STUDIES ON THE ECONOMIES OF EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA General Editors: Peter Nolan, Lecturer in the Faculty of Economics and Politics, University of Cambridge, and Fellow and Director of Studies in Economics, Jesus College, Cambridge, England; and Malcolm Falkus, Professor of Economic History, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia In the last decades of the twentieth century the small and medium-sized nations of East and South-East Asia have begun a process of potentially enormous political and economic transformation Explosive growth has occurred already in many parts of the region, and the more slowly growing countries are attempting to emulate this vanguard group The impact of the region upon the world economy has increased rapidly and is likely to continue to so in the future In order to understand better economic developments within this vast and diverse region, this series aims to publish books on both contemporary and historical issues It includes works both by Western scholars and by economists from countries within the region Published titles include: Melanie Beresford NATIONAL UNIFICATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM John Butcher and Howard Dick (editors) THE RISE AND FALL OF REVENUE FARMING Mark Cleary and Shuang Yann Wong OIL, DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSIFICATION IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAM Yujiro Hayami and Toshihiko Kawagoe THE AGRARIAN ORIGINS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Jomo K S GROWTH AND STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE MALAYSIAN ECONOMY Medhi Krongkaew (editor) THAILAND'S INDUSTRIALIZATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES Lee Sheng-Yi MONEY AND FINANCE IN THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF TAIWAN Rajah Rasiah FOREIGN CAPITAL AND INDUSTRIALIZATION IN MALAYSIA Class Power and Agrarian Change Land and Labour in Rural West Java Jonathan Pincus Management Information Expert Food and Agriculture Organization & as First published in Great Britain 1996 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-333-64578-2 m First published in the United States of America 1996 by ST MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 10010 ISBN 0-312-15827-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pincus, Jonathan Class power and agrarian change : land and labour in rural West Java / Jonathan Pincus p cm — (Studies in the economies of East and South-East Asia) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-312-15827-0 (cloth) I Land reform—Indonesia—Java Social classes—Indonesia-Java Power (Social sciences)—Indonesia—Java I Title II Series HD1333.I52J386 1996 305.5'23,095982—dc20 96-39114 CIP © Jonathan Pincus 1996 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P9HE Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages 10 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 Printed in Great Britain by The Ipswich Book Company Ltd, Ipswich Suffolk Contents List of Tables List of Figures Preface vii xi xii Introduction Methodological Issues Measuring Class Differentiation Wage Labour Relations in Agriculture The Process of Accumulation Conclusion 19 37 93 147 188 Appendices A The Subang Rural Price Index B Real Wage Trends in Agriculture C Supplementary Tables 194 198 204 Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Bibliography Index 222 224 245 v List of Tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 4.1 4.2 Producer subsidies in rice in selected Asian cou ntries Distribution of operated farm sizes, Java 1963-1983 10 Average annual growth of wage labour force and 11 population of self employed farmers, Java 1980-1990 Sectoral distribution of increase in wage employment, 12 Java 1980-1990 Real daily wages for male hoers in some rice- 13 cultivating regions of Asia, 1987 Population density and agrarian density in North and 23 South Subang subdistricts, 1971 -1990 Components of the possessions score 28 Possessions score summary statistics 30 Female-headed households 43 Spearman correlation coefficients for possessions 49 scores and control over irrigated rice fields Mean possession scores by area controlled 50 Correlations of labour hiring, family labour, posses- 53 sions scores and access to land Correlations of labour hiring, family labour, posses- 54 sions scores and access to land, small and middle farmers Spearman correlation coefficients for agricultural 56 labour days hired out with possessions scores and access to land, farming households LOGIT analysis of participation in agricultural wage 57 labour among farming households Mean values of selected indicators for landless 61 agricultural labour households Income from nonagricultural wage labour by 69 land-controlling category Migrants to domestic work in the Middle East 70 Mean earnings from trade and industry by 72 land-controlling groups Distribution of households by class 79 Post-hoc comparisons of group means for small and 80 middle farmers, South and East Subang Location of pre-harvest wage employment, agricul- 102 tural workers from North Subang, dry season 1990 Labour days worked locally by North Subang farm 103 labourers by wage system, dry season 1990 viii 4.3 4.4 List of Tables Location of harvest employment, North Subang 105 Labour days worked locally by East Subang farm 109 labourers by wage system, dry season 1990 4.5 Harvest shares under bawon and ceblokan systems 111 by class, East Subang, dry season 1990 4.6 Crosstabulation of ceblokan arrangements by class 113 category of farmer and worker, East Subang 4.7 Correlation matrix of ceblokan earnings from large 114 farmers, East Subang, dry season 1990 4.8 Location of harvest employment, East Subang 115 4.9 Location of pre-harvest wage employment, East 116 Subang 4.10 Location of pre-harvest and harvest labour days, 118 South Subang 4.11 Labour days worked locally by South Subang farm 120 labourers by wage system, dry season 1990 4.12 Earnings per hour for one, two and three task 122 ceblokan arrangements, South Subang (combined harvest and pre-harvest wages) 4A3 Correlation matrix of ceblokan earnings from large 123 farmers, South Subang, dry season 1990 4.14 Real wages for daily wage and contract labour tasks, 129 dry seasons 1971, 1978/79 and 1990, (Rupiah per hour, constant 1971 prices) 4.15 Labour and Capital's share of rice production per 132 hectare for large farmers, constant 1971 prices 5.1 Mean output per hectare and capital costs in rice 150 production by class category, dry season 1990 5.2 Distribution of bank borrowing by class category (Rp 152 '000) 5.3 Mean output, returns and interest payments for 155 sharecroppers by class category, dry season 1990 5.4 Mean income per hectare from own-cultivation and 159 leasing by class category, dry season 1990 (Rp '000 per hectare) 5.5 Purchases and sales of rice fields by class category, 163 1985-1990 (hectares) 5.6 Size distribution of rice field ownership, South 164 Subang, 1969,1979 and 1990 5.7 Mortgage of rice fields by class category, dry season 166 1990 5.8 Trade and nonagricultural activities 168 5.9 Ownership of mechanical tractors and rice hullers, 169 List of Tables ix Subang District, 1970-1989 5.10 School enrolment rates for children to 18 years of 171 age, West Java, Java, Indonesia and study villages 1989 5.11 Participation in salaried employment by class 172 category 5.12 Status of Village Co-operative Units and Farmer 174 Credit (Kredit Usaha TanU Subang District 19891990 A A.2 B.l B.2 C.l C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6 C.7 C.8 C.9 C 10 C 11 C.l2 C.l3 Weights used for Subang commodity price index 195 Comparison of the Subang rural price index with 196 Subang rice prices and the Java-wide rural price index Percentage Increase in Real Hoeing Wages From 199 Village Studies, 1970 to 1987 Selected indicators of changes in labour demand and 203 supply, Java 1980-1990 (average growth rates per annum) Size distribution of paddy field ownership, area 204 operated and area controlled, dry season 1990, North Subang Size distribution of paddy field ownership, area 205 operated and area controlled, dry season 1990, South Subang Size distribution of paddy field ownership, area 206 operated and controlled, dry season 1990, East Subang Ownership of dry land fields and fishponds, South 207 Subang Agrarian density, gini ratios for sawah ownership 208 and per cent landless in 17 Javanese villages Post-hoc comparisons (Scheffe test) of possessions 209 score means for 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Keadaan Hak-Hak Asasi Manusia di Indonesia 1991 [Democracy Is Still Beyond the Horizon: Notes on Human Rights Conditions in Indonesia, 1991], Jakarta Yayasan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Indonesia (1992) Keadaan Hak-Hak Asasi Manusia di Indonesia 1992 [Human Rights Conditions in Indonesia, 1992], Jakarta Youssef, Nadia H and Hetler, Carol B (1983) 'Establishing the Economic Conditions of woman-headed Households in the Third World: A New Approach', in M Buvinic, M.A Lycette and W.P McGreevey, eds., Women and Poverty in the Third World, London, The Johns Hopkins University Press Index Accumulation strategies 82, 84 agrarian crisis and 175-81 land acquisition 4-5, 7-10, 161-6, 178-9, 189-9 nonagricultural accumulation 4-5, 166-75, 180, 189 surplus appropriation within agriculture 4-5, 147-61, 180, 189 agrarian crisis and accumulation 5, 175-81 agrarian density 23, 25, 45-7, 97, 208 agricultural processing 166-70, 180 agricultural surplus productivity and production costs 147-53 sharecropping 153-61 agricultural wage labour and landless agricultural labourers 60-4 farm households supplying 55-9 see also agricultural wage labour relations; agricultural wage labour systems agricultural wage labour relations 4, 93-8 changes in wages 126-37, 190-1 agricultural wage labour systems 95, 98-126 class differentiation, measurement of class structure 74-82 control over land 39-51, 83 nonagricultural activities 64-74, 84 production relations and differentiation 51-64 theoretical framework 37-9 class structure 74-84 distribution of households by class 78-81 wage participation and class status 82 coffee 20, 21 control over land access to land and earnings from nonagricultural activities 64-74 access to land and household demographic structure 42-4 access to land and population growth 44-8, 86n access to land and possession scores 48-59, 209 distribution of land in Subang villages 39-42 crop failure 175-9 debt 6, 58, 59, 64, 71, 140n,210 Bangladesh 6, 13, 17n bank borrowing 149,152-3,181-2n, 186n children 56, 66, 70, 156, 171, 172 China East Subang agrarian density 23, 25, 46-7, 208 agricultural wage labour 60-4, 87n, 212,214 crop failure 175-9 distribution of households by class 78-82 245 246 Index East Subang cont education 170-3,219-22 female-headed households 42-3, 85n, 92n landless households 60-4 migrant workers 24,31,47,58,60-2, 67-8,70-1,108,112,116,124, 126,176, 186~7n,211 nonagricultural wage labour 59, 61, 63,67-71,211,212,214 population density 23-4, 25 possessions scores 30, 43, 49-51, 52-9, 209 rice 24, 149-53,216 field mortgage 165-6, 179 field ownership 41-2, 46, 47, 49-51,52-9, 162-5, 175-6, 178-9,206,209 sharecropping 24, 42,53,54, 55, 58, 78, 80, 82, 88-9n, 108, 112, 113,155-61,165,176,177, 184n trade and nonagricultural activities 166-70 village cooperative 174-5 wage labour relations 106, 108-17, 122, 124, 129, 132 wage labour systems 98-100, 123, 212 education 162, 186n, 219-21 and salaried employment 45, 66, 166, 170-3, 180, 190 women and 171,219,220 female-headed households 42-3, 60, 66,77,8l,85n,92n, 121 fisheries and fishponds 3, 21, 41, 57, 207 household survey interviews 26-7 possessions scores 27-30 sampling procedure 25-6 India access to land 55, 186n agrarian credit 182n, 183n class in 84n daily wages 13 migrant workers 90n rice producer subsidies small farms 148 wages 138n, 140n Japan 6, 64-5, 88n, 89n Jatiluhur irrigation system 21, 22, 24, 35n, 100, 108, 170 land acquisition 4-5, 7-10, 45, 48, 161-6, 178-9, 189-90 Leuwinangka system 24-5, 35n Malaysia 97 Middle East, domestics in 68, 70-1, 179 migrant workers 20-1, 22, 24, 31-2, 33-4, 40,41,47,58,82, 89n, 90n, 100, 101, 112, 116, 117, 119-20, 124-5, 126, 140n, 144n, 171, 173 earnings 60-2, 64, 186-7n rural to urban 3, 64, 65, 67-8, 81 to nonagricultural employment 12, 17n, 67-8, 70-1,77, 176,211 moneylending 48, 166, 167, 169, 185n,186n nonagricultural accumulation education and salaried employment 4-5,66, 166, 170-3, 180, 190 political accumulation 4-5, 7, 166 173-5, 180, 190 trade, agricultural processing and moneylending 4-5, 166-70, 180, 185n, 189 nonagricultural activities and access to land 64-74 Index landless labourers and 62-3, 65-6, 69-70, 72 self employment 66, 71-4 trade and industry 66, 71-4, 82 wage labour 12, 17n, 47, 59, 61, 63, 66-74, 82, 90n, 203, 211, 212, 214 North Subang agrarian density 23, 25, 45-7, 208 agricultural wage labour 60-4, 82, 87n, 102,212,214,215 distribution of households by class 78-82 education 170-3, 180, 219, 220 female-headed households 43, 85n, 92n landless households 60-4 migrant workers 31-2, 33-4, 40, 47,49,60-2,67-8,70-1, 100, 101, 105, 140n, 171, 211 nonagricultural wage labour 61, 62,63,67-71,211,212, 214 population density 21-3, 25 possessions scores 29-30, 43, 49-51,52-9,209 rice 22-3, 100, 128-36, 149-53, 182n,215 field mortgage 165-6 field ownership 40-1, 44, 45-7, 49-51,52-9, 147, 162-5, 175-6, 180-1,204,209 sharecropping 49, 53,54,78, 80, 101, 155-61, 165, 184n trade and nonagricultural activities 166-70, 180 village cooperative 174-5 wage labour relations 95-8, 100-8, 109, 110, 112, 117, 126-37 wage labour systems 98-100, 123, 194, 195-6, 198,212 247 Pakistan Philippines 13, 17n, 45, 94-6, 138n, 141n, 183n political accumulation 4-5, 7, 166, 173-5, 180, 190 political control 3, 7, 14, 190-2, 193n population growth 2, 10-11, 22, 24, 203 and access to land 44-8, 86n possessions scores and access to land 48-59, 209 and labour hiring 4, 52-5 and nonagricultural wage labour 70-1 and position of households in market for agricultural labour 52-64 components of 27-30 female-headed households and 43 household size and 44, 85-6n poverty 2, 14, 15n, 18n, 190-2 production relations and differentiation 51-2 farm households supplying agricultural wage labour 55-9 hired labour, family labour and possessions scores 52-5 landless agricultural labourers 60-4 productivity and production costs 147-53, 180 rice production ownership of fields 9, 40-59, 147, 162-6, 175-6, 180-1,204-8 wages in 12-14,98-137, 190, 198-203 women's work in 12, 77, 88n, 97, 98, 103, 104-5, 110, 116, 120, 129-30, 138n, 140n,212,214 see also specific topics; specific villages rubber 20, 21 rural price index, Subang 128, 133, 194-7 248 Index self employment in trade 66, 71-4 sharecropping 24, 48, 49,58,80, 85n, 87n, 101,112,139-40n, 141-2n, 145n, 153-61, 165, 176, 177, 183n, 184n and agricultural wage labour 59,78,82 landless households and 42, 88-9n, 108 possessions scores and 53, 54, 55 South Korea 6, 17n South Subang agrarian density 23, 25, 45-7, 97 208 agricultural wage labour 60-4, 87n, 212,214 distribution of households by class 78-82 education 170-3,219,220 electrification 24, 35-6n female-headed households 43, 92n, 121, 182n landless households 60-4 migrant workers 24, 41, 67-8, 70-1 82,90n, 117, 119-20, 124-5, 126,211 nonagricultural wage labour 59, 67-71,82,211,212,214 population density 23, 24, 25 possessions scores 30, 43, 49-51, 52-9, 209 rice 24, 41, 128-36, 149-53, 182n field mortgage 165-6 field ownership 41, 45-7, 49-51, 52-9, 162-5,205,207,209 sharecropping 53, 54, 155-61, 165, 183n, 184n trade and nonagricultural activities 166-70 village cooperatives 174-5 wage labour relations 95-8, 106, 117-23, 126-37 wage labour systems 98-100, 123 195-6,198,212,218 Sri Lanka 13, 17n surplus appropriation in agriculture 4-5 land acquisition 161-6 189-90 productivity and production costs 147-53, 180 sharecropping 153-61 Taiwan tea 20, 21 Thailand 6, 17n trade and industry activities 4-5, 66, 71-4,82, 166-70, 180, 185n, 189,213,214 unrest 3, 14, 191-2, 193n village cooperatives 3, 5, 7, 147, 166, 174-5, 186n, 190 villages, the as unit of analysis 30-3 household survey 25-30 resurveys 32-4 selection 20-5 wages changes in 126-31, 198-203 in rice production 12-14, 98-137, 190, 198-203 see also agricultural wage labour relations; agricultural wage labour systems women education 171,219,220 female-headed households 42-3, 60 66, 77, 81,85n,92n, 121 in rice production 12, 77 88n, 97,98, 103, 104-5, 110, 116, 120, 129-30 138n, 140n 212 214 nonagricultural wage labour 12, 68, 82,90n.214 overseas domestics 68 70-1 179 ... Rasiah FOREIGN CAPITAL AND INDUSTRIALIZATION IN MALAYSIA Class Power and Agrarian Change Land and Labour in Rural West Java Jonathan Pincus Management Information Expert Food and Agriculture Organization... Cataloging -in- Publication Data Pincus, Jonathan Class power and agrarian change : land and labour in rural West Java / Jonathan Pincus p cm — (Studies in the economies of East and South-East Asia) Includes bibliographical... and to some extent interrelated The most obvious single determinant of farm incomes is the amount of land the family cultivates In determining income, it is access to land, not necessarily land