better Business Bureaus 157, 159, see also Children's Advertising Review Unit, Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative, National Advertising Division biofuel 18, 35, 43–44, 64, 77, 148 biotechnology see technology body mass index 105, 135–136, 152 bovine spongiform encephalopathy 114, 119 Brazil 71–72 bread 81, 146, 208 Bread for the World 7, 33 breastfeeding 205–207, 210, 214 budget; budget constraint 110, 113, 188; federal 10–12, 28, 49, 63, 66, 73, 130, 183, 193, 196, 198–199, 204; household 7, 22, 100, 146, 150, 179, 181–182, 187–190, see also baseline, Congressional Budget Office Bureau of Labor Statistics 111–113, 186–187 calcium 80, 82, 139–140, 165, 180–181, 197 California 17–18, 21, 32, 45, 49, 51–52, 75, 90, 102, 117, 155, 165 Calories see food energy Canada 37, 58, 70, 178 cancer 125–127, 134–135, 139, 141, 145 captured agency 12, 15 carbohydrate 81, 144–145 catch share 52 Census Bureau 79, 86, 178, 186–187 Center for National Statistics 175 Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion 141 Center for Responsive Politics 7, 63 Center for Science in the Public Interest 108, 125, 156, 165 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 114, 122–123, 128–129, 135, 149, 159, 177, 195, 210 cereal 77, 80, 83, 85, 92–93, 143, 159–160, 206, 208 cheap food policy 34 checkoff 7, 30, 153, 167–171 Chesapeake Bay Foundation 45 Child and Adult Care Food Program 194 Children's Advertising Review Unit 159 Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative 159 Clayton Antitrust Act 89 Clean Water Act 49 climate change 36, 41, 43, 47–48, 51 climate change 217 commodity see corn, dairy, egg, fruit, hog, National School Lunch Program, oilseed, pork, School Breakfast Program, soybean, sugar, vegetable, wheat community-supported agriculture 98 competition 20, 60, 73, 77, 82–83, 85–87, 89–90, 92–95, 97–99, 108–109, 113, 168 Congress see agriculture committee, appropriations committee, Congressional Budget Office, Congressional Research Service, Government Accountability Office Congressional Budget Office 10–11, 211 Congressional Research Service 10, 12, 122, 155 conservation program see Conservation Reserve Program, Conservation Stewardship Program, Environmental Quality Incentives Program Conservation Reserve Program 26, 50 Conservation Stewardship Program 50 consumer price index 100, 111, 113 conventional 51–53, 93, 127–128, 140 corn 18–19, 22, 24, 27, 30, 32, 41–44, 53, 57–59, 61, 63–64, 68, 70–71, 77, 81–83, 87, 93, 111, 127, 147–148; agriculture 18–19, 30, 32, 41–44, 53, 83, 87, 148; biofuel 18, 22, 30, 44, 64, 68; manufacturing 77, 93; safety 127; subsidies example 24, 27; trade 57–59, 61, 68, 70–71 corn syrup see high-fructose corn syrup Council of Better Business Bureaus see Better Business Bureaus counter-cyclical 28–30, 34, 68 country-of-origin labeling 71, 154, 164–165 crop insurance 10–11, 14, 29–30, 32, 68 Current Population Survey 174, 177, 206 dairy; agriculture 7, 18, 21, 23, 26; demand expansion 30, 161, 167–168, 170; environment 40, 43, 45, 53; health 140, 144–147; manufacturing 75, 80, 86, 88, 90, 92; nutrition assistance 181, 197, 211; trade 56, 66 data source 2, 34, 54, 76, 102, 181, see also Agricultural Income and Finance Outlook, Agricultural Resource Management Survey, American Time Use Survey, Current Population Survey, Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey, Economic Census, FactFinder, FAOSTAT, Feed Grains Database, Food Desert Locator, food expenditure data, FoodNet, Foreign Agricultural Trade of the United States, GRAS Notice Inventory, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report, Healthy People, National School Lunch Program, Pesticide Data Program, Producer Support Estimate, School Breakfast Program, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Survey of Manufactures, unemployment data, Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research, Women, Infants and Children demand function 24, 34, 59, 61, 84–85, 109–110 Department of Commerce 129, see also Census Bureau Department of Health and Human Services 3, 11, 95, 129, 133, 141–142, 145, 147, 157, 159, 165, see also Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, National Center for Health Statistics Department of Housing and Urban Development 104 Department of Justice 85, 90, 92 diabetes 134–135, 144, 195 dietary guidance 6, 40, 133–152, 154, 165, 179–180, 200, 217; Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2, 30, 95, 114, 120, 133–134, 138, 140–146, 160–161, 163, 167, 169 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act 161, 164 dietetics 15, 140–141 difference-in-difference 192–193 direct payment 23, 28–30, 34, 68 discretionary program 9, 11–12, 15, 105, 205, 214 disease 114, 134–139, 144, 149, 163, 195; chronic disease 1–2, 40, 134, 136–137, 197, see also cancer, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, stroke dumping 62, 65, 76 E coli 114, 117, 122–124 Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey 203 Economic Census 86 Economic Research Service; agriculture 7, 18, 31, 33, 44; food deserts 103; food insecurity 177; food spending 4, 96, 107; nutrition assistance 201, 207; trade 57–58 economics see competition, consumer price index, demand function, market failure, property right, agricultural economics, subsidy, supply, tax, value added egg; agriculture 18, 21, 30; animal welfare 155; environment 40; health 142, 144, 146; manufacturing 93; nutrition assistance 208; safety 123, 128–130 elasticity 24, 34, 60, 148–149 electronic benefit transfer 183, 185, 189 emergency food see Emergency Food Assistance Program, food bank, food pantry, soup kitchen Emergency Food Assistance Program 190 Endangered Species Act 49 energy 19, 36, 40–41, 44, 47–48, 51–52, 54, see also biofuel, food energy, petroleum entitlement see mandatory program environment; air 35, 37–39, 49; soil 41, 43, 45–46, 50, 52–53; water 5, 20, 36, 41, 43, 45–46, 49–52, 55, 82, 117, 122, 126, see also climate change, conservation program, environmental organization, greenhouse gas, property right environmental organization see Chesapeake Bay Foundation, Environmental Working Group, Organic Consumers Association, Sustainable Agriculture Coalition Environmental Protection Agency 11–12, 42, 45, 47–49, 120, 126–129 Environmental Quality Incentives Program 50–51 Environmental Working Group 31, 126 ethanol 18, 22, 30, 44, 64–65, 68 ethnicity, 135, 178, 191; hispanic 135, 137, 178, see also race evaluation 8, 15, 90, 127, 191, 197, 204– 205, see also difference-in-difference, instrumental variable, random assignment, regression, self-selection executive branch 2, 7–8, 11, 13, 72, see also Department of Commerce, Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Department of Justice, president, U.S Department of Agriculture externality 5–6, 15, 35–38, 51, 137–138, 216 FactFinder 79, 86 FAOSTAT 40 Farm Bill 10–11, 15, 29, 33, 54, 71, 90, 92, 164, 194, see also agricultural program, conservation program, nutrition assistance farm income 16–17, 28–30, 32, 34 farm organization see American Farm Bureau Federation, American Soybean Association, National Corn Growers Association, National Farmers Union farm worker 1, 20, 35, 74–75, 126 farm-to-school 54 farmers markets 54, 98, 102, 115 fast food 105–106, 158 Federal Clean Air Act 49 Federal Communications Commission 156 Federal Trade Commission 11, 90–91, 93, 156–162, 169 federalism 1, 15 Feed Grains Database 44 Feeding America 172, 190–191, 193 fertilizer 17, 19, 45, 47, 49, 51 fish; environment 36–37, 43, 45, 49, 52; genetically engineered salmon 128; health 146, 167, 206 food aid 25, 30, 57, 72–74, 76 Food and Agriculture Organization 35, 39–40, 44, 55, 64, 72 Food and Drug Administration 12, 42, 80, 107, 114–115, 117, 122–125, 127–131, 133, 156, 159, 161–164, 166–167, 169–170; health 80, 107, 133; labeling 156, 159, 161–164, 166–167, 169–170; safety, 12, 42, 114–115, 117, 122–125, 127–131 Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act 161, 164 Food and Nutrition Service 183, 186–187, 198–199, 201, 204, 207, 211–213 food assistance 25, 33–34, 110, 142, 172– 173, 176–177, 179, 183, 190–191, 201 food at home 4, 15, 95, 97–98, 102, 105, 107, 113, 182, 185 food away from home 4, 15, 95, 105–107, 113 food bank 172–173, 190–191, 193 food desert 99, 101–105, 113 Food Desert Locator 102–103 food energy 18, 39–40, 80, 136–137, 142–143, 165, 167, 180–181, 185, 202 food expenditure data 96 food insecurity 6, 134, 172–194, 203–204, 213, 215 Food Marketing Dollar food pantry 173, 190–191, 193 Food Research and Action Center 173, 182, 211 food safety see Food and Drug Administration, Food Safety Inspection Service, foodborne illness, generally recognized as safe, hazard analysis and critical control point, pesticide Food Safety Inspection Service 119–120, 122–123, 128–130, 156 Food Safety Modernization Act 114, 117, 130–131 food sovereignty 6, 56, 76 food stamps see Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act 124, 164 foodborne illness 114–115, 117, 119–124, 128–129, 217see also bovine spongiform encephalopathy, E coli , Salmonella FoodNet 122 Foreign Agricultural Trade of the United States 57–58 four-firm concentration ratio 21, 83, 85–86, 91–92, 94, 96 Freedom of Information Act 7, 31, 63, 217 front-of-pack 167, 171 frozen food 78, 81, 86, 211 fruit; agriculture 18, 20–21, 28–29, 45, 53–54, 217; health, 115, 141, 143–148, 151, 158, 167, 181; labor markets 178, 184, 186; manufacturing 78, 81, 86; nutrition assistance 185, 205–206, 211–212; prices 3, 100, 111–112; retailing 99, 104, 107 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 69–71 generally recognized as safe 114, 124–125, 132 genetic diversity 43, 46 genetically modified organism 42, 127–128 Germany 178 globalization 1, 14, 19, 38, 56, 60, 76, 217 Government Accountability Office 73–74, 92, 125, 129–130, 161, 208 Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration 90–92 grain see corn, wheat GRAS Notice Inventory 125 green box 67–68, 76 greenhouse gas 40–41, 47–49, 51 Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report 48 Grocery Manufacturers Association 143 hazard analysis and critical control point 123–124, 131 health claim 152–153, 160–164, 169, 171 health organization see Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Heart Association, American Institute of Cancer Research, American Veterinary Medicine Association healthy eating index 203 Healthy People 177, 210 heart disease 134–135, 142, 160–161 Herfindahl-Hirschman Index 85–86, 94 high-fructose corn syrup 44, 63, 81–82 hog 18, 21, 37–39, 79, 88 Humane Society of the United States 15, 155 hunger; anti-hunger organizations 7, 33, 217; anti-hunger programs 6, 10, 11, 14, 148, 172–173, 190–191, 193, 213; children 194, 196 198 204 211; measurement 172–178, 193; poverty 6; world 74 hypertension 144, 147 immigration 57, 74–76 imperfect competition 77, 89, see also four-firm concentration ratio, Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, monopolistic competition, monopoly, monopsony, oligopoly, oligopsony, vertical integration import quota 61–62, 65, 76 inflation 57, 64, 95, 109, 112–113, 178, 180, 184, 207 Institute of Medicine 2, 125, 157–159, 167, 194–195, 205, 210–211 instrumental variable 192–193 interest group 2, 6–8, 13, 32, 128, 131, 143, 145, see also anti-hunger organization, farm organization, public interest organization, trade association Iowa 10, 17, 123 irrigation 43, 45, 49, 117, 122 Japan 58, 178 labeling see advertising, country-of-origin, Food and Drug Administration, food safety, front-ofpack, genetically modified organism, health claim labor; emergency food 190; farm workers 1–2, 17, 19–20, 53, 217; immigration 57, 74–75; manufacturing 91–92, 217; retailing and restaurants 98–99, 106; women 4, 100, 105, 137 law see American Clean Energy and Security Act, American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, Clayton Antitrust Act, Clean Water Act, Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, Endangered Species Act, Farm Bill, Federal Clean Air Act, Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act, Food Safety Modernization Act, Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, Freedom of Information Act, Nutrition Labeling and Education Act, Sherman Act Let's Move 55, 210 local food 14, 17, 38, 52–55, 101, 104, 115, 190 mad cow disease see bovine spongiform encephalopathy maize see corn mandatory program 9–12, 14–15, 30, 49, 71, 108, 123, 127, 131, 153–156, 158, 164–165, 167–169, 183, 185, 193, 199, 205 manufacturing see bakery, beef, cereal, frozen food, pizza, soft drink, vegetable oil market failure 5–6, 15, 35, 55, 118, 134, 216, see also externality, imperfect competition, public goods market power 77, 85–87, 89–94, 96 market price support 66–68, 76 marketing chain 2, 4, 15, 77, 94, 97, 105, see also restaurant, retailing Massachusetts 37, 163 meat 15, 21, 40–41, 43, 74, 77–79, 86, 88, 90–93, 97, 115–116, 118, 120, 123–124, 128–130, 133, 139, 144–147, 164, 167, 180–182; meat packing 21, 74, 77, 90–93, 120, see also pork, Thrifty Food Plan, animal welfare, beef, checkoff Mexico 20, 45, 58, 70–71, 75–76, 122 milk see dairy monopolistic competition 89, 95, 108–109, 113, 168 monopoly 5–6, 83–85, 87–89, 93–96, 99, 108–109 monopsony 83, 85, 94, 108 MyPlate 138, 145–146 National Advertising Division 157, 159, 162–163 National Center for Health Statistics 134–137 National Corn Growers Association 32 National Farmers Union 32, 63 National Research Council 35, 43, 46, 49, 52, 112, 121, 173–175 National School Lunch Program 14, 25, 107, 194, 198, 201–203, 211, 214 non-entitlement see discretionary program North American Free Trade Agreement 58, 70–71 nutrition see Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, body mass index, calcium, carbohydrate, dietetics, disease, healthy eating index, nutrition science, obesity, protein, saturated fat, social ecological framework, vitamin nutrition assistance see Child and Adult Care Food Program, electronic benefit transfer, Emergency Food Assistance Program,National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program, school nutrition, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Thrifty Food Plan, Women, Infants and Children nutrition education 138, 145, 185, 196–197, 207 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act 154, 156, 160–162, 164–165, 169 nutrition science 133, 138–140, 150, 152, 156, 174 obesity 1–3, 40; beverages 82, 140; childhood 158, 160, 195, 203–204, 208, 210; dietary guidance 141–144, 150, 165; farm programs 28; food deserts 104, 107; technology 111; time use 100; trends 134–137 oilseed 18–21, 27–29, 54, 78, 80, 86, 217 oligopoly 5–6, 83–85, 94, 96, 108 oligopsony 83, 94 organic 8, 15, 17, 36, 38, 51–53, 126, 154–155, 164, 182, 217 Organic Consumers Association 15 Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development 30–31, 50, 63, 66–69 osteoporosis 161, 197 overweight see obesity Oxfam 33, 56, 74 patent 86–87, 140, 163 pathogen 45, 78, 116–117, 119, 122–124 pesticide 35, 42, 45, 52, 70, 114, 120, 126–127, 129 Pesticide Data Program 126–127 petroleum 51, 53, 148 Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine 145 phytosanitary 70–71 pizza 80, 105, 129, 145, 150, 212 planting limitations 28, 34 policy cycle 8, 15 political science 2–3, see also advocacy coalition, agenda setting, captured agency, federalism, policy cycle, public policy, revolving door population; density 102–103; health 135–137, 139, 141, 150, 159; low-income 178, 180, 183, 186–187, 189, 194, 198, 201, 203, 206; U.S 10, 45, 47, 74, 99, 126; world 35–36, 39, 41, 43, 60, 64, 87, 217 pork 7, 155; demand expansion 30, 167– 170; safety 116, 119, 123 president 8, 11–12, 72, 90–91, 131, 204, 211 price see consumer price index, inflation price support 23–28, 30, 34, 62, 66–68, 73, 76 Producer Support Estimate 30–31, 50, 67–69, 76, see also agricultural program, conservation program, trade policy production quota 26, 34, 62–63 property right 37–39, 48, 51–52, 70, 86–87, 93 protein 22, 142, 144, 146, 182, 203 public goods 4–5, 14–15, 35, 51, 118, 120, 168, 170 public interest organization 7, 128, 131, 138, 141–142, 145, 215–216, see also Center for Responsive Politics, Center for Science in the Public Interest, environmental organization, Humane Society of the United States, Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine public policy 2, 7, 89, 118, 122, 124, 127, 154, 194, 214–215 purchase and removal 23–25, 34 quota 26, 34, 61–63, 65, 76, see also import quota, production quota race 135–136, 178, 191; asian 135; black 134–135, 137, 144, 178; white 134–135, 137, see also ethnicity random assignment 191–193, 210 regression 191–192, 210 research fields see economics, evaluation, nutrition science, political science restaurant 3–4, 34, 75, 93, 95–113, 117, 119, 124, 131, 137, 142, 150, 153, 158– 159, 164–165, 170, 185, 200, 215, 217; advertising 158–159; fast food 104–107, 158; food spending 4, 100, 137, 150; full service 106; health and safety 107–108, 117, 119, 124, 131, 142; industry 3, 34, 95, 105, 113, 215, 217; labeling 153, 164–165, 170; labor 75; market structure 108–109; nutrition assistance 185, 200; products 93 retailing; supermarket 75, 95, 97–99, 101– 104, 108, 118, 185, see also food desert revolving door 12, 15 Salmonella 114, 119–120, 122–124 salt 80–81, 106–107, 125, 142–144, 146–147, 154, 159–161, 167, 181, 197, 202–203; labeling 159–161, 167; manufacturing 80–81; nutrition assistance 181, 197, 202–203, 211–212; restaurant 106–107 saturated fat 80, 133, 144–145, 160, 165–167, 180–181, 203, 211–212 scarcity; food scarcity 43, 50, 52, 58, 64–65, 68, 136; water scarcity 43, 51 School Breakfast Program 192, 198–199, 201–203, 211 school nutrition 194, 200, 203–204, 210– 212, see also farm-to-school, National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program School Nutrition Dietary Assessment 203 seafood 129, 142, 144 self-selection 191–193, 203, 209–210 Sherman Act 89, 91 social ecological framework 2–3 soda see soft drink sodium see salt soft drink 78, 81–82, 86, 107, 140, 143, 145, 150, 159; dietary guidance 140, 143, 145, 150; manufacturing 78, 80–81; restaurant 107 soup kitchen 173, 190, 193 soybean 18–19, 32, 41–43, 53, 58, 71, 77, 87 stroke 134–135 subsidy 6, 9–12, 16–17, 19–22, 25–34, 44, 49–51, 62–65, 67–72, 76, 101, 138, 148, 202, 217; biofuel 44, 65; conservation 49–51; export 62, 65, 72; farm 6, 9–12, 16–17, 19–22, 25–34, 63–65, 67–72, 217; health 138, 148; nutrition assistance 202; retail 101 sugar 58, 63, 66, 78, 81–82, 86, 88–89, 107, 111, 142–144, 147, 150, 158–159, 167, 197, 202, 213; advertising 158–159; health 140, 142–147, 150, 181, 197, 202, 211, 213; labeling 167; manufacturing 78, 81–82, 86, 89; politics 63, 143; price 112; restaurant 107, 111; trade 58, 66 Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program 9, 172–173, 179, 193–194; benefit adequacy 100, 179, 182; effects 187–190, 203; international trade 68; nutrition education 197; participation 186–187; program design 183–185, 213, 217; relationship to other nutrition assistance programs 198–199, 205, 208, 211, 213 supply 17, 20–21, 23–26, 34, 40, 44, 50, 53, 59–61, 73, 75, 82, 84, 87, 94, 99, 120, 129, 137, 142, 161, 166, 173, 208; supply control 23, 25–26, 34, 50 Supreme Court 7, 87, 90, 124, 157, 161, 164, 169 Survey of Manufactures 79, 86 sustainable agriculture 15, 33, 114, 131, 217 Sustainable Agriculture Coalition 15 tariff 61–63, 65, 69–70, 76 tax; health promotion 95, 137–138, 148–150; petroleum 51; tax code 7, 191; taxpayer 6, 22–23, 25, 27–28, 33, 50, 137, 196, 217; trade 61–65, 68, 76 technology 8, 19, 21, 34, 41–43, 46, 48, 55, 57, 63, 78, 86–87, 90, 93, 114–116, 118, 125, 128; agricultural 19, 21, 34, 43, 48, 55, 111, 137, 217; biotechnology 41–42, 46, 87, 114, 128; manufacturing 57, 63, 78, 86, 90, 93, 111–112, 137, 217; safety 8, 115–116, 118, 125, 128 Texas, 36, 43, 63, 165 Thrifty Food Plan 133, 173, 179–182, 184, 189, 193 time use 4, 78, 81, 95, 99–100, 105, 137, 151, 185, 188, 194 trade association 7, 165, 211 trade barrier 6, 21, 56, 61–63, 66–71 trade policy 31, 50, 56, 58, 60, 62, 65–66, 68, 70–72, 76; amber box 67, 76, see also country-oforigin, food sovereignty, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, green box, North American Free Trade Agreement, Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, phy-tosanitary, Producer Support Estimate, quota, tariff, trade barrier, World Trade Organization Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 70 tradeoffs; competition 71, 83; environmental 46; food safety 115; health 149, 181–182; nutrition assistance 196, 213; time use 100 transportation 47, 51, 54, 66, 77, 86, 102, 190 U.S Agency for International Development 73 U.S Department of Agriculture see Agricultural Marketing Service, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Economic Research Service, Farm Bill, Food and Nutrition Service, Food Safety Inspection Service, Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration, nutrition assistance unemployment data 186 United Kingdom 178 value added 17–21, 32, 34, 77–82, 93, 96 vegetable; advertising 158, 167; agriculture 18, 20–21, 28–29, 45, 53, 55, 217; dietary guidance 141, 143–147; labor 74–75; manufacturing 78, 81, 86; nutrition assistance 180–181, 185, 205, 211–212, 214; price 3, 100, 111–112; retail 99, 104; safety 115, 120, 126–127, 129, 131 vegetable oil 18, 77, 80, 89, 125, 133, 147 vegetarian 52, 145, 147 vertical integration 21–22, 34, 88, 92, 94 vitamin 80, 82, 163, 165 weather 29–30, 41, 47, 65 wheat 18–19, 32, 40–41, 56–58, 80, 93 Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research 135 Women, Infants and Children 9, 173, 194, 196, 198, 204–210, 213–214 World Cancer Research Fund 141, 145 World Trade Organization 67–68, 70–72, 76 yield 28–29, 34, 36, 41, 46, 53, 65, 89 ... Children World Trade Organization Making food policy in the United States 1.1 Introduction This book offers an introduction to food policy in the United States Food policy encompasses laws, regulations,.. .Food Policy in the United States This book offers a broad introduction to food policies in the United States Real-world controversies and debates motivate the book's attention to economic principles,... U.S food policy is an important topic for readers in the United States and also in other countries The United States is the world's largest exporter for some crops and a leading importer for others