SUSTAINABLE VENICE: SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE FONDAZIONE ENI ENRICO MATTEI (FEEM) SERIES ON ECONOMICS, ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT This series serves as an outlet for the main results of FEEM's research programmes in the areas of economics, energy and environment The Scientific Advisory Board of the series is composed as follows: Kenneth J Arrow Department of Economics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA William J Baumol C.V Starr Center for Applied Economics, New York University, New York City, USA Partha Dasgupta Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom Karl-Goran Miller The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden Ignazio Musu University of Venice, Venice, Italy Henry Tulkens Center for Operations Research and Econometrics (CORE) Universite Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-Ia-Neuve, Belgium Domenico Siniscalco (Series Editor) Director, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Milan, Italy and University of Turin, Turin, Italy Giorgio Barba Navaretti (Series Associate Editor) Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei and University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy The titles published in this series are listed at the end ofthis volume Sustainable Venice: Suggestions for the Future Edited Ьу IGNAZIO MUSU University 01 Иmiсе, Italy and Fondazione Eni Еnпсо Matte~ Milan, Italy SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, В.У Library оС Congress Саtalоgiпg-iп-РubIiсаtiоп Data is availabIe ISBN 978-94-010-3788-4 ISBN 978-94-010-0692-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-010-0692-7 Printed оп acid-free paper АН Rights Reserved © 2001Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht OriginaHy published Ьу Кluwer Academic Publishers in 2001 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 2001 No part of this publication тау Ье reproduced от utilized in any form от Ьу any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying, recording or Ьу any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner Table of Contents CHAPTER Venice and its lagoon: A problem of local sustainable development Ignazio Musu CHAPTER The biodiversity in the Venice lagoon as the basis of a sustainability project Mauro Bon, Danilo Mainardi, Luca Mizzan and Patrizia Torricelli 27 CHAPTER On the natural equilibrium of the Venice Lagoon (Will Venice survive?) Andrea Rinaldo 61 CHAPTER Urban sustainability and territorial structure Carlo Magnani and Traudy Pelzel 95 CHAPTER Material production in the Municipality of Venice Maurizio Rispoli, Francesco di Cesare and Andrea Stocchetti 121 CHAPTER Towards sustainable tourism in Venice Jan van der Borg and Antonio Paolo Russo 159 CHAPTER Immaterial production in Venice: towards a post-Fordist economy Enzo Rullani and Stefano Micelli 195 CHAPTER Governing the sustainable development of Venice: Elements of the institutional planning procedure Bruno Dente, Cinzia Griggio, Andrea Mariotto and Carolina Pacchi 227 ABOUT THE AUTHORS 263 INDEX 265 v CHAPTER Venice and its Lagoon: A Problem of Local Sustainable Development Ignazio Musu The lagoon and the sustainable development of Venice Man is a biological species with peculiar characteristics within the ecosystem of which he is a part; this is because he possesses tools of interaction with the environment which no other species can use These tools allow him to alter the balance between the evolutionary developments of his own history and the development of the biological ecosystem This capacity to alter, which is connected to the discrepancy between historical timescales and biological timescales, lies at the root of the problem of sustainable development However, the capacity to control this alteration, by reducing the results of the discrepancy to a minimum, is also the key to solving the problem The relationship between human community and environment can be distinguished in different typologies and according to different historical events, each of which is itself the product of a previous development in the relationship between man and environment The problem of sustainable development must be tackled taking these historical characteristics into consideration Hence, the 'Venice case' is an emblematic example of the complex interaction between economy, society and environment A debate on the future of Venice has been underway for years (UNESCO, 1969; Dorigo, 1972; Costa, 1993) As a result of this debate, an awareness has developed of how central the problem concerning the relationship between development and the environment is for the future of the city In recent years, the need for sustainable development emerged out of this awareness In the Venetian case, the problem of sustainability can be specifically defined as the problem of the relationship between economic development and the lagoon ecosystem Today, this relationship is in a problematic situation because of the specific historical evolution undergone by these two components I Musu (ed.), Susta inable Venice, 1-26 © 2001 Kluwer A cademic Publishers Ignazio Musu Venice is a city made up not only of its historical centre, but also of the mainland, the lagoon islands and the coast The lagoon is the unitary environmental reference context for urban Venice and is, therefore, the term of comparison which must be favoured in the analysis of the environmental sustainability of local development Although the historical, artistic and monumental environments of the historical centre take on particular importance, the peculiarity of the latter is still determined precisely by the fact that it is built on water and, therefore, on the lagoon The problem of the sustainability of development is embodied in the possibility of creating and maintaining a model of economic activity and human life which is structured in harmony with, and not in opposition to, this complex lagoon environment The environmental problem is becoming increasingly perceived as one which goes beyond the reduction in pollution; it also involves the maintenance and preservation of a whole set of natural values which find their unique expression in the lagoon ecosystem Today, economic development no longer ends in industrial development alone The growth of tourism has taken the pole position in the economy of the historical centre and the coast, and also constrains the economic development of the mainland The problem of Venice's position in post-industrial society emerges powerfully On the other hand, technological progress has considerably increased the degree of industry's potential for compatibility with the environment One must not make the mistake of believing that without Venice the lagoon would be an ecosystem with greater quality and value than the present one, since without Venice, but with an intense anthropisation of the mainland, sediments would have caused the lagoon to disappear sooner or later Not only has the existence of Venice saved the lagoon, but it has transformed the lagoon into a wetland which is unique in the world, precisely because it not only contains a natural and an architectural heritage but is also a living city This fragile equilibrium between a city lived in by people, urban structures and environment is a specific objective of the sustainable development of Venice: it has been and will always be an unstable equilibrium which is both subject to dangers and open to opportunities The instability of the equilibrium is derived from the characteristics of the lagoon environment (UNESCO, 1995; Rinaldo, this volume) Indeed, the lagoon is an extraordinary environment which is, by definition, in a state of unstable equilibrium due to the combination of two groups of factors: those coming from the land and those from the sea Their action allows it to exist and, at the same time, threatens its very existence The rivers, carrying detritus and sediments, pose the threat of filling it in (to which the Venet ian Republic reacted by diverting the rivers into the sea); but, if too much space is left to the excavating force of the sea 's currents, the erosion processes threaten to turn the lagoon into a reach in the long-term To these two groups of factors, the action of the phenomena of subsidence and eustatism can be added; that is, the lowering of ground level and the rising Venice and its lagoon Adriatic Sea Figure The Venice Lagoon of sea-level The increase in the average ratio of water level to ground level, which can be attributed mainly to subsidence (lowering of ground level) for the past, but also to eustatism (rise in sea-level), has caused an increase both in the average number of times which the historical city of Venice is struck by the problem of high water as well as in the average level of the high tide itself The modifications in the hydrodynamic structure of the lagoon, which have taken place and which continue to occur as a result of human intervention in the lagoon itself, add to these basic factors and thereby contribute to exacerbating the effects of the phenomenon of high water (Rinaldo, this volume) Venice has lived with this phenomenon throughout the centuries but the city has also been designed with the objective of reducing its impact on it to a minimum Subsidence in the past and the threat of eustatism in the future has provoked a crisis in the relationship between the city and high water The latter has and will become more frequent and the likelihood of exceptional events will increase This not only exacerbates the damage to the physical structures of the city, thereby increasing the need for very expensive maintenance and architectural restoration work, but will also create increasing problems in maintaining a normal lifestyle in the city A possible solution to this problem, involving some kind of flexible separation of the lagoon from the sea, would, Ignazio Musu Figure A simple map of Venice however, also have some impact on economic activities and on the environment The reduction of this impact to a minimum is one of the most important challenges for the sustainable development of Venice and its lagoon Throughout history, the criteria to be adopted for the maintenance of the lagoon were the subject of debates which obsessed and divided the ruling class of the Venetian Republic This means that the statement 'the lagoon must be maintained', alone has no operational meaning The very objective of maintaining the lagoon has been subject to different interpretations for the last 400 years However, until the 1800s, differing opinions had not yet caused the breakdown in the historical objective of assigning a dual function to the lagoon; i.e of satisfying a civil function (the protection of Venice and also its military defence) at the same time as an economic one (the development of the Republic's commercial power) Venice's entry into the industrial era, beginning from the second half of last century, began to establish a distancing between the objective of maintaining the lagoon, a goal of a typically environmental and hydraulic nature, and the Venice and its lagoon objectives of economic and social development Today, the likelihood of possible conflict between objectives of maintaining the lagoon ecosystem and objectives of economic development is increasing This is, above all, the result of the increase in erosion, in pollution and in the threat of an intensification of eustatism due to the effects of global warming on sea level On the other hand, the development of technology for immaterial production and the modern economy's new specialisation in the service sector make it possible to expand the range of routes for the city's economic specialisation, so as to not only render development sustainable from an economic perspective, but also to make it compatible with the objective of maintaining the lagoon as an ecosystem endowed with natural features which qualify it as such The modifications made in the morphology and, in particular, the erosive processes have had an impact on the natural lagoon environment (Torricelli et al., this volume) The amount of the lagoon 's surface area which is occupied by the valuable natural structures which correspond to the Venetian names barene (salt marshes), ghebi (little channels), and velme (shoals) has decreased from 20% at the beginning of the century to less than 8% This reduction is linked to the above-mentioned effects of erosion, but also to past reclamation works, areas of which are presently undergoing natural restoration However, a certain recovery of the biodiversity in the Venice lagoon is taking place, especiallyin terms of the presence of birdlife (Torricelli et al., this volume) The current positive trends are certainly the result of increased concern on the part of the public and of institutions for the protection of the features of the natural lagoon environment Over the last few years various initiatives have been undertaken in order to create a comprehensive potection of the lagoon environment In spite of the fact that for 20 years Italy has been a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on the protection of wetlands of international importance, the Venice lagoon is still not wholly included in the list of such wetlands The lagoon largely satisfies the two objective criteria which determine the international importance of a wetland, according to the Ramsar Convention These criteria are to host at least 20,000 aquatic birds on a regular basis or to host at least 1% of the individuals of a world-wide population of any species of aquatic bird in any period of its annual biological cycle The results of censuses on avifauna demonstrate that the first threshold is easily passed and that five species have passed the second (Torricelli et al., this volume) It must not be forgotten that the lagoon constitutes an example of an anthropised wetland Therefore, its future as an area of natural interest to be protected has to be constructed by taking into consideration a plan for sustainable economic development for the human community residing there In one way, this establishes a series of limits for this plan From another complementary perspective, the lagoon, as an area of natural value, can be considered a resource within the plan for sustainable development Environmental protection is a general objective for the whole Venetian lagoon, but some areas of it, within a comprehensive plan , have been made the object Governing the sustainable development of Venice 255 act immediately in order to introduce the necessary correctives Nonetheless, the efficacy of the procedure also depends on the ability to avoid impatience and excessive haste in wanting to cling to the first configurations of problems and solutions As said above, the procedure's effectiveness lies in the fact that it changes the participants' perceptions and behaviour in an indirect way; that is, that it stimulates their learning From this point of view, it therefore needs both a certain amount of time as well as actors equipped with enough perseverance and with the capacity to participate in a way which is intentionally ingenuous Therefore, this procedure must not become some kind of supergovernment for Venice, but must develop in parallel with the everyday situation of government which must certainly continue in the practice of strategic planning for the whole of the necessary period as well, and also after its conclusion Having assumed that the opportunity to launch a process of strategic planning for Venice is agreed upon and that such a process is called Local Agenda 21 for Venice, since it aims to define a shared vision for long-term sustainable development, what are the conditions for such an initiative's success? An initial condition for success is related to the definition of the problem, particularly in terms of the nature of the decision-making network involved Indeed, on the one hand it is clear that the multilevel nature of the process cannot realistically be denied since the non-Venetian actors already constitute an essential part of the decision-making network On the other hand, however, focusing on Venice's speciality (and not only of its historical centre but also of its specific mix of economic activities - heavy indu stry, touri sm and the portand of its natural environment - the lagoon) risks defin ing the problem in a way which is far too restricted This runs the risk of hindering a co-operation! collaboration process between the actors because of the fear that, in the overlapping of criteria for action , some interests might become unilaterally sacrificed In some ways, the Venetian situation is a classic one , in the sense that it is a pure case of the prisoner's dilemma in which co-operation is made difficult not only by the lack of communication channels but, particularly, by the lack of comprehension that ther e exists a single position which can become a nonzero-sum-game In a deliberately exaggerated way, it could be said that, in order to set the process in motion, it is probably necessary to deny Venice's special nature because such a definition of the problem, far from establishing common ground, evokes political relationships (in the broad sense) which are already too rigid In this case as well, the example can be mad e of the Southern question where the definition of its special status, which was the basis of extraordinary intervention, has triggered a process of policy making which is substantially self-referential and extremely poor Therefore, it is neces sary to find a definition for the problem which can att est to the discontinuity with efforts which were made in the past and towards which, today, a sense of disappointment tends to preva il 256 B Dente, C Griggio, A Mariotto and C Pacchi The first proposal for avoiding the stalemate, which we have already mentioned, is implicit in the initial choice to consider environment and development simultaneously Indeed, to introduce environmental considerations in the broadest sense possible must be considered an opportunity rather than a constraint because, if it is true that the key to solving many problems lies in their separation, on the contrary, the construction of a shared vision is, paradoxically, facilitated by the existence of functions which are in conflict with one another However, this first proposal still does not seem to suffice and, so, the second, and more radical, proposal which can be advanced is one to define the problem of Venice's sustainable development within the scope of global threats which the current development model has to take into account We refer not only to climate change, which also challenges Venice's problem both directly and at its root, but also to the current trends in several of Venice's key sectors (the chemical industry, tourism, port operations, etc.), or rather to the challenges implied in the social and economic dynamics of Eastern Europe Therefore, a Local Agenda 21 process should begin by asking what the consequences of the changes are for Venice, consequences which the city cannot influence anyway, and , from here, begin to try and identify a development procedure, thereby recovering the city's speciality at this level In order to reduce the transaction costs between the necessary participants (which, as we shall see, are numerous) it seems appropriate to try to reposition the issue by looking outside Venice rather than at its historical centre and/or the lagoon If it were possible to put such a conceptual operation into practice, the base would be established, if for nothing else, for a procedure which differs from the ones the city has already experienced and which are regarded by now with considerable disillusion Furthermore, such a conceptualisation of the problem would recover a dimension, i.e of Venice as a global city, which is deeply etched in the city's history and, in some ways, in its genetic code However, these considerations immediately lead to tackling the second factor for the proposal's success Indeed, a similar redefinition of the problem is closely linked to the fact that the process initiator should be really credible in confronting both this problem and, above all, the global/local connection The starting phase of the process, in fact, is particularly delicate because it is necessary to succeed in overcoming the inertia and the mistrust of the required participants towards any prospective change in the status quo Therefore, the initiator's credibility means, essentially, his reassurance that the objective pursued is not one of altering the present distribution of roles and resources in favour of one subject and/or to the detriment of another From this point of view, the international experiences and the situation of the governmental network in Venice cause more doubts than they resolve Abstractly, it would be possible to imagine either that the initiative could take place at the local level (as happens in the case of Local Agenda 21s in which the key role is often played by the municipality and the demand for initiation originates with the environmentalist world), or that the initiative could take place at the national level (as, for example, in the case of strategic planning for environmental issues Governing the sustainable development of J1?nice 257 in Holland), or, finally, that it takes place at the intermediate or regional level (as has often happened in cases of coastal zone management) Each of these three solutions has both negative side-effects and potential advantages : (1) At the local level, there is the advantage of relying on the only actor which, as has been seen, is at the centre of the innovation processes and in the transformation projects However, there is a risk of losing the problem's definition, that is, the global dimension, which seems necessary for guaranteeing a different process from the past; (2) At the national level, there is also a tradition to be used as a base, but this involves the danger of going through the attempts of hierarchical government again (Venice as a national problem) which appear largely inadequate for confronting the problem ; (3) At a regional level, on the other hand, there is no tradition of intervention and development which is a deficiency which is very difficult to make up for However, there would be the advantage of including the Venice question in the moves towards transforming the State's structure into a federalist one In short , there seems to be only one solution which can be employed in the short-term However, it is by no means completely satisfactory because it risks 'diplomatising' and over-institutionalising a process which is, already in itself, very fragile It is the solution of having a collective body play the role of process initiator; a body which could encompass all the levels of government ; i.e., the Comitatone However, the conditions are that it would begin: (1) with an explicit and open recognition of the limits and indeed of the real failure in relation to the problem which is to be dealt with, of the traditional model of intervention and, at the same time (2) with the proposal for an approach which is radically different from the issue: a pact for Venice, which could place all the participants on an equal footing, irrespective of the dimension of the interests represented or of their nature, whether political/institutional or social The collective nature of the initiator of the process of Local Agenda 21 introduces immediately what appears to be the third condition for success The development and the efficacy of a Local Agenda 21 with the characteristics shown above depend strictly on its capacity for really involving all the actors necessary for governing Venice From this perspective, the present decisionmaking networks should be substantially enhanced since they reflect the required complexity only very partially, even if in the past this was not, perhaps, the case In fact, the government of Venice today seems to be made up almost exclusively of political-administrative institutions with the single addition of environmentalist interest groups Therefore, there is a deficiency in representation both in terms of culture and experts and in terms of civilsociety, as well as and above all, where economic interests are concerned 258 B Dente, C Griggio, A Mariotto and C Pacchi This last point is particularly significant since not only the official representatives of the business world appear singularly absent from the debate, but so Marghera's heavy industry and the representatives of the port, and they rarely make their voices heard Not to mention as well the tourist industry which does not even seem to be able to equip itself with a representative organisation which can have its own say on projects and problems which concern the industry's economic interests very closely This is a key point on which it is important to be clear The possibility of starting a process of strategic planning and for constructing a shared vision of sustainable development cannot exist unless there are powerful actors inside such a process who see the advantages in reducing the future 's uncertainty for their own interests and for the definition of their own strategies The third and , perhaps, most difficult of the conditions for the success of such a process consists in the capacity to substantially enhance the network through a full involvement of the economic interests In the absence of such involvement, particularly of the tourist industry which forms such an important part of the Venetian economy and life, the whole undertaking risks being essentially irrelevant or, in any case, not taking off because it is not seen to move away from similar efforts made in the past and which, whether rightly or wrongly, are branded as idealism The fourth and final factor for success concerns the process's design in the strict sense: that is, even if the network were enhanced and representative, if a credible initiator were found , and the problem were redefined in global terms , the undertaking could still fail due to the lack of adequate operational procedures However, the international experience which we have mentioned, albeit briefly, is already sufficient for furnishing the key elements, and, most importantly, the necessity to leave the definition of the rules ofthe game to the first phase of interaction between the actors The other elements, such as for example, the opportunity for having facilitators , the controlled opening nature of the process, the need to provide monitoring and evaluation instruments which are agreed upon and reliable, etc., are, in some ways, already part of a state of the art which need only be mentioned Among other things, it is also necessary to emphasise how, despite everything, the cognitive deficiency is lower in Venice than it is elsewhere , given that a vast series of studies and research projects have been recently carried out which have documented all the various aspects of the complex situation of the lagoon city Rather than carrying out further research or investigations, it seems necessary to socialise and to communicate the basic facts which, although they have significant uncertainties as regards the interpretative models, seem available nonetheless From this viewpoint, as we have just said, an essential chapter in the planning of decision-making procedures concerns the endeavours to communicate which should be made in order to involve the population in the procedure This is an aspect which is rightly considered essential and which would also have the advantage of going beyond the current situation which sees the representation of society monopolised by environmental groups alone Governing the sustainable development of Venice 259 Summarising, therefore, the main planning elements which can be identified are the following: (1) It is necessary to define the procedure of Local Agenda 21 as an exercise of long-term strategic planning and, in particular, of constructing a shared vision for the development of Venice (2) It is appropriate to consider the environmental dimension as an integral part of the problem and not only as a constraint to possible solutions (3) It is necessary to deal with Venice within the global dimension and, that is, to consider the problem of Venice's sustainable development within the sphere of global threats of a social, economic and environmental nature, which the present development model must take into account (4) The role of process initiator must be taken by all of the institutional actors involved, probably within the framework of the existing interministerial committee, as a definitive break with the past and as the proposal of a new pact for Venice (5) Every effort must be made to enhance the network of actors involved and, in particular, to give a voice to and to make room in the process of strategic planning for the economic interests and, more generally, for all the representatives of Venetian society (6) It is necessaryto designthe operational procedures carefully, basingthem on the best examination possibleand on the most advanced experiencesabroad These are elements which certainly define a difficult challenge for planning also, and above all, because of the considerable level of discontinuity in relation to the existing situation which these would involve However, we believe that no-one would be able to imagine that governing Venice's future could be deemed a simple exercise BOX ROM policies in Holland Within the Dutch planning system, an extremely innovative policy has been proposed for eleven areas where there was an evident need for reconciling the demands relating to local economic development with requirements linked to the protection and valorisation of the environment These areas are known in Holland as ROM areas (Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieu, territorial and environmental planning) The approach, begun between 1986 and 1988, has produced a number of action plans which have already passed through the formal procedure and others which, instead, are still in the course of development The approach proposed for these areas, the selection criteria and the design of the whole process constitute a novelty in Dutch planning which, traditionally , was divided in a hierarchical and sectorial way, and elaborated within the public administration, with few open ings for other actors This change in approach departs from the recognition of the fact that the traditional planning system is ineffective for environmental matters, not only in terms of the search for solutions but also in terms of the very definition of the problem 260 B Dente, C Griggio, A Mariotto and C Pacchi In this case, the public administration acted as the promoter for an initial phase of the process, and then set up opportunities for negotiation with all the interest groups relevant for that area: not only the different levels of government but also businesses, trade associations, non-governmental organisations, etc The eleven areas whose development was deemed a matter of national importance can be divided initially into two categories On one hand, there are some areas within which the whole environmental system is seriously compromised and the plan is seen as a necessary step in order to avoid prejudicing future development On the other, areas are found which are characterised by a very high environmental quality Here, the main aim is to look for effective instruments for non-restrictive protection in order to keep the natural heritage and the total ecological value intact Other distinctions can then be made on the basis of how important the areas are in relation to networks of local relations, both national and supra-national, given that the two areas of Schiphol airport and the port of Rotterdam have an importance which is incomparable to that of some rural or natural areas As a result, the choice of areas was made by focusing on different criteria: the national importance, the existence of different environmental problems, the wish to include both 'clean' and 'dirty' areas, priority for areas where an administrative impasse had been encountered The final choice was made in consultation with the provinces concerned The stages which the processes were divided into, even though they often differed from one case to another, can be put into a general scheme which shows a starting phase, a phase of developing the action plan and an implementation phase In the starting phase, one or more partners takes the lead in the cooperation process, during which the stake-holders are invited to participate Once it is clear who the participants at the negotiating table are, they sign an initial agreement which establishes the rules of the game , specifies the general objectives, the content and the organisation of the process of developing the action plan and defines the timescales and resources required In the phase of developing the plan , several different stages can be distinguished: an initial stage devoted to the contruction of a common scenario for future development (or of more scenarios, even if this risks leading to a block in the process), followed by a stage of examining the main issues during which the participants are often requested to swap roles ; finally, there is a stage of constructing action proposals which can indicate ways of territorial and economic development Ultimately, after final agreement between the participants on the action plan (which, sometimes, is not signed by all the participants) and after the passage through the formal procedure, the implementation phase begins, in which each of the participants in the development phase takes on specific responsibilities In all the ROM areas the most effective structure has been of a bottom-up kind, except in the case of the central area (the Randstad green heart) in which Governing the sustainable development of Venice 261 the approach was, rather, top-down Here, the approach actually began with the strong desire at the state level to preserve this green area which is located at the centre of various metropolitan areas in expansion In an initial phase, therefore, the municipalities were kept outside the project and were only called upon to participate subsequently In this way, the time for the municipalities to become involved was when the plan already provided for something more than the simple obstruction of all residential expansion in the area which was the main point of disagreement with the municipalities concerned In this way, it was possible to reach an all-win solution for all the participants An important innovation consists in the emphasis placed on the implementation of the plans The importance of the implementation stage is linked to the need to maintain involvement and dialogue between all the actors Without this, the commitment which is necessary for progressing from the development phase to the operational phase is lost About the Authors IGNAZIO MUSU, full professor of Political Economics at the University Ca' Foscari of Venice and president of the Scientific Committee for the Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei in Venice MAURO BON, custodian at the Venice Civic Natural History Museum for vertebrate zoology He specialises in terrestrial vertebrate ecology and fauna management DANILO MAINARDI, full professor of Nature Conservation in the Environmental Sciences degree course at the University Ca' Foscari of Venice His research concerns the ecology and the behaviour of aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates LUCA MIZZAN, custodian at the Venice Civic Natural History Museum for marine biology He specialises in marine and lagoon benthos ecology PATRIZIA TORRICELLI, associated professor at the University Ca' Foscari of Venice, holds the professorship for the Basics for the analysis of ecological systems in the Environmental Sciences degree course She carries out research on the ecology and behaviour of lagoon fish species ANDREA RINALDO, full professor of Hydraulic Constructions at the University of Padua CARLO MAGNANI, architect, associated professor of Architectural Composition at the Venice University Institute of Architecture TRAUDY PELZEL, architect , carries out research at the Venice University Institute of Architecture MAURIZIO RISPOLI, full professor of Business Strategy at the University Ca' Foscari of Venice and Rector of the same University 263 264 About the Authors FRANCESCO DI CESARE, research collaborator at the Department of Economics and Business Management at the University Ca' Foscari of Venice ANDREA STOCCHETTI, research doctor, contract professor of International Marketing at the University of Ca' Foscari and research collaborator at the Department of Econom ics and Business Management JAN VAN DER BORG, teaches the Economics of Tourism at the Universities of Venice and Rotterdam ANTONIO PAOLO RUSSO, PhD student at the Tinbergen Institute at the Erasmus University Rotterdam and researcher at the European Centre for Comparative Urban Studies of Rotterdam ENZO RULLANI, full professor of Business Strategy at the University Ca' Foscari of Venice STEFANO MICELLI, researcher in Industrial and Commercial Practice and lecturer in Marketing at the University of Udine BRUNO DENTE, teaches Public Policy Analysis at Venice University Institute of Architecture and carries out research at the Institute for Social Research in Milan where he is also one of the scientific directors CINZIA GRIGGIO, was a researcher at the Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (Venice office) until 1997 ANDREA MARlOTTO, research doctor of Territorial Public Policy,he works as a consultant in matters concerning planning and the analysis of public policy CAROLINA PACCHI, carries out research at Milan polytechnic in the field of territorial planning Index Aalborg Charter 170 access, tourism 12,117,179,182,184-5 accommodation 12-1 3,111 ,117,172 see also hot els administrative function 176 Agend a 21 20 1,98,189 Agip refinery 139 agriculture 7, 152 aircraft workshops 122 airpo rt 130, 185 ALATA system 179 altimetrical recovery 76 aluminium production 140 anthro pisation 2, 5, 32, 56 apartment market 172 architecture 227 Arsenal 113, 117, 125, 139, 174, 184 artisa ns 8, 122, 136 Author ity for Tourism 187 avocet 56 aware ness 29 Bacan 31 banki ng 207,211,212-13,216 barene 5,32 Baschier a 124 benefit redistribution 185- Biennale 174, 184 biochemical oxygen dem and (BOD) loads 78 biodiversity 5, 27-6 bird life 5, 49-5 0, 53 coasta l area 30 salt marshes 33-4 black-winged stilt 56 blooms BOD see biochemical oxygen demand Bosco Nordio 31 bradyseism 72, 73 breakwaters 35, 65 bridge s 19-20 , 113, 123 Buran o 8, 122, 137 business services 171-2 by-pass 113 Ca'Foscari Un iversity 125, 139, 174 Canale dei Petroli 10, 35, 70, 75, 79, 198 canals 9, 110 capita l society 15, 17 Ca'Roman 31 carrying capacity see threshold Casse di colmata 43 Cavallino coastline 161, 174 census, birdlife 53 channels 65, 66, 80, 155 bed restor ation 133 construction 35 hydrodyn amics 73-5 maintenance 110 oil-tanker 10, 35, 75, 139, 198 tidal propagat ion 68 chemical indu stry 9, 25, 155 chiari 32 chiaviche 45 city, idea of the 104-5 climat e chan ge 72, 81 closure syste ms 45 co-ordination 20 1,29,237,254 coastal area 2,30 2,55, 174,183,214 coastal zone management, Agenda 21 235-9 Comuatone 20 ,239,250 Commisione di Salvaguardia 239 common tern 56 communication networks 23, 221 commuter day-tripp ers 11 competence 150, 154 compute r literacy 202 congestion 113, 179, 181 congressional tourism 183 consensus 62,63 Consorzio Venezia Nuova 239, 250 construction sector 140 container transport 10, 134-6 crafts 150 cultural touri sm 176, 182-3 current dynamics 66 damag e limitation 110 day-trippers 11, 162, 164-5 , 186-7 de-industrialization 143 dead lagoon 37-9 decision-making system 103, 239-40, 243, 255 defence elevation 76 defen ces 70 demographic pressure 99 Oenaix lagoon 71 265 266 Index depopulation 173,175,188 desirability 147 development see also economic development economic 153-4 ~arghera 8-9,111,117,151,227 opportunities 150-3 spontaneous 101 sustainable 62,96, 147-56 dissolved oxygen 38 docking costs 135-6 drainage basin 6,62,110 dunes 30-1 dykes 65 dynamic hypotheses 67 ecological value 55 economic development 2, 5, 22-3, 153-4 economic policy 8, 28 economic trends, mainland 173 economy 189 immaterial production 203, 205 trends 205-8,209,211-12,217 eel farming 47 E.G Nielle foundry 124 elderly 112, 172 electricity production 140 elevations, marshlands 77 embryo dunes 30 employment immaterial production 15, 203 material production 6-7,126, 129, 138, 140-2 sustainability 153-4 trends 205 engineering 62 environment 96, 234 environmental diversity 151 environmental monitoring 29 environmental planning 28-9 environmental protection 5-6 environmental quality 28, 55 environmental recovery 199 environmental safety 144 equilibrium 2, 63 lagoon 66-72 natural 64-6 erosion 2,5,35-7 Estuary area 111 European Union 249 eustasy 2-3, 5, 66, 72, 73, 81 eutrophication 78 events 161, 181 evolution 63 export 127 extinction 52 fauna 30-1,33-4,43,51 feeder ships 136 Fincantieri 138 fish-farming valleys 35, 44-8, 65, 70, 71, 122, 152 fishing 7,37 flow regulation 14 flow resistance 67 football stadium 117 forecasting 109,110,237 freshwater inflow 81 functional specialisation 102 furniture manufacturers 122 Fusina terminal 113,116,184 galleries 161 ghebi 5, 32, 74 gilders 122 Gioia Tauro 135 Giudecca island 174,185 glass production 7-8, 122, 137, 140, 152 glasswort associations 32 global city 256 global climate change 5, 72, 227 global environment 234 global networks 202,221,223 global/local relationship 234, 256 government 227-61 bureaucracy 245 complexity 242-5 , 250-2, 253-4 institutional structure 239-40 project analysis 241-2,251 green areas 117 green tourism 184 greenhouse effect 81 Group Forum 228 heavy industry 198 heritage 188 high water 3,69-71,80, 198 historical centre 2, 136-7, 161, 175 immaterial production 17,215,217 material production 7,8 reconstruction 81 revitalisation 199 tourism 11-12,169 hotels 12, 111, 162, 163, 170, 181 housing policy 114 human intervention 64-6 hydrodynamics 66-8, 73-5 hyper-markets 171 immaterial production 5,15-18,24, 195-226 composition 202-3 economy 203,205 employment 15, 203 historical centre 17, 215, 217 lagoon 214 mainland 215 ~arghera 197,214 new activities 222 post-Fordisrn 219 spatial distribution 213-14 Index tourism 170-2 indicators 28,103-4,148 anthropisation 32, 43 coastal areas 55 complexity 243 lagoon environment 43 socio-economic 159, 167 sustainability 95 tourism 12,168-70 indirect day-trippers 11 indirect taxation 186 industrial areas 197 industrial development, history 123 industrial transport 132 industrialism industry 24, 25 inert growth 196,197,218 information technology 180, 201, 219 infrastructure 9,17,202 inlets 65,66-7,81 innovation 154 Insulae project 76 insurance sector 207,211,213,216 inter-sector relations 152-3 intermodality 130 international community 21 intervention 22, 64-5 investment 144 Jesolo coast 183 Jesurum company 124 jetties 65 jurisdictional overlaps 227 juxtaposition principle 106 kentish plover 55-6 lace production 8, 122, 137 lagoon 2-6, 29-52, 62 aqueous environment 37-43 beds 38, 74, 198 boundary 65, 75-6 equilibrium 66-72 freshwater 49 green tourism 184 human intervention 68, 70, 77-9 immaterial economy 214 maintenance morphology 63, 73-6 port operations 155 protection 227 reclamation 6, 35-6 research 29 shoreline environment 50-2 submerged environment 48-9 tourism 179 water connections 185 land use 19 land value 172 landing places 133 267 Legge Speciale per Tknezia 130 Lido 174, 185 life-cycle, tourism 165-6 light railway 199 little tern 55-6 live lagoon 37,39-43 Local Agenda 21 227,228-35,253,256-7 local culture 154 local planning 236 local units PaTreVe 204,209 Venice 224 locating constraints 8,201, 221-2 lowlands, reclamation 81 macroalgae 6, 78 mainland 2, 16,22, 111, 197 economic trends 173 immaterial economy 215 shoreline development 19 tourism 179 Manifattura Tabacchi 124 map Marghera 173 development 8-9,111,117,151,227 environmental problems 198 immaterial production 197,214 material production 7, 128-32, 145 planning 104-5, 109, 161 pollution 6, 155 sustainability 22 marine phanerogams 39-43 marshlands 37,77 material production 6-10, 121-57, 220 employment 6-7,126,129, 138, 140-2 historical centre 7, Marghera 7, 128-32, 145 mechanical construction plants 124 Mestre 15,111,117,147,161,197,215-16, 217 metropolitan integration 22-3, 197, 199-200 mobile barriers 71 molluscs 31,33,38-9,48 monitoring 103, 229 birdlife 53 enviromental 29 Mose project 198 mud-dwellers 33 multi-service card 14, 180 Murano 7,122, 137, 152, 174 museums 161,169-70, 176, 179, 182-3 natural equilibrium 64 Q, 76-7 natural resources 229 natural tourism 6, 184 natural vocations 150-1 nature conservation 63 Nautica Giudecca Centre 139 nesting birdlife 54-5 networks 220-2 268 Index nitrogen load 78 non-urbanised space 99 numerical indicators 103-4 oil sector 75, 79, 139 oil-tanker channel 10,35,75, 139, 198 opposition 100 overnight stays 162 Padua 12,163,208,211 Padua-Treviso-Venice triangle (PaTreVe) 110,197,200,203-4,208-10,212-13 Palazzo Grassi-Accademia-Guggenheim 174 parking 185 PaTreVe see Padua-Treviso-Venice triangle Pellestrina 174 performance evaluation 98-9 personal sector services 17 petrochemical industry 139-40, 198 phanerogam meadows 39-43 phragmites-marshes 51 pioneer plants 30 planning 20-1,195 see a/so strategic planning; town-planning environmental 28-9 techniques 104 plant associations 30-1,32-3,51 pollution 2, 110 Agenda 21 229 fishing 45 lagoon Marghera 6, 155 oil-tanker channel 139 PontedellaLiberto 113, 116 port 9-10, 19,22,23,24 Port of Venice 132-4 Porto Marghera see Marghera ports 75, 79, 117 history 123-4 post-Fordism 23, 197,200-2, 218-22 post-industrialism 2, 14, 16, 19 PRG see Town Planning Scheme primary forest 51-2 private transport 168-9 production, post-Fordist 221-2 production industries production specialisation 149 project analysis 241-2, 251 protected areas 31 Protection Committee 239, 249 public administration 206-7,212,217 public transport 168-9 Punta Sabbioni 113, 116, 184 PVC production 139 quality 14 tourism 181 quality of life 150 radical environmentalism 22,196, 198-9 railway bridge 19, 107, 116, 123 Ramsar Convention 5, 29, 53 Ravenna 198 reallocation 221-2 recession 149 reclamation 6, 35-6, 67, 81 see also Cassedi co/mata recycling 199 red heron 49 redshank 34, 56 reed beds 51 residential tourism 11-13,164 residents 160 resonance 68 restoration 112 restructuring examples 108-9 retail trade 171, 203, 206, 216, 217 retrodunal environment 31 revitalisation 131 Rialto 175 ring-road 113 rivers 2, 64, 66 roads 101, 113, 147 ROM policies 259-61 SA Cotonificio Veneziano 124 St Basilio 117 St Chiara 107 St Giuliano 106-7 St Marks 161,173 St Mark's basin 75 St Mark's Square 113 St Marta 117 salinity 36, 38, 77 salt marshes 5,32-7,56,74 salt pans 65 sandbars 35, 65 sandwich tern 56 sea defences 64, 110 sea levels 3, 68-9, 80, 136 see also eustasy seaside tourism 31,56, 183 sedimentation 2, 74, 78, 81 self-regulation 97 sensitisation62 services 5, 106-7 tourism 171 sewerage system 110 ship-building 7, 122, 137, 138-9, 151-2 shipping 9-10, 136 petrochemicals 198 routes 135 shoals 37 shoreline environment 50-2 small businesses 127 socio-cultural acceptability 147 socio-economic indicators 159, 167 special legislation 251 specialisation 102, 111, 153,201-2,218,220 Specialist Working Groups 228 species/environment relationship 55 Index spontaneous growth model 22 sporting activities 31 stakeholders 21, 189 static hypothesis 66-7 Stazione Marittima 107 storm surges 80 strategic planning 237,253,258 stratification 106 structure, material production 150 student accommodation 117 subsidence 2-3,66, 12, 77, 81 see also bradyseism sustainability 1, 97-8, 196,234 definition 27 development 147-56 Marghera 22 material production port 10 tourism 13,13-14 urban design 18-20 taxation 186-7 technology innovation 144 tourism 183 technology-science centre 144 tele-booking 180-1 tele-working 223 terminals 113, 116, 184 territorial pacts 254 Tessera 113, 116, 184 threshold, tourism 11, 166-8 threshold values 53-4 tidal propagation 66-8, 71, 75 tobacco production 123 tourism 2, 10-14, 159-94,227 access 12, 179, 182, 184-5 flow regulation 14 historical centre 11-12, 169 indicators 12 radical environmentalism 22 specialisation 111-12, 127, 149, 197,220 taxation 186 threshold 11 upgrading 18, 24 tourist flows 180-2 tourist pressure index 167 Town Planning Scheme (PRG) 96,99, 114-17,174 269 town-planning 101 trade 212 see also retail trade traditional activities 150 trans-shipping connections 135 transformation 99, 100-2, 107 transport 113,130,199-200 container 10, 134-6 industrial 132 material production oil 75,79 private 168-9 tourism 165, 168-9, 184-5 Treviso 208, 211 Trieste 198 Tronchetto 184 trophic chain 30 Viva 78 universities 111,114,117,125,139,174,177, 217-18 urban design 18-20, 107-9 urban form 96 urban landscape 147 urban planning 97 see also town-planning urban quality 100 urbanisation 99, 110 Valle Averto velme 5,32 184 Villagio San Marco 105,109 waste collection 169 waste disposal water conditions 38 water connections 185 water extraction 12 water quality 70, 78 waterfront 151 waterline 30 wetland meadows 52 wetlands 2, 5, 29, 49, 53-6, 81 woodland 51-2 young people Zattere 184 ZIM 135 112,183 FONDAZIONE ENI ENRICO MATIEI (FEEM) SERIES ON ECONOMICS, ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT This series serves as an outlet for the main results of FEEM's research programmes in the areas of economics, energy and environment 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 C Carraro and D Siniscalco (eds.), The European Carbon Tax:An Economic Assessment 1993 ISBN 0-7923-2520-6 C Carraro (ed.), Trade, Innovation, Environment 1994 ISBN 0-7923-3033-1 C Dosi and T Tomasi (eds.), Nonpoint Source Pollution Regulation: Issues and ISBN 0-7923-3121 -4 Analysis 1994 C Carraro, Y Katsoulacos and A Xepapadeas (eds.), Environmental Policy and Market Structure 1996 ISBN 0-7923-3656-9 C Carraro and A Haurie (eds.), Operations Research and Environmental ManageISBN 0-7923-3767-7 ment 1996 I Musu and D Siniscalco (eds.), National Accounts and the Environment 1996 ISBN 0-7923-3741-7 C Carraro and D Siniscalco (eds.), Environmental Fiscal Reform and Unemployment 1996 ISBN 0-7923-3750-6 A Beltratti, Models of Economic Growth with Environmental Assets 1996 ISBN 0-7923-4032-9 G Chichilnisky, G Heal and A Vercelli (eds.), Sustainability: Dynamics and Uncertainty 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4698-X R Roson and K.A Small (eds.), Environment and Transport in Economic Modelling 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4913-X A Markandyaand M Pavan (eds.), Green Accounting in Europe - Four Case Studies 1998 ISBN 0-7923-5470-2 A Lanza (ed.), Resources Accounting in China 1999 ISBN 0-7923-5485-0 C Carraro (ed.), International Environmental Agreements on Climate Change 1999 ISBN 0-7923-5515-6 C Carraro and F Leveque (eds.), Voluntary Approaches in Environmental Policy 1999 ISBN 0-7923-5516-4 C Carraro (ed.), Efficiency and Equity of Climate Change Policy 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6262-4 I Musu (ed.): Sustainable Venice: Suggestionsfor the Future 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6458-9 KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS - DORDRECHT I BOSTON I LONDON ... the mainland, the lagoon islands and the coast The lagoon is the unitary environmental reference context for urban Venice and is, therefore, the term of comparison which must be favoured in the. .. developed of how central the problem concerning the relationship between development and the environment is for the future of the city In recent years, the need for sustainable development emerged... on the outskirts of the historical centre, even on the mainland in the same municipality of Venice, and restrict themselves to visiting the historical centre during the day The growth in the