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This volume is designed to accommodate a broad interpretation of the term environmental studies, and to do so incorporates material from a wide range of disciplines. The interdisciplinary nature of environmental issues necessitates the inclusion of topics from physical sciences such as chemistry, physics, geology and biology alongside entries from atmospheric, engineering, earth and soil sciences. Since current environmental issues include a strong human element, entries from geography, demography, politics and economics also have their place.
THE ENVIRONMENT DICTIONARY ‘Clearly written, comprehensive, balanced and up-to-date.’ Chris Park, Lancaster University ‘The dictionary is excellent and will be a valuable reference work The balance of entries is good and the quality of the definitions under each entry is extremely high.’ Martin Kent, University of Plymouth ‘Well written and exciting It is an impressive summary of key environmental terms and ideas which will assuredly serve as an essential source book for all subjects on the environmental theme.’ Richard Huggett, University of Manchester ‘A comprehensive volume that will be a useful resource to undergraduate students.’ David Higgett, University of D u r h a m ‘Well written: the entries reflect the large and diversified field of environment and they have a standard that should be easy for students and others to adopt, understand and use.’ Tormod Klemsdal, University of Oslo ‘The Environment Dictionaryis an interesting and informative source book pitched at an accessible level for its intended audience.’ John McClatchey, Nene Collegeof Higher Education This Page Intentionally Left Blank THE ENVIRONMENT DICTIONARY DAVID D KEMP London and New York First published 1998 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 1998 David D Kemp The right of David D Kemp to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Typeset in Sabon by Solidus (Bristol) Ltd Printed and bound in Great Britain by T.J International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved N o part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Kemp, David D The environment dictionary / David D Kemp Includes bibliographical references and index Environmental sciences - Dictionaries Pollution - Dictionaries I Title GElO.K45 1998 363.7’003 - dc21 97-38997 ISBN 0-415-12752-1 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-12753-X (pbk) IN MEMORY OF DAVID KEMP (191 1-1996) This Page Intentionally Left Blank CONTENTS Preface IX Acknowledgements Xi List of acronyms THE ENVIRONMENT DICTIONARY xiii Name index 44 Subject index 452 This Page Intentionally Left Blank This volume is designed to accommodate a broad interpretation of the term environmental studies, and to so incorporates material from wide a range of disciplines The interdisciplinarynature of environmental issuesnecessitatestheinclusion of topicsfrom physicalsciences suchas chemistry,physics, geologyand biology alongsideentriesfrom atmospheric, engineering, earth and soil sciences Since current environmental issues include a strong human element, entries from geography, demography, politics and economics also have their place Within these broad groupings, the dictionary includes both technical and simple descriptive topics along with a number of boxed entries which provide an examination of selected current issues in greater depth Along with a range of references from introductory texts through popular magazines to academic journals, this variety is designed to encourage the widestpossiblereadership As withanydictionary of thistype,however,thenature, disciplinary distribution and depth of the entries will reflect, to a greater or lesser extent, the individual interests and interpretations of the author, which may or may not match exactly those of potential users Nevertheless,themultifacetedapproach,theabundance of crossreferences and the reading lists provided will allow readers to develop particular interests and pursue specific topics, both within and outside the dictionary, to the level of complexity they require, or with which they are comfortable NAME Stiling, P.D 48, 73, 85, 104, 117, 139,222 Stoye, D 379 Strahler, A.H 2, 166, 196, 276, 374, 400 Stuiver, M 340 Sugden, D.E 168 Summerfield, M.A 92, 166, 320 Supp, E , , Sustainable Development Commission 390 Susuki, D.T 163 Sweeting, M.M 54, 379 Tansley, A.G 117 Tarbuck, E.J 288 Taylor, H.F.W 54 Tchobanoglous, G 365 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 396-7 Thackery, T.O 70 Thomas, D.S.G 99 Thomas, W.L 239, 240 Thompson, S.L 204, 271 Thoreau, H.D 402 Thornes, J.B 134,421 Thornthwaite, C.W 81, 211, 250, 310, 327, 362,398,402-3 Thwaites, R.G 301 Tickell, 298 Tilton, J.E 245 Titus, J.G 174 Todd, D.K 310 Toole, K.R 385 Toro, T 177 Torrey, B 402 Toy, A.D.F 288,315 Traverse, A 303 Trendall, A.F 212 Trethewy, K.R 83 Trewartha, G.T 38, 49 Tromp, S.W 48 Trudgill, S.T 41 Tudge, C 116 Tullett, M.T 328 Turco, R.P 2, 131, 191,271,272,410 Turner, A.K 240 Turner, F.J 245 Turner, J.E 241 Turner, J.G 212,337 Tyndall, J 412 Tzedakis, P.C 303 UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) 51 UK Economic and Social Research Council 63 INDEX 450 Ulrich, B 9,408, 424 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 206,209,238, 362,415,432 UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 390 UN World Food Commission 220 United State Agency for International Development (USAID) 96 US Bureaux of Land Management/Mines/ Reclamation 416 US Department of Energy (DOE) 416 US Department of the Interior 416 US Fish and Wildlife Service 416 US Forest Service 146, 416 US National Academy of Sciences (NAS) 295 US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 174 US National Park Service 416, 417 US Office of Surface Mining 416 Van den Bosch, R 204 Van Kooten, G.C 370 Van Royen, W 108 Van Strum, C 14 Van Ypersele, J.P 99 Vandenbosch, R 267 Vatavuk, W 131 Velde, B 69 Verstraete, M.M 99 Vincent, J.D 202 Vink, A.P.A 223 Waldbott, G.L 151 Walker, G 43 Walker, Sir Gilbert 424 Wall, D 129 Wallace, Alfred Russel 85, 137 Wallace, B 227 Walling, D.E 92 Walter, H 48 Walton, W.C 310, 344 Wampler, T.P 332 Ward, A.D 196 Ward, O.P 144 Ward, R.C 150, 196 Ware, G.W 312 Warrick, R.A 174 Washburn, A.L 307 Washington, W.M 143, 165, 250 Weatherby, J 402 NAME INDEX 45 Wheatley, A 40 Wheeler, D 431 Whelan, P 146 Whelan, T 118 White, EM 422 White, I.D 392 White, L 129 Whitmore, T.C 133, 343 Whittaker, R.H 260 Wiegert, R.G 115 Wilderness Society 227, 432-3 Williams, M 432 Williams, P.J 307, 310 Williamson, S.J 104, 118, 157 Wills, B.A 42 Wilmut, I 73 Wilson, C 240 Wilson, J 36 Winter, M.J 420 Wofsy, S.C 67, 298 Wohletz, K 167 Wolf, N.318 Wood, C 128 Woodroffe, C 361 Woodward, F 73, 182,259 World Bank 46, 105, 134, 208, 209, 210, 369,390,391,415,434 World Commission on Environment and Development 64, 289, 389,414,435 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 347, 415,432 World Health Organization (WHO) 60, 243,415,429,435 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 39, 74, 147, 168, 169, 206,210, 362, 416,421,434,436 World Resources Institute 182,436 World Weather Watch (WWW) 436 World Wildlife Fund 436 Worldwatch Institute 290, 436 Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) 436 Worster, D 110, 129 Wurster, 102 Young, R.J 325 Zhang, D 232 Zumdahl, S.S 19, 184, 214, 289, 308 SUBIECT INDEX Main entries in bold absolute humidity 1, 189-90 absorption , , , acid gas emissions 62-3, 75, 82, 191, 399, 402; bufferdcontrol 52, 150, 151, 229, 360 acid rain 3-9, 186, 201,255,274-5; environmentlhealth issues 261,408; and erosion 134, 199, 323, 328 aciddacidity 2-3,20, 32, 75, 272; pH scale 3-4,52,189,314 actinides 9, 270, 322 activated carbon 9-10, 11 actuarial weather forecasts 10, 108 adiabatic processes 10, 34-5, 101, 128, 359, 396 adsorption 11, 145 aerobic organisms 11-12,79, 353 aerosols 12,24,27-8, 35, 185,287, 329, 363 aesthetic degradation 12-13, 38 Agenda 21 13-14,353,414 Agent Orange 14, 103, 187,397 agrarian civilizations 14, 144, 149, 184-5, 356 agriculture/agricultural practices 15-16, 222, 266, 374; arable 83, 97, 374, 375; cash cropping 61, 342-3; dry farming 108-9; land clearance 134, 184,342-3; pastoral 106, 305, 356, 374, 375; slash-and-burn 367; strip-cropping 384; subsistence farming 386; sustainable farming 237, 286 agroforestry 15,46, 109, 110, 175 air convectiodmovement 11, 34, 105, 154-5 air masses 10, 16-17,43, 82, 93, 114, 274, 333,359,362,380-1,389,424; continental 16, 81, 185; cyclonic 250-1, 354, 405-6; maritime 16, 185, 239; polar 16,323-4 air pollution 19, 34-5, 38, 161, 272, 285, 331; control 10,42, 394; smog 391, 431 air quality 17-18, 69, 255-6 aircraft/airports 264-5, 379-80, 389, 410 airsheds 18, 130 albedo 18, 143 alcohols 18-19, 134, 144, 397; fuels 247, 391 algae 19, 84, 101, , 2 , algal blooms 19-20, 115, 135, 317 alkalis/alkalinity 3, 20, 314 alleles 162, 163 allergic reactions 25, 253 allotropes 20,291 alloys 20, 42, 82,226, 244 aluminum 21, 285 amino acids 21-2, 329 anaerobic decay 22,305-6 animals 73, 142, 163,266, 321; communities 23, 317, 342, 393,411; diseasedhazards 107, 246,254, 303, 380; endangered species 122, 138,436; and food chains 155-6, 386; herbivores 187-8,359-60 anions 23, 119 anodes 23,438 Antarctic ozone hole 23-4, 68-9, 188,297, 324 Antarctic Treaty 24 antibiotics 24,40, 159, 165 anticyclones 25,49, 105, 183, 396 aquatic ecosystems 249,278-9 aquatic habitats 48, 101, 127, 154, 205, 289; biota 26, 317; contamination 2, 3, 6,331,366; damage 21,243,358-9, 376; food chains 156,440; hazards 26, 258,383,385 aquifers 26, 94, 180, 229-30, 310, 344 453 arable farming 83, 97, 141, 374, 375, 384 Arctic haze 27-8, 130, 387 Arctic ozone hole 28 Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) 28 argon 201,250 aridity 28-9, 93-4, 106; see also deserts; drought atmosphere/atmospheric environment 15-16, 30-1, 33, 34-5, 163, 172; air masses 25, 31-3; humidity 189-90, 389; layers 33-4, 243-4; models 34, 161, 3.11; pollution 4, , 185, 258, 310, 322; research 255-6; turbidity 12, 35, 75, 110, 186, 199,232, 423; winds 33, 166-7,275-6 atmospheric pressure 34, 40-1, 328-9,420 atomic numbers 36, 120, 214-15, 272,308, 329 atoms/atomic structure 57, 84, 120, 260, 267-71,329,386-7,438 aurora 236, 334, 378 automobiles 37-8, 38, 61 Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (BAPMON) 39 bacteria 38, 39-40, 68, 76-7, 86, 115, 150, 165,247,262,263,305 barometers 40-1, 243 batholiths 42, 322 beneficiation 42, 385 Bergeron-Findeisen theory 341 bioaccumulation 43, 46,203, 243 biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 19-20, 43,135,291,331 biodiversity 44,46,238-9, 342-3 Biodiversity Convention 44 biogeochemical cycles 44-5, 360 Biological Aspects of the Hydrologic Cycle (BAHC) 208 biomass 46, 95, 132,260 biomes 46-8, 48, 132-3, 150, 174-5, 359-60,393,410-11 bioremediation 48, 139 biosphere 48, 116, 160, 238-9,415 biota/biotics 26,48, 49, 182 birdslbird populations 50, 139, 255, 393; migration 152-4, 411 black bodies 2, 49 blue-green algae 50, 84 Blueprint for Survival 50 bogs 50,305-6; see also peatlands SUBJECT INDEX boreal forests 47,49, 50, 70, 86, 172-3, 393,410 boreholes 50, 180, 188 Boundary Water Treaty 209 Boyle’s law 161-2 British Antarctic Survey 23, 295 bromine 51, 184 bromofluorocarbons (halons) 51, 294 bufferdbuffering 8, 13, 52, 54 buildings: pollution 8, 368-9, 379 cadmium 53,215 calcium , cancers 55, 66, 73,241-2, 253-4, 325, 370; carcinogens 60, 103, 261, 287; radiation 119,161,335-7,339,340,403,413 carbamates 43, 56,202-3 carbohydrates 56, 62, 144, 174, 383, 386-7 carbon 3,57, 75, 183, 386-7; activated 9-10, 64; sinks 58, 87; tax 59,401 carbon cycle 45, 57, 58, 62, 317; models 53, 83, 164 carbon dating 70 carbon dioxide 58-9,290, 316; emissions 64,164,170,341,343 carbon monoxide 59,77, 191 carbon tetrachloride 59, 251 carcinogens 14, 55, 60, 68, 187,288, 324-5,370 carrying capacity 60, 138, 182,230, 290, 326 cash cropping 61,342-3 catabolism 22, 61, 218 catalytic chain reactions 194, 293, 294 cathodes 61,438 cations 41, 61-2, 69, 77, 119 cells 62, 68, 73, 92, 165, 288-9, 329; damage 119,335-7 cellulose 2, 56, 62, 325 Celsius scale 62, 141 CFCs see chlorofluorocarbons chain reactions 63, 83, 194, 267, 293, 294 chalk - , Changing Atmosphere Conference 64 charcoal 9-10,64, 145 Charles’s law 161-2 chemical oxygen demand (COD) 64-5 chemicals 43, 64-5, 123, 145, 162, 188; hazardous 62,284; models 164 Chernobyl65-6,208,304 chlorinated hydrocarbons 66, 202-3, 311, 324-5; see also organochlorides SUBJECT INDEX chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 67-8, 109, 154, 178, 184, 191, 235,294-7, 325; controls 23-4, 109, 233, 251;see also Freon chloroform 68, 247,408 chlorophyll 68, 101, 316 chromosomes 68, 162, 165,253-4 circulation (atmospheric) 31-3, 424, 439; models 34,164,247-8,371,381-2, 407-8; see also general circulation models (GCMs) clay 69, 121, 310, 377 Clean Air Acts (UKAJS) 69-70,369 Clean Water Act 369 clear cutting 70, 86, 331, 375 climate 47, 71-3, 266; data 169, 199, 207, 436; models 71-2, 163, 180, 303, 328, 338, 361, 381,410, 431; studies 48, 90-1, 174,250,300,315,402,434-5 climate change 71-2, 90-1, 92-3, 300, 303, 328, 333, 421, 436; conferences 355, 362-3; impact 96,143,189,219-20, 255,342,413; studies 72-3,206,222, 329-30,385,416 Climate Impact Assessment Program (CIAP) 72 Climate Long-range Investigation Mapping and Predictions Project (CLIMAP) 72 Climate Monitor 72-3 Climate Research Unit (CRU) 72-3 Climatic Optimum 71, 72, 134-5, 172, 189, 197,206 climatology 13, 15, 16, 34-5, 56, 210,300 climax communities 46-7,73, 146,259, 386 clouds 18, 164, 188, 274, 341,406; formation and types 73-4, 81, 101, 297, 324, 466; precipitation/seeding 328, 341-2,370,431 Club of Rome , , , coal 75-6, 124, 156,201; combustion 151, 398; processing 76, 100, 147, 150, 194-5,352 coastal regions 173, 361, 432 coke 64,76,100 Cold War 76, 293 colloids 77, 147 combustion 77,146,151,199-200,398; by-products 19, 191; energy 123, 383-4; fossil fuels 151, 387-8, 399,418-19 communities 23,79, 117,206,302,317-18, 432; climax 46-7, 73, 146, 259, 386; see also ecosystems; environments; habitats 454 composts 78, 79, 145 compounds 41,79,213-14,286,372 computer models see models condensation 73, 79-80, 185, 389 conduction 80, 185-6,203 Conference of the Parties (COP) 157 conservation 80, 129; environments 253, 259, 369,402, 452-3; legislation 351; organizations 347,436; resources 125, 180,319,331,345-7,349,390,402 Conservation Foundation 436 contamination 77, 261, 303-4, 331, 368-9; food chains 43, 102, 243, 277-80, 287, 324; water 104, 278,281, 355, 360 continental air masses 16, 81, 185 contour ploughing 81, 374-5 convection 11, 31, 81, 182, 185-6, 320 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 81-2, 122, 128 coolants 82, 187, 268, 287, 372, 398 copper 82,285 Coriolis effect 31, 82, 144, 166, 275, 354, 409,433 cosmic radiation 83, 119, 161, 389,420 coupled models 83, 163, 164 Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) 410 critical mass 36, 83 crops 83, 141, 327;see also agricultural practices crystals 84, l 9 currents see convection; oceans cyanobacteria 50, 84 cycles 44-S, 262-3, 291, 317, 360, 388; see also earth/atmosphere system; hydrological cycles cyclones 84, 190, 323,354,409; models 247-8 dams 85,134, 192,350,396-7 data 340, 436; collection/analysis 166, 169, 353; proxy 300,329-30 DDT (dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane) 101-2,287,2203 Declaration of the Human Environment 414 decomposers/decomposition 86, 159, 305-6 defoliantsldefoliation 14, 103, 187 deforestation 20-1, 86-7, 148, 149, 178-9, 182,317 degradation 12-13,45,87, 99 deltas 88, 147, 321 demography 89-9,173,326 455 denaturing 89-90 dendrochronology 90-1,408,421 dendroclimatology 330, 340 density 91, 244, 348 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 68, 92, 162, 212,2534,272 deposition 88, 108, 141, 274-5, 432 depressions (low pressure systems) 84, 92, 274,3234,399 desalination 93, 101, 105, 288-9 Descent of Man, The (Darwin) 85 desertification 94, 96-9, 158, 356, 367, 384; and agroforestry 15,46, 109, 110, 175; conferences 413-14 deserts 28-9, 86, 93-5, 96-9, 321-2, 359, 438; locations 25, 176, 183, 355-6 destructive distillation 64, 280, 332 detergents 100-1, 154 deuterium 101, 193 dewpoint 80, 101, 154 diatoms 101, 317 dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) 101-2,203,287 Die Griinen 176 dieback: trees 6-7, 102, 408 diffusion 102, 118 dinosaurs 245-6 dioxins 14, 103, 325, 331, 397 disasters: man-made 277-80, 281-3, 314, 358-9; natural 141-2, 148-9,406, 409, 423 diseases 162, 253,422-3, 438; in animals/ plants 142, 254,422; bacterial 39-40, 68, 115, 305; cancers 5 , 66, 370; control 24, 25, 101-2; industrial 42,49, 53, 243, 249, 323; parasitic 237, 303-4, 305, 360; viral 115, 305, 422 distillation processes 76, 100, 104-5, 162 DNA 68,92, 162,212,2534,272 Dobson units 105,296 drainage basins 61, 149, 205, 321, 363-4 drought 106-8, 142, 173, 254, 327, 330, 388; classification 81, 211, 301, 310, 402; degradation-induced 45, 87, 96-9, 413; periodic 96, 176, 428; prediction 10, 107-8, 396; seasonal 106, 175, 185, 210,251,355-6,359,362 dry adiabatlc lapse rate (DALR) 10, 34-5 dry farming 106, 108-9, 141 dust veil index (DVI) 109-10, 219, 222 Dustbowl, The (USA) 93, 96, 107, 110, 176, 283 SUBJECT INDEX dynamic equilibrium 107, 110, 391-2 Earth First 111 Earth Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS) 111 Earth Summit 99, 11 1, 157, 383, 390, 414 earthhtmosphere system 44, 71-2, 163, 292, 304, 345-7, 370, 381, 388; cycles 44-5, 57, 58, 195-6,262-3; energy flow 34,123,334,335,3374,391-2 earthquakes 104,111-14, 131,257-8; and flooding 149, 410; tectonic activity 288, 19-20 earth’s crust 84, 167, 199,288; magma 199, 236, 239,423; mantle 231,239, 319-20 earth’s energy budget 1, 30, 31, 136, 164, 199,253,433 Earthscan 415 Earthwatch 114, 169, 415 ecological balance 115, 116 Ecologrst, The 50 ecology 116, 223, 227, 300 ecosystems 117, 223-4; abiotidbiotic components 1,48, 116, 118; damage/ hazards 173, 186,277-80,411; succession 115, 386; types 342-3, 393, 432 edaphic factors 182, 259 effluent 118, 331, 366 El Niiio 108, 120-1, 126,221-2,276,381, 395,424 electrical conduction 80, 82 electrical energy 38, 123, 191-3, 403-4 electrodes 61, 118 electrolysisklectrolytes 61, 101, 104, 119, 147,193 electromagnetic spectrum 111, 119-20, 283, 316, 335, 337, 413; energy 102, 316, 335, 388,422; radiation 161, 202, 347-8,408,438 electrons 120, 438 elements 36, 120, 212, 315, , ; periodic table 307-8 emissions 322, 387-8; control 121-2, 122, 150,151 endangered species 81-2, 122-3, 176, 249, 347,436 energy 46, 58, 123-4, 244; budgets 1, 18, 30, 31, 125, 136, 164, 199, 253, 433; conservation/efficiency 125, 180, 203, 283, 398; electromagnetic 119-20, 335, 335-6, 378; flow 1, 34, 61, 80, 115, 123, SUBJECT INDEX energy continued 334,337-8,391-2; and food chains 155, 317, 409; fossil fuel 75, 77, 156,281, 312-13; generation 77, 156-7, 167, 1913,236,351, 383-4; kinetic 191-2, 21819,403-4,433-44; nuclear 267-71; renewable 125, 192, 349; thermal 207, 219, 398-9; transfer 34, 185-6,224-5, 354,440; units 217, 218, 219 E N S events see El Niiio Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Acts (1974, 1995) 37 environment/environmental issues 33, 107, 127, 172, 263, 326, 397; changes 38, 86, 88, 114,418-19; conservation 13, 176, 253,259; damage 5-6,27,146,287, 314, 324, 349, 350-1,409; degradation 12-13, 15,201; equilibrium 110, 127-8, 160; hazards 100, 115,242, 257-8, 318, 340-1, 395; legislation 128, 130-1, 256-7, 369; movements 111, 129; pollutants 25, 77, 129-31,277-80; recreational uses 117-18,253; reports/ studies 22, 128,256, 383, 385 environmental lapse rate (ELR) 10, 34-5, 128 Environmental Protection Act (UK) 131 enzymes , equilibrium 110, 127-8, 133, 383; models 133,164,407-8 equinoxes 133, 248, 328 erosion 133-4, 137,233, 432; see also soils ethanol 134, 144, 162 European Arctic Stratospheric Ozone Experiment (EASOE) 28,134 eustastic changes 134-5, 321, 361 eutrophication 19-20, 135, 145,263, 315; in lakes 101, 273, 312 evaporation 136, 185-6, 327,408 evapotranspiration 136-7, 175,235,250, 356, 377; potential (PE) 301,327 evolution 76, 85, 137, 222 exfoliation 94, 137 extinction 138-9, 182, 321-2; species 81-2, 116,122-3, 132 extraction: ores 244, 285-6 Exxon Valdez oil spill 48, 139-40, 279, 282 Fahrenheit scale 141 fallout 109, 141 fallow land 109, 141 famine 141-2,237-8,254,290,356 456 farming practices see agricultural practices fauna 24, 142, 321, 333, 351;see also animals feedback 45, 103, 133, 142-3, 160, 259, 327, 383; mechanisms 45-6, 87, 163, 164 fermentation 134, 144 Fernau glaciation 232 fertility see soils fertilizers 144-5, 191, 327, 387; nitrogen-based 263,293,294 fire 146, 228-9, 304; extinguishers 51, 59, 184, 294; forestslgrasslands 49, 117, 146, 173; hazards 38,51 First World Climate Conference 147 Fischer-Tropsch process 147, 195 fish populations 289-90, 317, 351,432; damage/decline 6,27, 140, 243, 351, 376,407; pollution/poisoning 21, 249, 279 fission 36, 188,242, 267-71 flocculation 88, 147 floodplains 148, 149-50, 184-5, 228 floodslflooding 88,148-50, 345 flora 24, 150, 333, 351; see also plants; vegetation flue gases 1-2, 10, 150, 152; desulphurization (FGD) 8, 150, 210 fluids 31 1, 422 fluvial processes 133-4, 152 foams 154,325 fodder 15, 154,227 fog 102,154-5,274,342 food chains 125, 155-6, 317,409, 440; contamination 43, 102,243, 277-80, 287,324 food production 177, 195,213,316 forage 156,266,305 Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource Planning Act (FRRRPA) 416 forestslforestry 55-6, 70, 416; damage 6-7, 58, 375,424; fires 146, 173; sustainable development 343,383,402; see also deforestation fossil fuels 45, 58, 75, 156-7, 178; combustion 387-8,399,418-19 fossils 156, 300, 301,301-3, 305-6 Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) 71,72,157,173,207 Freon 67, 109, 151, 157 fuels 8, 76, 158, 190-1, 306; alcohols 19, 247, 391; and pyrolosis 38, 391 457 fuelwood 15, 158 fumigants 158,247 fungi 86,158-9,228,382,438 fungicides 56, 159, 243, 311-12, 387 Gaia hypothesis 160, 235 gamma rays 119,161,335 garbage 105, 161, 319, 346, 358;see also waste gas phase reactions 162, 297 gases 76, 250, 262-3, 263, 290-1,322; inert 201-2, 263; laws 161-2; natural 190-1, 193, 230-1,257, 398; toxic 319, 340-1 gasohol 19, 162 gasoline 61, 151, 162, 312 Geiger-Muller counter 162 general circulation models (GCMs) 163-5, 169,170, 182,204 genes - , , genetic engineering 162, 165, 286 geomorphology 110, 114, 166 glaciations 134-5, 232, 300, 321, 333 glaciers 133-4, 167-8, 198, 306-7; melting 135,361 Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) 168 Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) 169 Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) 169 Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) 114,168,169,170 Global Forum 169,414 Global Ozone Observing System (GOOS) 169-70 global warming 157, 160, 170-4; contributors 29, 75, 87, 103, 132-3, 201, 306, 317, 343, 351, 399; controls 329, 401-2,417; effects 20, 53, 135, 255, 361, 362,409; predictions 52, 424 glucose 56, 62, 174, 387 gold 174,285, 286 Grapes of Wrath, The (Steinbeck) 283 grasslands 172, 174-5, 176, 206, 362; agriculture 190, 305; biomes 359-60, 384; and fire 117, 146 gravity 175-6, 180, 240 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement 209 Great Plains 93, 96-7, 107, 108, 110, 176, 180,259,283,375,384 Green Parties 176 Green Revolution 176-7 SUBJECTINDEX greenhouse gases 126, 160, 177-8, 178-9; contributors 58-9, 67, 87, 397, 399; controls 11, 64,207,421-2; effects 173, 186 gridpoint models 163, 180 groundwater 26, 93, 180-1, 350, 356,431; contamination 104,278, 355 growing seasons 172, 181 Gulf Stream Drift 181, 275 Gulf War 219-20,372 habitats 44, 88, 95, 182,260, 286, 306-7; aquatic 26, 205, 289, 317, 331, 376, 407,440; bogs/wetlands 302,432-3; destruction 70, 87, 342-3, 350-1; plants 317-18; rainforests 342-3 Hadley cells 25, 31, 81, 93, 182-3, 210, 217 half-lives , 188, 270, 323, 339-40 halogens 51, 66, 151, 184, 211, 308 halons 51, 184, 294, 297,298, 299 harmattan 185,433 hazardous substances 42,59, 347 hazardous waste 185, 351,426-7; disposal 357,363,388 hazards: natural 257-8, 406 haze 27-8, 185 health issues 14, 27, 88, 189, 380; air pollution 17-18, 37, 130, 233, 261, 368-9, 372; cancers 14,298-9, 325, 340; carcinogens 60, 370; contamination 77, 261, 303-4; diseases 237, 305,323, 360, 325; genetic mutation 92, 98, 287, 298, 397; industrial problems 29, 244, 312, 331, 370; noise/odour pollution 263-5, 380; radiation 241, 335-7, 403,413, 418,422-3; toxins 29, 43, 53, 59, 68, 102,103,226-7,234,249,288,311 heat transfer 81,203, 364 heavy metals 53, 186-7,226, 243,267 heavy water (deuterium) 55, 101, 187, 268 herbicides 14,29, 56, 103, 187, 311-12 herbivores 187-8, 359-60 Holocene epoch 132, 188-9,206,300, 301, 320,322,333 Homo erectuslsapiens 322 hormones 165,189 Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Program (HDP) 189 Human Genome Mapping Project, The 165 humidity 1, 189-90 humus 69,79,84,190,374 SUBJECT INDEX 458 hunter-gatherer societies 190, 351 hurricanes 84, 148, 190, 342, 409,433 hydration 190 hydrocarbons 184, 185, 190-1, 193,214, 280-1, 397; alcohols 18-19,246; chlorinated 101, 103, 324-5 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 109, 191,251 hydroelectricity 85, 191-3, 205, 332, 349, 96-7 hydrogen: production/processes 38, 50, 193, 194-5,268,409,428 hydrogen ion concentration see pH (potential hydrogen) hydrogen oxides , 7 hydrological cycles 169, 195-6; man-made 85, 104-5, 213, 331, 350; in nature 136, 149,152,349,428 hydrology 192, 196,284-5,306,350 hydrolysis 174, 196 hypothermia 185,197 interstadials 210, 321 Intertropical Convergence Zones (ITCZ) 105,210,356,362 iodine 211 , ionshonization 119-20, 161, 162, 193, 211-12,335 iron 2, 83,212, 285,286 irradiation 212-13, 335 irrigation 14, 27, 95, 137, 213, 266-7, 350, 356 isotopes 214-15,226, 322-3, 340,409, 417-18 ita-itai disease 53, 215 icehce sheets 168, 198-9, 306, 320, 361-2 igneous rocks 42, 84, 199, 236,245, 328, 333 incineration 161,200, 240, 319,427-8 indices 32,49, 250, 301; DV1 109-10,222; GVI 168,423; NNI 265; zonal 201, 439-40 Industrial Revolution 29, 64, 75, 76, 201, 212,326,349,383 industryhndustrialization: accidents 43, 103, 395, 403; diseases 42, 49, 53, 243, 249, 323; pollution/waste 4-5, 186-7, 191, 331-2 inert gases 201-2,263 infections see diseases insecticides 56, 102, 202-3, 204, 311-12, 332,354 insolation 33, 203, 248, 399 insulation 29, 125, 203, 325 interglacials 198-9, 206, 321 internal combustion engine 37-8, 59, 207 International Cloud Atlas 74 International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP) 415 International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP) 208,209,434 International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project (IGACP) 208, 209 International Hydrological Program (IHP) 209,415 lakes 8, 27, 305; acidityhtrients 110, 243-4, 283, 383; eutrophication 101, 135, 273, 312; pollution 21, 154; temperature 131-2, 290 Lakewide Management Plans (LMPs) 209 land midmanagement 99,342-3,344,357 landfill sites 332, 358, 363 landforms 54, 300 landscapes/landscaping 53-4, 92,223-4, 284-5, 385; formation 385-6,423 lapse rates 224, 396 latent heat 80, 136,224-5 lava 225,236 leachates/leaching 225-6, 272-3, 281, 323, 358,363 lead , , , 2 , legislation: anti-pollution 69-70, 130, 299, 384, 417; conservation 128, 256-7, 351, 369,416, 417, 433; effhent/waste control 331, 347, 388; water quality 355, 430 leguminous plants 83, 227, 263 levees 149,228 lightllight waves 102, 283, 344, 347-8, 408, 412; visible 119, 228, 360,422 lightning 228-9, 262, 290 lignin 229, 330 lime , 4 , , 2 limestone 3,53-4,63, 134, 150,229-30, 245,360,379 jet streams 32, 114, 217-18, 324,433 Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) 208 kerosene 218,312 kinetic energy 123, 191-2,218-19 Krakatoa 110,219,410 krypton 183, 201 459 Limits to Growth (report) 74, 230 lithosphere 84, 231, 239, 319-20 Little Climatic Optimum 189, 206, 231-2 Little Ice Age 35, 71, 142, 144, 206,231-2, 240 Live Aid 232 loess 109, 233, 321 London Ministerial Conference on Ozone 233 London Smog (1952) 25,69,233,371 low pressure systems 82, 84, 92, 354, 399 lysimeters 235, 377 magma 9 , 2 , , , magnesium 236, 290 magnetosphere 236, 378 malnutrition 156, 220, 237 Man and Biosphere Program (MAB) 238-9, 415 Man and Nature(Marsh) 240 Mankind at the Turning Point (report) 74, 239 Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (MRCFE) 239, 240 mantle (earth’s) 231, 239, 319-20 maritime air masses 16, 185, 239 Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use Research Project 72 meltdown 66, 242, 403 mercury 40-1,174, 18311,186,243,249, 331 mesophere 33, 34, 243-4, 384 metabolism 22, 61, 244 metals 3, 20, 244-5, 308; see also named entries metamorphic rocks 84, 245, 328, 333 meteorology 15-16, 48, 91, 111, 196, 246, 274,323,436 methane 19,22,57,103,188,246-7,306,358 methanol 19, 162, 247 methyl bromide 247, 251 microclimates 55-6, 87 migration: birdslfish 152-4, 351,411 Milankovitch hypothesis 199, 247-9, 328 Minimata disease 243, 249 mining 2-3, 75, 244, 284-6, 394-5; open-pit 284-5, 384-5 Model Evaluation Consortium for Climate Assessment (MECCA) 250 models 64, 83, 89, 137, 204,209, 250, 348, 370, 407-8,410; atmospheric 34, 161, 31 1; carboncycle 58, 83, 164; circulation 34, 164,247-8,371,381-2,407-8; SUBJECT INDEX climate 71-2, 163, 180, 303, 328, 338, 361, 381, 410,431; equilibrium 133, 164, 407-8; general circulation (GCMs) 163-5, 169,170,182,204; ocean 163-4, 276,361,410 molecules 11, 84, 92, 250, 329, 378 monsoons 114,173,239,250-1,395,424 Montreal Protocol 64, 67, 109, 128, 130, 191,233,251,297,299,416,421 morphology 302, 306,418-19 Mount Agung 110,251 Mount Pinatubo 35, 188, 252, 297, 304-5, 338 Mount St Helens 109, 141,252 Mount Tambora 232,253 mutation 162, 253-4 myxomatosis 156, 254, 422 Nairobi Declaration of Climate Change 255 National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) 255 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 255 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 256-7 National Forest Management Act (NFMA) 416 National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity 44 natural disasters/hazards 141-2, 148-50, 2574,406,423 natural gas 190-1, 193,230-1,257, 398 neutrons 36,260 nickel 260-1,285 nitrogen 144, 201, 262-3; cycle 45,262-3, 291; fixation 147,263 noble gases 201, 263, 308, 340-1 noise pollution 130, 263-5, 272, 349, 358, 379-80,389 nomadism 266,305 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 169,207,414 non-renewable resources 123-4,266, 352 Noordwijk Declaration 266 noxious substances 43, 89-90 nuclear energy 36, 123, 267-71,416-18; fission 36, 63, 83, 147; fusion 159, 401 nuclear reactors 267-71, 323,417-18; accidents 65-6, 242, 403; coolants 82, 187, 372; heavy water 5 , 101; meltdown 242, 403; waste 86, 188, 268-70 SUBJECT INDEX nuclear winter concept 127, 204, 271, 401, 410 nucleic acids 315, 325 nutrients 77,272-3; aquatic 135, 283; plant 145,315,327,428 oases 94, 274 oceans/oceanography 2, 276-7, 281-3, 428; currents 181, 275-6; models 163-4, 276, 361,410; temperature 186,400; zones 2, 259-60,354 odours: obnoxious 19-20, 242, 272,277, 291,331,357 oil/oil industry 147, 277, 283-4, 304, 313, 398, 406-7; pollution/spills 44,48, 130, 139-40,277-80, 281-3,314,324, 358-9,429; shale 280-1, 313,394-5 ores 260-1,285-6,385 organic compounds 19,21-2,61, 134, 189, 190-1,242,286,287,290,423 organic wastes 48, 232,261, 332, 364-7, 426-7 organisms 22, 42, 353, 381, 428 organochlorides 66, 184,287 Origrn of Species (Darwin) 85 orogenesis 245,288, 319-20 oscillations (air masses) 43, 333, 380-1, 424 osmosis 288-9, 353 O u r Comnzon Future (report) 289,435 overfishing 26, 259-60, 289-90 overgrazing 45, 96, 156, 175, 188, 374, 375 oxides of nitrogen 22, 263, 290-1,293; and pollution 3, 18, 389 oxygen 11-12,290-2,428 ozone layer 59, 105, 299; depletion 51,64, 83, 160, 184,247,263,291-9,293-9, 325, 389; holes 23-4,28 Ozone Protection Act 299 palaeontology 301 palynology 156, 324 parasites 237, 303-4, 305, 360 particles/particulates 86, 109, 141, 304-5, 328,387 pastoral farming 106, 305, 356, 374, 375 peat/peatlands 1-2, 75, 143, 302, 305-6, 382,432 periodic table 120, 307-8 permafrost 306,308-10, 374,406-7,411 permeability 200, 288-9, 310, 326-7 pest control/pesticides 66, 102, 158, 204, 247, 311-12; chemical 29, 43, 56, 287, 460 287-8; non-chemical 39, 177 petrochemicals 100, 312 petroleum 162, 190-1, 230, 277, 312-14, 388; resources 101, 124, 287, 352 pH (potential hydrogen) 2, 3-4,52, 193, 306,314,382-3 phosphoruslphosphates 101, 144, 315 photochemical smog 37, 157,291-2, 310, 31~16,413 photosynthesis 10, 56, 59, 68, 84, 101, 174, 187,316,317,343,428 phytoplankton 3, 103, 246-7, 317, 440 plankton 317,440 plants 53, 132, 150, 228, 305-6, 316, 335, 382, 386,422; breeding 73, 163;cells 62, 68; communities 206, 302, 317-18; endangered species 123, 436; growth 41, 107, 181; habitats 94-5, 317, 342; leguminous 83, 227, 263; nutrients 144-5, 272-3,428; xerophytic 310,437 plastics , 4 , 318-19, 324, 325, 345, 401; pollutiodwaste 44, 154, 191, 318-19 plate tectonics 288, 319-20 Pleistocene epoch 71,93, 132, 168, 188-9, 248,301,320-1,328,333 plutonium 9, 36, 268, 270, 322-3 podzols 323,373 poisonous substances 29, 215, 226-7, 243, 249 polar air masses 16, 323-4 pollens 300,301,301-3,305-6,324,330 pollutants: air quality 17-18, 18,256; chemical 312,316, 324-5; concentrations 18, 240; dispersal 43, 103-4; emissions 18,37-8; hazardous 42,49,53,154, 340-1 ; oil 277-80 pollution 3-9, 38,, 102, 129-31, 324, 368-9; air 234, 272, 285, 331, 371, 371-2,399; aquatic 19-20, 104, 180-1, 281-3, 360; atmospheric 39, 310, 314; control 4, 10, 11, 52, 61, 69, 121-2, 145, 266, 324, 426-7, 430; industrial 77, 186-7, 201, 207, 322; measurement 43, 64-5; noise 263-5,272,358; odour 272, 277; thermal 398,399 polymers 92, 229, 294, 318, 325, 329 polysaccharides 56, 66 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 318, 325 population growth 85, 115, 138,239, 335, 349, 406,426,438-9; changes 14, 15, 160, 177, 201, 238; viable 49, 88-9, 122, 230,249,389-90 46 populations 138-9, 165, 326; bird 50, 154, 255,407, 411; carrying capacity 60, 230, 290; fish 279, 289-90, 317, 351, 383, 407,432; mammals 107,407,411 potassium 144, 327 precipitation 1, 328, 341; chemical 65, 274-5; effects 81, 148, 180; natural 341-2, 344, 347, 372; see also acid rain; rainfall/rain making President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island 403 pressure: atmospheric 34, 328-9, 380-1, 383 Principle of Population (Malthus) 238 propellants 151, 152, 287, 294 Protection of the Global Atmosphere (declaration) 329 proteins 21-2, 68, 77, 325, 329 protons 36, 120, 329 protozoa 6, 329, 382 pulp and paper industry 242,277, 330-2, 393 pyrolysis 38, 332, 391 Quaternary period 132, 188-9, 199, 300, 302,320-1,333 radiant energy 123 radiation 66, 260; absorption 2, 49, 73; electromagnetic 119-20, 161, 202, 367, 408,438; energy transfer 185-6, 304; and health 370, 413; ionizing 212; measurement 18, 162, 241, 348, 354; scattering 109, 360; solar 83, 260, 378; terrestrial 234, 251-3, 260, 397; ultraviolet 241-2, 292, 294-5 radioactivity 36, 42, 323, 339; decay 86, 183; health problems 339, 403, 418; nuclear waste 188, 269-70 radiocarbon dating 90, 303, 339-40 radionuclides 183, 339 radium 86, 183, 340 radon 86, 183, 201, 340-1 rainfallhain making 3-9, 106, 118, 341-2, 347, 370, 431; see also precipitation Rainforest Action Network (RAN) 184, 344 rainforests 132, 132-3, 184, 342-3, 410; conservation 344, 369; destruction 86-7, 146,351,401 recreation 117-18, 253 recycling 26, 244, 319, 345-7, 352, 358; controls 49-50, 50-1; organic 44, 78, 86, 272-3, 426-7; plastics 2, 319; waste SUBJECT INDEX disposal 38, 161, 331-2, 332 refrigerants 151, 152, 177, 294, 295 Regional Acidification Information and Simulation Model (RAINS) 209 relative density 348, 381 relative humidity 348, 389 Remedial Action Plans (RAPS) 209 remote sensing 335, 348 renewable energyhesources 123-4, 125, 167,192,349,350,352 reports 239, 289, 383,416, 435,436 research see studies reserves 287, 350, 352 reservoirs 85, 192, 332, 350, 350-1 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 351 resources 160, 266, 342-3, 350, 351-3, 391-2; conservation 180, 319, 331, 345-7, 349,402; energy 75, 125, 287; non-renewablehenewable 266, 350; and population 290, 326 Rio Declaration 353-4,414 rocks 288, 301, 306, 431; erosion 134, 328; igneous 42, 84, 199,236, 245,328, 333; metamorphic 84, 245, 328, 333; permeability 200, 310, 326-7; sedimentary 84, 156, 229-30, 240, 280-1, 333, 364; weathering 137, 315, 360,431-2 Rossby waves , Rowland, Sherwood 294,295 runoff 85, 152,354,382-3 Saarbrucken International Conferences (1990) 355 Safe Drinking-water Act (SDWA) 355 Sahel 46, 96-7,210, 266, 355-6; drought/ famine 87, 175, 237 salinity/saiinization 14, 109, 213, 356 salt water 88, 147 salt/salts 357 sand/sands 94, 310, 357, 367, 368, 377, 94-5 sandstones 333 sanitary landfills 81, 161, 223, 346, 357-8 saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) 10, 34-5 saturation 359, 389 savanna 175,359-60 Science 229 scree 94, 360, 394 scrubbers 8,54, 63, 150, 325, 360 SUBIECT INDEX sea levels 134-5, 149, 173, 321, 361-2 seasonal drought 106, 175,185,210,251, 355-6,359,362 sedimentary rocks 84, 156,229-30,245, 280-1,333,364 sedimentation 109, 312 sediments 2, 20-1, 69, 88, 149, 357, 363-4, 364,421 seismic activity 112, 167, 320; see also earthquakes; plate tectonics sensors 202, 335, 348 sewage 68, 77, 145, 364-7; biodegradation 22,44; and eutrophication 19-20, 315; treatment 10, 147, 154, 426 Silent Spring (Carson) 61, 102, 369 silica 100, 333-4, 370 silver 285, 370 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) 259 smelting 152, 210, 244,260-1, 285-6, 371; emissions 3, 82 smog 25,233,274,371,391,431; photochemical 37, 157, 291,292, 310, 315-16,413 smoke 77,371-2,391 snow 18, 143, 148, 168,372,382-3 soils 118, 306, 323, 373-4, 386; bacteria 39, 262, 263; conservation 374-5, 375; degradation 14, 56, 330; erosion 15, 20-1, 81, 87, 96, 134, 175,326, 330, 331, 342, 364, 375-6, 433-4; fertility 20-1,41, 69, 77, 144-5, 190, 323, 350, 374-5,423; moisture levels 84, 93, 141, 235, 250, 354, 359, 377; nutrients 91, 272-3, 323, 405; profiles 61, 69, 96, 121, 222, 376; structure 83-4, 202, 286, 374,375,377-8 solar energy 1, 46, 75, 123, 334, 349, 378 solar radiation 119-20, 136, 203, 241-2, 260, 336, 378, 413; attenuation 12, 35, 36-7, 39, 304, 337; and climate 87, 328; feedback 136, 143, 185,195-6,316; models 204, 247, 338; and pollution 387, 399 solar wind 236, 334 solstices 133, 379 solutions 8, 19, 103, 288-9, 379, 389 solvents 19, 42, 59, 66, 103, 134, 152, 379 soot 75,380 sound 105,283,379-80 Southern Oscillation 121, 380-1, 424 species 44, 76, 78, 321, 326, 381, 390-1; endangered 81-2,116,122-3,132,139 462 specific gravity 244, 348, 381 specific humidity 1, 189-90 spores 158, 382 standards: air quality 69, 255-6; water quality 355,429-3 starches 56, 174, 383 State of the Environment (SOE) reports 383 State o f t h e World (report) 436 steady state 110, 133 storms: tropical 105,405-6, 409 strategists 115, 218, 335 stratopause 33, 384 stratosphere 33, 34, 188, 291-2, 293, 324, 333,384 strip-mining 3, 344, 394-5 studies 99, 114, 206,250, 255-6; acid rain 8-9, 164, 255; climate 72, 72-3, 174, 204,315,329-30,385,402,434-5; conservation 189,402, 416; environmental 238-9,385, 415 Study of Critical Environmental Problems (SCEP) 385 succession 386,402 sugars 19, 56, 174, 316,386-7, 387 sulphur, 387-8 sulphur dioxide emissions 3, 108, 387-8; and acid rain 3, 8, 191,402; controls 18, 150 sulphuric acid seepage2-3 sunspot activity 108, 199, 240, 333, 334, 378,388 Superfund 79, 369, 388 supersonic transports (SSTs) 72, 79, 217, 293,294,379-80,389,410 sustainable development 133, 176, 389-90, 415, 435; controls/studies 50, 189, 416; organizations 13, 287, 353,414; and resources 230, 238-9, 343, 349, 381, 383,402 sustainable yields 241, 289 systems 64, 77, 165-6,257,285,383, 391-2; closed 73, 196; energy 125, 186, 192, 236; storage 332, 404; weather 64, 84,92 taiga 393,410 tailings 284, 394,418 tall stacks policy 4, 69, 210, 261, 394 tar sands 313, 394-5 taxes 59, 347, 388,401 tectonic plate activity 111, 114, 135, 361, 423 463 Teflon 151, 152 temperature 185-6, 197, 308, 381, 396; air 80, 128, 154, 182-3; global 170, 171-2, 253; inversions 33, 158, 211, 396; measurement 1, 383,400-1 (scales) 1, 62, 141, 217, 218; sea surface (SSTs) 108,120-1,362 terpenes 185, 397 terrestrial environments 127, 258, 397 terrestrial radiation 12, 154, 178, 185, 202, 260,336,337-8,397 thermal electric power plants 76, 125, 151, 152,392,398-9 thermal energy 80, 123, 207,219, 398-9 thermoclines 197, 400 thermocouples 400,401 thermodynamics 10, 126-7, 161-2 thermometers 243, 400-1 thermonuclear devices 193, 401 thermoplastics 2, 318, 319, 325,401 thermosphere 33,34 Third World issues 218, 233, 238, 326, 390, 401-2; aid 208,415; pollution 5,251, 325 thorium 9, 183 Three Mile Island 242, 403 tidedtidal power 88, 148, 361,403-5,410 timber 15, 342, 351 topsoil 110, 405 tornadoes 405-6,433; see also cyclones toxic substances 29, 38, 284; gases 319, 340-1; metals 3, 43, 53; waste 318,406 transpiration 327, 408 trees 14, 15, 86, 132-3, 146, 172-3, 330, 340; dating 90-1,408, 421; dieback 6-7, 102,408 trophic levels 17, 440 tropical air masses 16, 114, 323, 362,409, 412 Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Project (TOGA) 410 tropopause 32, 33, 183, 384,410,417 troposphere 33, 34, 39, 49, 73-4, 128, 291-2,397,410 tsunamis 149, 410 TTAPS scenario 271, 410 tundra 173,206,306-7,309,321,406-7, 410-11 turbulence 33, 411 typhoons 84,409,412 UK Water Resources Act 249 SUBJECT INDEX ultraviolet radiation 119-20, 241-2, 292, 293,294,335-7,422-3 UN Conference onDesertification (UNCOD) 97,413-14 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) 13, 44,64, 111, 169, 207, 343, 353,363, 389, 390, 401-2,414-15,435 UN Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) 414,415 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) 290 UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) 99,100,414-15 UN Development Program (UNDP) 390, 415 UN Environmental Program (UNEP) 96, 97-9, 114,121, 169,206,362,390,413, 414,415-16,421,434,436 units 42, 296; energy 217, 218, 219; heat 51, 381, 398; SI 217, 218, 329, 368, 369 uranium 9, 36, 151, 183, 268, 340,417-18 urban environments 56, 105, 113, 127, 150, 418-19,419 urban heat islands 71, 186,399,418-19 US Clean Air Act (1970) 255 US Geological Survey 416 US Global Climate Protection Act (1987) 417 US Safe Drinking-Water Act (1974) 430 US Water Quality Act (1987) 430 US Wilderness Act (1964) 417,432 vegetation 53, 259, , 1 , Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 25 1,421 Vietnam War 14, 103, 187 Villach Conference 21,421-2 viruses 115, 138, 254, 305, 422 visible light 119, 228, 360, 422 volcanic activity 3, 319-20, 361, 410, 423-4; and dust 35,109,110, 141; eruptions 35, 109, 110, 219, 225, 232, 251,252,253,297,304-5,338,410 Walker Circulation 381, 424 waste 160, 180, 244-5,426; hazardous 86, 188, 234, 406,418; organic 48, 232, 261,332,364-7,426-7 waste disposal 204, 357-8, 378,426-7; incineration 161, 200, 240, 427-8; problems 19, 226, 281; treatments 65, 104,196,332 SUBJECT INDEX water 2,41, 136-7,288-9, 305-6, 327, 372-3,428-9; contamination 104,278, 281, 355, 360; drinking 261, 355; flow 56, 152,205,288-9; groundwater 180-1, 306, 355; irrigation 266-7, 350; quality 42, 77, 184, 209,429-31,430; runoff 85, 152, 354, 382-3; salinity 93, 276-7, 356; supplies 66, 205-6, 213, 249,274, 276-7, 308, 350; tables 180, 274,344,356,431; vapour 1, 80,154-5, 189-90,194,341,348,420,431 waves: atmospheric 380, 417 waves: ocean 354, 361, 410 Weather Prediction by Numerical Process (Richardson) 353 weathedweather forecasting 10, 161, 353, 431,436; aids/data 41, 105,202, 340, 362; models 22, 34, 247-8, 381-2; systems 64, 323,410 weathering 133-4, 137, 272-3, 315, 360, 379,385-6,431-2 wetlands 149, 239, 344, 357,432 wilderness 227, 402,416, 417,432-3 Wilderness Act 369 Wildlife and Countryside Act (1985) 433 wildlife ecology 70, 139-40, 203,227, 257, 407 windbreaks 375,434 winds 86, 88, 185,302, 378,433-4; atmospheric 166-7,417; energy 124, 349,433-4; velocity 166,421; and weather systems 68-9,250-1, 380-1,409 World Climate Applications Program (WCAP) 434 World Climate Applications and Services Program (WCASP) 434 World Climate conferences 362-3 World Climate Program (WCP) 147, 206, 415-16,434,436 World Climate Research Program (WCRP) 169,410,434-5,436 X-rays 226, 283,438 xerophytic vegetation 94-5, 310,437 yeasts 158-9,438 zero population growth 230,438-9 zinc 285,439 zones 167, 182,232,259-60,276-7,317, 357, 431; circulation systems 424, 439; convergence 210,356, 362; transition 117,323-4 zooplankton 156, 317, 440 ... and outside the dictionary, to the level of complexity they require, or with which they are comfortable This Page Intentionally Left Blank ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this dictionary would... Susan and Heather, for their contributionto the research process Inthepreparation of thisvolume,anumber of otherdictionarieswereconsulted For technicalandscientificterms, The PenguinDictionary... contact the copyright holders of these figures prior to publication The author and publishers apologize for the resulting omissions If notified, the publisher will attempt to correct these at the