Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 970 Richard H M. Goossens Atsuo Murata Editors Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Social and Occupational Ergonomics, July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing Volume 970 Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Nikhil R Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba Emilio S Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science & Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, UK László T Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University, Gyor, Hungary Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Faculty of Computer Science and Management, Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered The list of topics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses They cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable character An important characteristic feature of the series is the short publication time and world-wide distribution This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research results ** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings, EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink ** More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156 Richard H M Goossens Atsuo Murata • Editors Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Social and Occupational Ergonomics, July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA 123 Editors Richard H M Goossens Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering Delft University of Technology Delft, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands Atsuo Murata Okayama University Okayama, Japan ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic) Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ISBN 978-3-030-20144-9 ISBN 978-3-030-20145-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be 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Advances in Design for Inclusion Advances in Ergonomics in Design Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, and Performance Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Healthcare and Medical Devices Advances in Human Factors and Simulation Advances in Human Factors and Systems Interaction Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership Advances in Human Factors in Robots and Unmanned Systems Advances in Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences Advances in Human Factors of Transportation Shuichi Fukuda Hasan Ayaz Giuseppe Di Bucchianico Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo M Soares Ronald L Boring Nancy J Lightner and Jay Kalra Daniel N Cassenti Isabel L Nunes Tareq Ahram and Waldemar Karwowski Jussi Ilari Kantola and Salman Nazir Jessie Chen Waldemar Karwowski, Tareq Ahram and Salman Nazir Neville Stanton (continued) v vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2019 (continued) Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software and Systems Engineering Advances in Human Factors in Architecture, Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure Advances in Physical Ergonomics and Human Factors Advances in Interdisciplinary Practice in Industrial Design Advances in Safety Management and Human Factors Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control Advances in Usability and User Experience Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Technologies and Game Design Advances in Human Factors in Communication of Design Advances in Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems and 3D Prototyping Tareq Ahram Jerzy Charytonowicz and Christianne Falcão Ravindra S Goonetilleke and Waldemar Karwowski Cliff Sungsoo Shin Pedro M Arezes Richard H M Goossens and Atsuo Murata Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan Trzcielinski and Beata Mrugalska Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão Tareq Ahram Amic G Ho Massimo Di Nicolantonio, Emilio Rossi and Thomas Alexander Preface This book provides an exploration on how ergonomics can contribute to the solution of important societal and engineering challenges Advances in Social and Organizational Factors discusses the optimization of sociotechnical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes It includes coverage of communication, crew resource management, work design, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work paradigms, organizational culture, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management Human factors in sports, injury prevention, and outdoor recreation aim to address the critical cognitive and physical tasks which are performed within a dynamic, complex, collaborative system comprising multiple humans and artifacts, under pressurized, complex, and rapidly changing conditions that take place during the course of any sporting event Highly skilled, well-trained individuals walk a fine line between task success and failure, with only marginally inadequate task execution leading to loss of the sport event or competition This conference promotes cross-disciplinary interaction between the human factors in sport and outdoor recreation disciplines and provides practical guidance on a range of methods for describing, representing, and evaluating human, team, and system performance in sports and amusement park domains The book also highlights issues with special populations, detailing how to design and adapt products and work situations for these groups In addition to exploring the challenges faced in optimizing sociotechnical systems, the book underlines themes that play a role in all the challenges and how they are linked to each other It concludes with an exploration of emotional ergonomics and the important positive effects of making people happy and healthy With chapter authors from around the globe, the book supplies a broad look at current challenges and possible solutions This book contains a total of ten sections, concerned with different issues in social and occupational ergonomics (sections to 9), and with cross-cultural research (Section 10) vii viii Preface Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section 10 The Present and Future of Macroergonomic Systems Social Design, Innovation and Ergonomics Macroergonomic Systems Design and Improvement Evaluation, Optimization and Job Design Social and Occupational Factors of Comfort, Risk Assessment and Pain Sports, Injury Prevention and Outdoor Recreation Stress, Mental Factors and Musculoskeletal Disorders Social and Occupational Ergonomics: Applications Safety Training and Occupational accidents Cross-Cultural Decision Making The organizers would like to thank all the authors for their contributions Each of the chapters was either reviewed by the members of the Editorial Board or germinated by them For these, our sincere thanks and appreciation go to the members of the Board listed below Jerzy Charytonowicz, Poland Diana Horn, USA S.-L Hwang, Taiwan Jussi Kantola, Finland Brian Kleiner, USA Leszek Pacholski, Poland Michelle Robertson, USA Susumu Saito, Japan Mike Smith, USA Hannu Vanharanta, Finland Z Wisniewski, Poland R Yu, China Jeff Appleget, USA Madalina Alama, USA Umer Asgher, Pakistan Erman Cakit, Turkey Vladimira Cavojova, Slovakia Ajay Divakaran, USA Toshihisa Doi, Japan Cali Fidopiastis, USA Jim Frank, USA Michael Hail, USA Amy Heaton, USA Mark Hoffman, USA Ayaka Itoh, Japan David King, USA Martin Kruger, USA Sue Numrich, USA Noriko Okabe, Japan Preface ix Jonathan Pfautz, USA Peter Picucci, USA Elaine Raybourn, USA Emilie Reitz, USA Alicia Ruvinsky, USA Lelyn Saner, USA Dominique Scapin, France Sae Schatz, USA Julian Stodd, UK Redha Taiar, France Jacqueline Urakami, Japan C Dallat, Australia Chi-Wen Lung, Taiwan Roman Maciej Kalina, Poland Damian Morgan, Australia Timothy Neville, Australia Eduardo Salas, USA Daniel Simmons, UK Neville Stanton, UK Scott Talpey, Australia Guy Walker, UK P Waterson, UK Sam Abramovich, USA We hope this book will contribute to increase in knowledge in the field of social and organizational ergonomics and that you find the papers in this book interesting and helpful to you and your work July 2019 Richard H M Goossens Atsuo Murata 646 Q Liu et al Table (continued) Cross-countries Reference (s) standards adoption factor Adoption decision factors Relative advantage Wang et al [7]; Chan et al [11] Technology Wang et al [7]; Chan et al [11] complexity Compatibility with Chan et al [11] existing technologies User attitude Wang et al [7]; Gibbs et al [2] toward technology Top management Wang et al [7]; Chan et al [11] support Cooke et al [3]; Mueller et al [6]; Organize size and complexity Černe [10]; Chan et al [11] Chan et al [11]; Brekke et al [15] Technical and financial feasibility 3.2 Indicator(s) Human Factors from a Macroergonomics Perspective From a macroergonomics perspective, human factors play different roles at the four different levels in Table On Global Environment, it could be concluded that the openness of a country/an organization would influence the standards adoption among different countries The openness could be evaluated by its culture closeness to the other countries, acceptance of multinational corporations, and international trading partners It is believed that if the more active towards the international trade or towards a specific group of countries, the easier for the country to accept international standards or standards from the other countries We find that globalization and international trade did drive the acceptance of international standards into some developing countries Due to the reform in China, it has a high openness to the international market, and during the economic booming, there were also several international standards from ISO or EN (European standards) served as national standards for promoting and facilitating international trade On National Environment, human capital (education level), culture and demographics are closely related to human factors Taking culture as an example, according to the studies from Hofstede [18], different countries have different cultures, which can be compared from five different dimensions, including power distant index, individualism index, masculinity index, uncertainty avoidance index, and long-term orientation index Those potential dimensions would influence the possible cooperation in standards and mutual understanding in CSA The other factors in the national environment have a more or less relationship with human factors Influential Factors in Cross-Country Standards Adoption 647 On the National policy, it is indirectly influenced to certain extent by human factors For example, the top management and strategy of a country or an organization are determined by the value of the top managers Their value towards other part of the world would determine the acceptance of standards from the other country or organization Regarding the standardization procedure, it is closely related to the value of the society and all the stakeholders involved in this procedure would behavior and make decisions based on their shared value On Adoption Factors, three factors, user attitude toward technology, top management support, size and complexity of an organization, are regarded as closely human related factors User attitude toward technology would determine the acceptance of new technology, and positive attitude of the public would drive the acceptance of new standards Efficient management system would facilitate the standards adoption procedure by avoiding unnecessary negotiation and discussion on issues which might be encountered during the CSA Above all, language for standards and its supporting eco-system is also one potential barrier for standards adoption The language issue occurs all through the whole procedure of CSA, and the barriers include translation of technological terms, specification in standards, and the whole supporting system for one standard, since the standard cannot stay alone with the other relevant standards Adoption of one standard sometimes means to adopt a whole new sub-system in a country’s standards system That would bring more obstacles and more challenging issues Conclusion In this paper, based on a framework of CSA, we conducted an in-depth literature review on cross-countries standards adoption studies We collected and confirmed 27 factors which would influence the standards adoption across countries The possible indicators were also suggested to evaluate the corresponding factor We identified possible human factors issues in those factors, and we hope we could find an approach to smooth cross-country standards adoption by considering all the factors carefully mentioned in this paper Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of People’s Republic of China under the grand number 2017YFF0209505 References Hovav, A., Hemmert, M., Kim, Y.J.: Determinants of Internet standards adoption: the case of South Korea Res Policy 40, 253–262 (2011) Gibbs, J., Kraemer, K.L., Dedrick, J.: Environment and policy factors shaping global e-commerce diffusion: a cross-country comparison Inf Soc 19, 5–18 (2003) Cooke, T.E., Wallace, R.S.O.: Financial disclosure regulation and its environment: a review and further analysis J Account Pub Policy 9, 79–110 (1990) Nobes, C.: Towards a general model of the reasons for international differences in financial reporting Abacus 34, 162–187 (1998) 648 Q Liu et al Zeghal, D., Mhedhbi, K.: An analysis of the factors affecting the adoption of international accounting standards by developing countries Int J Account 41, 373–386 (2006) Mueller, G.G., Gernon, H.: Accounting: An International Perspective Irwin Professional Publishing, Burr Ridge (1997) Wang, X., Zander, S.: Extending the model of internet standards adoption: a cross-country comparison of IPv6 adoption Inf Manag 55, 450–460 (2018) AlHashim, D.D.: International Dimensions of Accounting PWS Publishing Company, Boston (1992) Saudagaran, S.M.: International Accounting: A User Perspective Southwestern College Publishing, Mason (2004) 10 Černe, K.: Influential factors of country’s accounting system development Econ Res Ekon Istraživanja 22, 66–97 (2009) 11 Chan, F.T.S., Chong, A.Y.L.: A SEM–neural network approach for understanding determinants of interorganizational system standard adoption and performances Decis Support Syst 54, 621–630 (2012) 12 Comin, D., Hobijn, B.: Cross-country technology adoption: making the theories face the facts J Monet Econ 51, 39–83 (2004) 13 Wang, W., Zhang, S., King, A.P.: Research on the adoption barriers of the engineering construction standards in China Struct Surv 34, 367–378 (2016) 14 Zehri, F., Chouaibi, J.: Adoption determinants of the international accounting standards IAS/IFRS by the developing countries J Econ Financ Adm Sci 18, 56–62 (2013) 15 Brekke, K.R., Dalen, D.M., Holmås, T.H.: Diffusion of pharmaceuticals: cross-country evidence of anti-TNF drugs Eur J Health Econ 15, 937–951 (2014) 16 Lakka, S., Stamati, T., Michalakelis, C.: Cross country comparison on the factors determining OSS diffusion In: Proceedings of the 18th Panhellenic Conference on Informatics, pp 1–6 (2014) 17 AlGhamdi, R., Nguyen, A., Jones, V.: A study of influential factors in the adoption and diffusion of B2C e-commerce arXiv preprint arXiv:1302.0272 (2013) 18 Hofstede, G.: Dimensionalizing cultures: the Hofstede model in context Online Read Psychol Cult 2, (2011) Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management at Major Events Guadalupe Hernández-Escobedo1(&), David K Allen2, Alan D Pearman2, and Claudia Alejandra Ituarte-González1 Departamento de Ingeniería Industrial, Instituto Tecnológico de Tijuana, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Calz Tecnológico s/n, Fracc Tomás Aquino, 22414 Tijuana, Mexico ghernan@tectijuana.mx, claudia.ituarte17@tectijuana.edu.mx Leeds University Business School, Maurice Keyworth Building, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK da2@lubs.leeds.ac.uk, a.d.pearman@leeds.ac.uk Abstract The purpose of this paper is to explore how the motivations for sharing information exhibiting aspects of cross-cultural differences and how decisions undertaken by diverse organizations participating in incident management at major events interact This context is natural and challenging, one that embraces routine and contingent incidents involving varied and linked organizations serving as incident responders Here, a qualitative and interpretive paradigm was used in order to obtain a clear picture of the context Activity Theory served as a conceptual and analytical tool providing the basis to discover the mentioned elements Diverse themes were recognized exhibiting those revealed from incident responders Diverse motivations were uncovered through the actions undertaken in sharing information These similarly revealed the cross-cultural differences and decisions between organizations using information sharing in a context that could shape the performance of incident responders Keywords: Motivations Á Cross-cultural differences Incident management Á Activity theory Á Information sharing Á Introduction Incident management commonly requires a unified effort from emergency services such as the fire services, the ambulance services and the police and some individuals serving as incident responders Uncertainty and complexity are two attributes that require a great of deal of attention [1] Additionally, incidents under time pressure, typically involve conflicting information and an ever-changing environment, in particular the administration of incidents at major events Major events are defined in this paper as social or public situations that take place with the objective of diverting a group of individuals who have relaxation aims in a given place [2] Incidents are any unusual situation that could lead to the loss or disruption of routine operation Incident © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 R H M Goossens and A Murata (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 970, pp 649–661, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_65 650 G Hernández-Escobedo et al management is a set of tasks that are performed before, during and after routine or contingent incidents with the goal of preventing casualties, reducing their impact on infrastructure and returning to a state of normalcy as routine operation When both incident responders, volunteers and the public came together to manage incidents, the various issues just described are often more prominent Recent research has identified issues in relation to information sharing behavior There is evidence that poor information sharing can lead to a lack of situational awareness in incident management at major events Situational awareness is the creation of a rich picture of what is going on [3] during incident management, a challenging task in which potentially clashing organizations and individuals converge Situational awareness allows individuals to be aware of problematic situations in order to manage them, for example diminishing the number of casualties and damage to infrastructure A crucial element is communication or information sharing between those involved in incident management Additionally, the information behavior for sharing information and the type information required to make decisions are two factors related to this behavior Here, information management is a vital element, with uncertainty and complexity minimized through it Information management requires control and collaboration between those involved in incident management Similarly, the recognition of the future states of incidents and uses of technologies are additional elements contained Especially, it is important to recognize the changing dynamics such a context For instance, collaborative work fails once information is not effectively distributed [4] In fact, information sharing is a critical issue as represented by the giving, receiving or exchanging information activities of individuals and organizations Thus these activities similarly exhibited motivations for sharing information Motivations are the energization and cause of individual conduct In the same way, the motivations implicitly show residues or issues of cross-cultural differences and decisions that impact on the performance of incident responders on incident management According to current literature, organizations and individuals make decisions overtime and one relevant factor affecting them is culture This factor represents the individuality in the decision-making process that also reveals the diverse factors affecting behavior of decision makers On the other hand, information sharing has been used to create a rich picture of incidents in order to define courses of action that consequently should be performed to manage them Related to motivations, the purpose of this paper is to explore those residues of the cross-cultural differences and decisions in incident management, which are correlated with information sharing used to create a rich awareness of incidents at major events Initially, a review of the current literature referring to information sharing including its motivations, outcomes and types, and cross cultural differences is presented Subsequently, a methodology is described and then the research results Finally, the conclusions and recommendations are set out Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management 651 Literature Review 2.1 Information Sharing Information sharing has been studied through from diverse communication and information behavior lenses; however, the information behavior perspective has been chosen for this paper In the current literature, information behavior and information practice is used interchangeably [5], but the first one is preferable over the second Moreover, some authors suggest that information behavior is investigated from a cognitive angle and information practice, from a social constructionist angle Nevertheless, both approaches give richness to our understanding of information behavior in the current context The cognitive side helps to understand behavior and the social constructionist helps to comprehend the collaborative nature of incident management and information sharing In other words, information behavior includes cognitive and social dimensions [6] and information sharing is seen as its nested component Current theories of information sharing have been aligned to this context, the approach taken, outcomes of information sharing, and future research [4] These theories allow simplifications of the decision-making process after the employment of information sharing on it For this, it is important to consider how information sharing is studied including the paradigms, the assumptions and its research methods Interpretive strategies help with that study, specifically if information sharing is studied in an unexplored context Actually, the investigation of motivations for sharing information and issues of cross–cultural differences and decisions are gaps in the knowledge From a theoretical point of view, information sharing can be seen from an individual perspective as the connection between individuals and the use of technological tools, their responsibilities in the process, their roles in organizations and some of the situations in which individuals are immersed [7] Furthermore, information sharing is implicated in the relationships between individuals in collaborative environments by seeking, interchanging and using information [8] This suggests that information can be studied from a basis of the consideration of the perspective in this study: individual, collaborative and/or both 2.2 Motivations for Sharing Information There are many definitions of information sharing It is necessary to identify one suitable for the context of this study For the present paper, we understand information sharing as the activity of providing information to other individuals upon request or proactively for impacting the image of the world that they have so that they can create a shared or compatible image of their understanding of the world [4] Motivations are linked to a cognitive approach in line with the attitudes of individuals towards sharing information; but at the same time, also expecting reciprocity in that sharing [9] It is understood as social exchange of self-interest of individuals participating in that exchanging Another motivation is trust that has been developed within the social and continuous interaction between individuals [10] It could be between individuals and another, or between individuals and their organizations However, trust is difficult to develop in those contexts in which multiple organizations 652 G Hernández-Escobedo et al converge, as the case for incident management at major events Sharing information between individuals at the same organizational level but from different organizations is another studied motivation Here, the individual´s role and its implications were factors that impacted in information sharing Similarly, ethical issues were another motivation investigated relating to the moral standards of individuals; but at the same time, they were correlated with the background of individuals and the social norms that existed in the contexts [11] Additionally, there were other motivations such as the attitudes enclosing positive self-identity and self-expression, the strength of social relationships, leadership foundations, the decrease of spatial proximity, the consideration of swift trust, the surface credibility, and the reconsideration of ethical issues and attitudes for sharing minimal information, among others On the other hand, motivations connected with the social constructionist approach were found in the professional culture This was based on the background and expertise of individuals in working environments and was notable in the language employed [12] It was common that groups were created in organizations that showed characteristics similar to those of individuals, which permit or inhibit information sharing between those groups In this way, organizational climate is another motivation for sharing information It includes common working practices, shared beliefs and value systems followed by organizations For example, it is seen in the social interaction between the authority and the operational personnel, and the type of structure followed by organizations A centralized and integrated structure can affect information sharing Two additional motivations are sociability and solidarity, which belong to the organizational culture Sociality relates to reciprocal relationships between individuals; solidarity is the strong relation between individuals and their organizations Both are factors affecting information sharing Nevertheless, this is not seen in fragmented organizational cultures affecting directly information sharing In other words, cultural diversity can affect information sharing In addition, security, employability and rewards are other motivations under this approach 2.3 Outcomes of Information Sharing Sense-making is a way to understand unknown, unstructured and information rich situations and it helps to bridge cognitive gaps existing in new situations in context [13] It also helps in explaining the basis of collaborative contexts giving the opportunity of understanding unpredicted and unfamiliar situations and to confirm wellknown situations The next outcome is social meaning that indicates those emerged understandings from shared human experiences and understandings [14] It is an iterative process for individuals via information sharing in which the experiences and understandings are clearly constructed by them Here meaning is seen as a social construction helping in the social world of individuals Common ground is the subsequent outcome and is associated with the information, beliefs and knowledge that a group has in common [4] These are the creation of common groundings between individuals through vivid interactions, but when they are present in groups, collaborative behavior disappears opening the opportunity to reappear as information sharing between individuals and groups The final studied outcome is situational awareness This refers to the continuous extraction of information from the environment in which Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management 653 individuals are immersed, so they can predict future states of situations [15] Moreover, it establishes initial knowledge at an individual level and a capacity to extract information from context so that individuals can foresee the near future situations 2.4 Types of Information Sharing The first type of information sharing was related to being information providers, which similarly served as information intermediaries between libraries and their users [16] Individuals had two roles within the libraries, as information providers offering updates among other services and information intermediaries between users and libraries looking for information The second type was in reference to the experiences of individuals seeking information at individual and/or collective levels [17] It included the degree of encountering information and sharing information in a one-way process as provider or receiver The third type was considering the roles of individual in collective and collaborative contexts within academia It contained activities focused on increasing the efficiency of the process of information sharing, opening to new research approaches, relationships between students and teachers and social relationships [18] The next type is concerned with the patterns of information sharing in health and social services, which exhibit motivations for sharing information and the assurance of complete reception of information and its understanding [12] This also implied sensitive information that could be regulated within the context in study The last type is linked with the factors influencing information sharing within the context of the operation of supply chains in small and medium businesses [19] The factors were types of information shared, level of detail, distance between information providers, involvement of individuals, frequency and timeliness 2.5 Cross-Cultural Differences In the current research referring to cross-cultural differences, there were found diverse approaches utilized to study them A great number were focused on the nature of the individual decision-making process Principally, they used cognitive views in order to understand that process in diverse contexts [20], specifically in those situations were individuals have been confronted with decision situations The marketing area has benefitted from this kind of research focusing on consumer decision-making styles [21] On the other hand, researchers were interested at a collective level in using culture as a frame to measure the tendencies in that process They proposed that culture is a relevant factor affecting that process, but complexity increased when it involved a clash of cultures Here, the understanding of the cross-cultural differences is as the transformation of the outcomes of diverse human activities For instance, some research has been developed to understand the shopping habits of young European [22] Moreover, one context in study is its use in comprehending the design and use of digital media [23], among other types of studies using culture affecting that process Some studies signaled culture as the intelligence of society and it was seen in the capacity of individuals to use knowledge, skills and experience in solving problems [23] In other words, culture aided understanding what and why people are doing something, in this case, the motivations for sharing information as object-oriented activity in a complex context such as incident management at major events Continuing 654 G Hernández-Escobedo et al with the functions of culture, its study could support the relevance in those contexts in which diverse individuals and organizations converge To so, diverse models can be used They include normative, descriptive and computational decision-making approaches This similarly permitted to explore the diverse individual styles of decision-making processes Here, the rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant and spontaneous styles were usually employed in showing the behavior of the decision makers These styles exerted a great influence on cross-cultural decisions Methodology In order to explorer the cross-cultural differences and decisions, Activity Theory was chosen as a conceptual framework and as an analytical tool to expose information sharing as a motivated activity This tradition captures both the cognitive and the social constructionist approaches and suggests that individual lives in a world subjectively constructed, which implicitly signifies knowledge Moreover, this theory permits to understand the consciousness of individuals as a product of their interactions with others and tools in the context which uses the activity [24], particularly information sharing Additionally, it proposes that reality and activity are united and activity is object oriented, but not separated from reality of individuals, which could be explained in cultural and social properties It is because humans are shaped by culture in a broad sense As unity of analysis, information sharing should be expanded at individual and collective levels Here, activity is composed of activities, actions and operations oriented towards the achievement of objects, goals and conditions respectively [25] In this case, information sharing was aimed at creating and maintaining a shared awareness in incident management at major events The analysis was done recognizing that there is a collective, artifact-mediated and object oriented activity system [26] Furthermore, there is a muti-voicedness system, which is a product of accumulated transformations over time Besides, these transformations were a product of changes and developments in the system caused by tensions and contradictions that consequently generated a long series of qualitative alterations Referring to the tensions and contradictions, they are accumulating structural tensions within activity systems and between others resulting in innovation These could be found within each component of the system, between components of the system, between the objects/motives of the activity system and a more advanced activity system, and between the central activity in study and its neighbor activities In a few words, this framework gives the chance to study information sharing in a natural context such as incident management at major events examining the historical and cultural issues at individual and social levels In addition, it permits to examine the purposes of individuals, associations between individuals, cultural and historical developments of information sharing, among other aspects It also helps in understanding the context as an integrated whole incorporating subject(s), object(s), tools and artifacts, communities, rules and norms, and division of labor of the activity system The relationships between individuals, the object and the mediation of components of the activity system are allowed by the use of Activity Theory as an analytical tool at individual and collective levels Its deconstruction gave advantages in gaining insights in how motivations for sharing information incorporate cross-cultural Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management 655 decisions in incident management at major events, specifically with their issues All that was mentioned would be recognized as the issues used to understand the activity in study It was also possible to frame temporary sequences of that activity The structure of the activity system is presented in the Fig Fig The structure of a human activity system (adapted from Engestrom [27]) Taking this as background, an interpretive approach was chosen as feasible one to find the mentioned cultural residues The idea is to gain in-depth understanding of the matter of study in the naturalistic context Moreover, it adopted the use of multiple methods to capture information that is little known [28] In this respect, case study can be seen as a feasible approach because the study was focused in a naturalistic context and this enables understanding the nature of information sharing in context giving advantages over other approaches To so, three methods were employed to gather data including observations of the current routine practices at major events, interview with the individuals serving as incident responders and review or organizational information Two concerts and 19 baseball matches served to the fieldwork, which took place in three cities located in the northwest of Mexico The concerts were carried out at Tijuana city, and the baseball matches at Guasave and Los Mochis cities Overall in the fieldwork, diverse data was gathered as presented in the Table Table Data gathered in the fieldwork Observation Hrs spent Concerts Interviews Written Verbal consent consent Incidents reported Revision of Participant organisational organisations documentation 34 98 54 - 44 37 7 22 49 56 46 118 22 33 Tactical Operational 147 13 Incidents observed 15 (two concerts) 36 1/3 17 (eight games) Baseball matches - Stadium One - Stadium 47 1/2 Two (11 games) Total 98 5/6 656 G Hernández-Escobedo et al The observations were done during the major events accumulating 98 5/6 h in which 56 incidents were observed 55 interviews were done and the Critical Incident Technique [29] and its variant were used to develop them Participants came from 13 organizations performing roles at operational and tactical levels and all gave verbal and/or written consent following ethical guidelines for being interviewed The organizations were categorized according to their role in incident management as regulators (organizers, Civil Protection areas, security coordinators), safety responders (firemen), security responders (Police), safety supporters (Red Cross and voluntary groups), and security supporters (guards) It is important to mention that some incident responders were hired to perform their role, but others not For instance, the Red Cross and voluntary groups were these On the other hand, the security responders can arrest people, but the guards not This was a limitation managing the incidents In addition, from here onwards, the individuals were named incident responders without distinction of the organization role during the incidents 147 documents were gathered including local and federal governmental legislations directly and indirectly related to the major events All data were transcribed verbatim and an open, axial and selective coding approach was used to analyze data until categories were saturated or analysis revealed the same information about motivations for sharing information There was a particular emphasis on finding the issues of the cross-cultural cultural decisions made by incident responders included into the motivations mentioned Diverse themes and activity elements were recognized and utilized to uncover links in the light of the contextual features to make sense of the relationships between them, discovering diverse motivations for sharing information They also opened a discussion about the residues of the connected cross-cultural decisions putting specific attention on those, which affect directly or indirectly incident management Similarly, the activity system was revealed in order to facilitate the analysis Results Three motivations for sharing information were discovered in the context of incident management at major events Each of them presents some cultural aspects of the organizations participating as incident responders In Fig the information sharing activity system is presented Fig The information sharing activity system Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management 4.1 657 Situational Directive This motivation is concerned with being the situational leader in incident management, which should principally take control of the incidents To so, individuals use effectively the action giving orders to recognize the responsibility they had managing the incident It was because some incident responders expected that organizational leaders gave instructions on how incidents would be managed, but they passed their responsibilities to others who sometimes were untrained So, experienced responders became situational leaders (Safety responder) In addition, situational leaders in order to manage the incidents should develop the skills and abilities to share information with diverse sources, including those individuals managing the incidents and those backing their actions They usually employed the action updating It was seen when individuals in charge should solicit a detailed report of what was going in order to define courses of action and solicit additional support from others (Safety supporter) Moreover, first responders initially converted to situational leaders and they should control the incidents and the information generated A detailed report of what had happened and their assessments were provided This exploited the action controlling information in order to consequently manage the incident It was seen when incident responders arrived and at the same time, controlled the incident and passed all information originated from the incident At that time, the incident was controlled according to the existing regulations (Regulator) 4.2 Surface Credibility The current motivation is related to the trust conferred by individuals wearing specific uniforms It is individuals trusted on the basis of the credibility of certain meanings and organizations assigned to uniforms worn by incident responders performing determined roles For instance, they used the action ask for support of those who had similar role in incident management It was seen when they walked and we can easily discovered into the crowd, their shirts distinguished them During incidents we can request help from them and respond accordingly to our demand (Safety supporter) Moreover, some responders used the action giving orders in order to perform their role based on the uniform they wore For example on one occasion a responder signaled that during a tremor, a spectator tried to run and a security supporter shouted him: stop He saw him and stopped seeing me using uniform He asked why I am calm in these kinds of situations and I responded that I have learned to be clam in stressful situations It was part of my training as responder (Security supporter) Furthermore, it was useful that responders wore uniforms Responders were identified for that reason and this implied organizational boundaries in relation to their role A responder commented that it was usual to use the action controlling information For example, if a stay in front a Police officer, she or he request help with a problematic situation Other wise, the officer cannot request our help, but he or she could ask for help to others It depended of the kind of incident (Safety supporter) 658 4.3 G Hernández-Escobedo et al Normative Altruism This motivation is about the counterintuitive position on altruism and was found in the origins of ethical altruism showed by directives of regulators and safety responders They used principally information sharing to control and coordinate voluntary groups (safety supporters) because these organizations abandoned information sharing focusing their efforts on the well-being of casualties These generated tensions between organizations Regulators used the action updating to coordinate the tasks in incident management A member said that voluntary groups should notify to the leaders that they will approach to the incident and subsequently they did not alert to another group However, they approached but did not communicate this to the leaders Consequently, leaders started to share information with them in order to control and coordinate the efforts of the organizations participating (safety responder) In addition, the action information seeking was employed by diverse incident responders to be notified of what was going on in the incident This permitted to try to control and coordinate the participant organizations However, a responder said that it was usual the fever of services as a common practice by voluntary groups This means that these groups listened in the radio that an incident was in course and they speedily approached to it and started to manage and forgot to notify to the leaders So, they begun to seek information about it in order to size the incident and create better conditions in the incident management (safety responder) Besides, a recurrent action that responders use was checking information in order to control the safety supporters This was principally used when supporters managed incidents and exposed the necessity to be informed of what was going on An individual commented that if a group of safety responders was dispatched to the incident, the leaders did not dispatch another until that group shared information respect to the incident Leaders pondered that information and commenced to be sure about each detail of it, inferring that additional responders would be required (safety supporter) Conclusions and Recommendations The results revealed that information sharing was used to control and coordinate effectively the individuals and organizations participating at major events Its use highlighted diverse peculiar characteristics in incident management One was related of being a situational leader As was mentioned before, being leader implied responsibilities that some responders could not fulfill However, if responders take responsibility, they should employ diverse actions such as giving orders, updating and controlling information It was suggested that this permitted to effectively improve the incident management Another characteristic was the use of uniform to trigger information sharing It was found that wearing uniform gave additional advantages to responders for being involved in the information sharing process in context Asking for support, giving orders and controlling information were three useful actions employed for sharing information Finally, a counterintuitive position within ethical issues was a trigger found for sharing information The use of the actions updating, information Cross-Cultural Motivations for Information Sharing in Incident Management 659 seeking and checking information highlighted a way to control and coordinate the efforts of the voluntary groups serving as safety supporters Moreover, the mentioned characteristics helped to discover how the motivations for sharing information exhibit residues of cross-cultural differences and decisions in context For instance, being situational leader in incident management exposed cognitive and collective decisions within problematic situations This recognizes the relevance of information sharing as a crucial component in context Particularly, responders understood that information sharing could make the difference in managing incidents effectively From this, it was important to be clear about the role of individuals and their organizations Similarly, individuals using uniforms could have advantages over those that did not wear them in terms of influencing the form in which incidents could be managed Being visible through their clothes, they could be seen as having accumulated knowledge, skills and experience on managing incidents This was exhibited when individuals paid attention to individuals with uniforms In the same way, using a counterintuitive position on using information sharing to collect information from safety responders, this could be seen as a form of inappropriate habits of responders The lack of information sharing could be seen as a fragmented culture and the same time, with high levels of solidarity that both disturbed information sharing Furthermore, the motivations for sharing information disclosed diverse decisionmaking styles These impacted on how responders utilized their actions and similarly revealed issues of individual and collective decisions made during the incidents Being situational leader revealed the use of information sharing to control incidents so that these styles should be correlated with actions Giving orders, updating and controlling information would be seen as actions of the same decision-making process in context For example, giving orders implied a cognitive decision that had an impact in a collective environment In addition, it contained accumulated issues that could be found in different documents related to incident management Its employment was a result of innovation processes in order to manage effectively the incidents Finally, the situational directive, surface credibility and normative altruism as motivations for sharing information revealed characteristics of decision-making processes that could be explained in detail by the tested models For example, here normative and descriptive models can aid with measurements of the motivations and their components To so, consideration of the uses of the actions would potentially be the approach to how the models should be put to work in order to find new ways of understanding the cross-cultural differences using information sharing as the basis of control and collaboration in incident management at major events Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge to the Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto 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