Late palaeozoic to cenozoic evolution of the Black SeaSouthern Eastern Europe region: A view from the Russian platform

A synthesis of the Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic evolution of the Black Sea region and the southern parts of the East European Platform (EEP) is presented. During Carboniferous to Early Permian times the Cordillera-type Euxinus Orogen evolved along the southern margin of the EEP in response to progressive closure of the Rheic and Palaeotethys oceans and the accretion of Gondwana-derived continental terranes.

Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences (Turkish J Earth Sci.),A.M Vol.NIKISHIN 20, 2011, pp Copyright ©TÜBİTAK ET571–634 AL doi:10.3906/yer-1005-22 First published online 28 February 2011 Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic Evolution of the Black SeaSouthern Eastern Europe Region: A View from the Russian Platform ANATOLY M NIKISHIN1, PETER A ZIEGLER2, SERGEY N BOLOTOV1 & PAVEL A FOKIN1 Geological Faculty, Moscow State University, Vorobyevy Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russia (E-mail: nikishin@geol.msu.ru) Geological-Palaeontological Institute, University Basel, Bernoullistr 32, 4065 Basel, Switzerland Received 21 May 2010; revised typescript receipt 13 January 2011; accepted 15 February 2011 Abstract: A synthesis of the Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic evolution of the Black Sea region and the southern parts of the East European Platform (EEP) is presented During Carboniferous to Early Permian times the Cordillera-type Euxinus Orogen evolved along the southern margin of the EEP in response to progressive closure of the Rheic and Palaeotethys oceans and the accretion of Gondwana-derived continental terranes Permian development of the northdipping Palaeotethys subduction system along the southern Pontides margin of these terranes was accompanied by important compressional intraplate deformation on the EEP The Mesozoic to Palaeogene evolution of the southern parts of the EEP, was goverened by closure of Palaeotethys, accretion of the Gondwana-derived Cimmerian terrane and gradual closure of the Neotethys, involving repeated opening and closure of back-arc basins Five discrete tectonic subduction-related cycles are recognized, each commencing with back-arc extension and terminated with back-arc compression The timing of these cycles is: (1) latest Permian to Hettangian, (2) Sinemurian to early Callovian, (3) late Callovian to Berriasian, (4) Valanginian to Paleocene and (5) Eocene to Recent The duration of the individual cycles was of the order of 30–50 My During back-arc extension, rifted basins developed along the southern margin of the EEP whilst during back-arc compression compressional stresses were exerted on it, albeit at varying levels during the different tectonic cycles On the EEP, Late Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic intraplate tectonics are expressed by such phenomena as rifting, extrusion of plateau basalts, inversion of pre-existing tensional basins, gentle lithospheric folding, regional uplift and subsidence Key Words: East European Platform, Black Sea, Caucasus, Turkey, geological evolution, dynamics, subduction, rifting, intraplate tectonics Karadeniz ve Gỹneydou Avrupann Geỗ PaleozoyikTersiyer Evrimi: Rus Platformundan Bir Bak ệzet: Bu ỗalmada Karadeniz bửlgesi ve Dou Avrupa Platformunun (EEP) gỹney kesiminin Geỗ PaleozoyikTersiyer evrimi ile ilgili bir sentez sunulmuştur Karbonifer ve Erken Permiyen’de EEP’nin güney kenarında Reik ve Paleotetis okyanuslarnn kapanmasna ve Gondwanadan gelen parỗalarn Avrasyaya eklenmesine bal olarak Kordillera tipi Öksenus orojeni gelişmiştir Permiyen’de Paleotetis’in Pontidlerin güney kenar boyunca kuzeye doru dalmasna bal olarak EEP iỗinde ửnemli levha-iỗi skmal deformasyonlar meydana gelmitir EEPnin gỹney kenarnn Mesozoyik ve Paleojen evrimi Paleotetis’in kapanması, Gondwana kökenli Kimmeriyen kıtasının Avrasya’ya eklenmesi, Neotetisin tedrici olarak kapanmas ve yay-ard havzalarn aỗlmas ve kapanmas ile denetlenmiştir Bu dönemde beş tane dalmabatma ile ilgili, yay-ardı genileme ile balayan ve yay-ard skma ile biten ỗevrim tanmlanmtr Bunlar: (1) en Geỗ PermiyenHettanjiyen, (2) Sinemuriyenerken Kalloviyen, (3) Geỗ KalloviyenBerriaziyen, (4) ValanjiniyenPaleosen, (5) Eosengỹnỹmỹz Bu ỗevrimlerin sỹresi 3050 milyon sene mertebesindedir Yay-ardı genişleme sırasında EEP’nin güney kenarı boyunca rift havzalar aỗlm, yay-ard skma srasnda EEPnin gỹney kenar deiik derecelerde skma tektoniine maruz kalmtr EEPdeki Geỗ Paleozoyik, Mesozoyik ve Tersiyer levha-iỗi tektonii, riftleme, plato bazaltlarnn ỗk, genilemeli havzalarn inversiyonu, yumuak litosferik kvrmlanma, rejyonal yỹkselme ve ỗửkme ile karakterize olur Anahtar Sözcükler: Doğu Avrupa Platformu, Karadeniz, Kafkasya, Türkiye, jeolojik evrim, dinamiks, dalma-batma, riftleme, levha iỗi tektonii 571 GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE Introduction Whereas the Mesozoic and Cenozoic evolution of basins occurring on the Peri-Tethyan shelves of Western and Central Europe is well documented (Ziegler 1989, 1990; Dercourt et al 1993, 2000; Golonka 2000, 2004; Stampfli et al 2001a, b), little information has so far been published on the Peri-Tethyan basins of Eastern Europe However, Russian geologists have assembled a large database in collaboration with colleagues from countries surrounding the Black Sea, partly within the framework of such international projects as EUROPROBE, PeriTethys, IGCP-369, ILP, MEBE, DARIUS (see Dercourt et al 2000; Stampfli et al 2001a, b; Gee & Stephenson 2006; Barrier & Vrielynck 2008) In this paper we summarize the palaeogeographic and palaeotectonic evolution of the southern part of the East-European Platform (EEP) and discuss the potential relationship between observed intraplate deformations and the development of the Tethyan belt, drawing on recent compilations and syntheses (Nikishin et al 1996, 1997, 1998a, b, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2010; Ziegler et al 2001; Stephenson et al 2001; Golonka 2004; Moix et al 2008; Okay et al 2008; Robertson & Ustaömer 2009; Kalvoda & Babek 2010) The area addressed includes the Precambrian East-European Craton (EEC), the Late Palaeozoic Scythian Orogen and the Uralian domain which fringe it to the south and east, respectively, and the Mesozoic to recent orogenic systems of the BalkanBlack Sea-Scythian-Caucasus region (Figures 1–3) The palaeotectonic and palaeogeographic restorations of this area presented in this paper are based on a compilation of all available geological and geophysical data These maps form the base for assessing the relationship between intraplate deformations observed on the EEP and changes in plate boundary conditions in the Tethyan and Uralian belts The EEC and the Scythian Platform formed together the EEP During Late Palaeozoic times the EEC was bordered, in recent coordinates, to the southwest by the Variscan Orogen, to the south by the Euxinus Orogen (new name, see below), and to the east by the Uralian Orogen, all of which were tectonically active The EEC was bounded to the 572 west and northwest by the Arctic-North Atlantic Caledonides, and to the northeast by the Baikalian Timan-Pechora-Eastern Barents Sea Province (or Timanides) During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, the evolution of the western and northern margins of the EEP was mainly controlled by processes related to the opening of the Arctic-North Atlantic Ocean, whereas development of its southern margin was controlled by processes governing the evolution of the Tethyan system Late Palaeozoic Euxinus Orogen The Early Permian setting of the EEC and the orogenic system, which was active along its southern margin during Carboniferous to Permian times, is summarized in Figure This orogenic system, which extended from the Rhodope-Moesia area into the Caucasus-Turan area, parts of which are exposed in areas flanking the Black Sea, is here termed the Euxinus Orogen, referring to ‘Pontus Euxinus’, the ancient Greek name for the Black Sea (Nikishin et al 2005) The Euxinus Orogen, similar to the Variscan Orogen forming its western prolongation, contains a number of Gondwana-derived continental terranes (e.g., Belov 1981; Ziegler 1989, 1990; Dercourt et al 1993, 2000; Robinson 1997; Pharaoh 1999; Golonka 2000; Yanev 2000; Nikishin et al 2001; Stampfli et al 2001a, b; Vaida et al 2005; Zakariadze et al 2007; Moix et al 2008; Kalvoda & Babek 2010) However, unlike the Himalaya-type continent-to-continent collisional western parts of the Variscan Orogen, the Euxinus Orogen remained in Late Palaeozoic times in an Andean-type continent-ocean collisional setting (Ziegler 1989; Stampfli et al 2001a, b; Ziegler & Stampfli 2001) The evolution of Euxinus orogenic system was governed by subduction of the Rheic Ocean and the accretion of Gondwana-derived continental fragments to the southern margin of Baltica This subduction system was apparently activated in Ordovician times, controlling the accretion of such terranes as Eastern Avalonia, Armorica and Moravo-Silesia to Baltica during the Caledonian orogeny (Ziegler 1989; Pharaoh 1999; Cocks & Torsvik 2006) During the Devonian, intermittent cycles of back-arc extension and compression controlled the opening of the oceanic East-Barents Sea A.M NIKISHIN ET AL Pe cho raKo lva Tim an Ukhta tem Sys U la Ko Va nd ey Ad zva R sys tem NI Dvi na ic lig So Oslo Kazan' Vol ga Moscow Va l ni sh burg w sco Riga Oren Mo Pac hel Voronezh h lis Po DonMedveditsa ou Tr Dn Volgograd gh iep r Donbass Scythian Plafo t kini Moesian Platform C Kar rimea A K SE BLAC S ea g ro ob D 200 400 km Karpinsky CA SP IA Great Cau rm N casus KonkaYaly asin nB pia cas Pre Pripyat Kiev 200 ma al Ur Orsha Minsk Warsaw o lin du b A Orenburg S St.Petersburg y da Da a N Perm' la y al Bo ga ich thn LE CA L La Kama-Be Vyatka DO Sev A DE S Arkhangelsk SE A Transcaucasus Ta Trialet lys haraSevan-Ordub Ac h ad Figure Index map of East European Platform, showing main rifted basis Coloured zones denote highly inverted rifts and backarc basins Rheno-Hercynian Basin in the Varsican domain and the evolution of the Dniepr-Donbass-KarpinskyPeri-Caspian rift system on the southern parts of the EEC, as well as the accretion of additional continental terranes, such as the Aquitaine-Cantabrian block, to the Variscan domain In the Variscan, as well as in the Euxinus system, orogenic activity sharply increased during Late Visean times Crustal shortening terminated in the Variscan Orogen at the end of the Westphalian whereas orogenic activity persisted in the Euxinus Orogen until the Early Permian (Ziegler 1989, 1990; Tait et al 1997; Nikishin et al 2001, 2005; Stampfli & Borel 2004) Unlike the northern parts of the Variscan Orogen, and even more than its southern parts, the Euxinus Orogen was severely disrupted during Mesozoic and Cenozoic times by repeated phases of back-arc rifting 573 ian foredeep ob D ro g ea RhodopeThracia terrane ane s-A ge Rid n o at lI d 200 Meso-Cenozoic volcanic belts uc na sin nd sin Ba Ba AS PI AN aj -S irj an SE A TURAN PLATFORM areas with oceanic or transitional crust foredeep basins faults and faulted scarps major thrust zones Abbreviations: Dz– Dzirula massif; Kh– Khrami massif; SS– Sevan suture; SO– Sevan-Ordubad Basin Sa Ku Ka ba kh as us t C au ca su s Ca n S -A so te rme rra n ne ian ea 400 km Eas t-A acc natolia retio n com nary plex ARABIAN PLATE suture Meso-Cenozoic folded belts Erzincan SS Kh t -Triale Dz Gr at Terek-Caspia e of G re Achara asin N s l o p ni B Rio Eastern Pontides K BA SEA SI N AC BL ky ats sin C - Figure Schematic tectonic map of Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin et al 2005) te rra Ba Sh se n Basi M L asin Kara kulSmu shk ovo SW e zo ne EL pian B sin Ba es e s Tokat terrane Kırşehir terrane N ER ST EA Tu ap ban l-Ku Indo FOR KY INS RP KA Precas N PIA S CA IN S BAS European Late Palaeozoic deformed margin continental terranes undivided ide İzmir-Ankara suture a terr Sakary ri s r al CentPontide v S.C a me AN ASS PLAT DONB CRATON sh r au Balkanides Sre dne gor Stra ie ndz WESTERN BLACK SEA BASIN Lomonoso SCY I TH EAN en it Grab P Karkin Odessa shelf T-E O UR W Pontides EAS MOESIAN PLATFORM a Carp th 574 IANS PATH ov us r d An e dg Ri ly Ta n CAR rz o Elb T Dniepr Basin GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE A.M NIKISHIN ET AL Precambrian continental lithosphere Lithosphere of Precaspian region EURASIAN PLATE PRECAMBRIAN & PALAEOZOIC CRUST + MESOZOIC & CENOZOIC DEFORMATIONS ophiolites Mz-Eo inverted backarc basin K2 K2 backarc basin bac bas karc in l-J ba bac si ka n rc us be a olc v eo ac et Cr 3 Ca lt nic TET YSID E sic n as Tri retio c ac S AC CRE TION AL-C OLL ISIO NAL BEL T (M z-Q) 2 ARABIAN PLATE Mesozoic oceanic lithosphere Precambrian continental lithosphere AFRICAN PLATE Figure Main crustal units of the Black Sea-Caspian region 1– Mesozoic to Paleocene subduction zone, 2– Recent subduction zone, 3– thrust belt with detached subducted slabs (modified after Nikishin et al 2005) and was overprinted by multiple orogenic pulses (Nikishin et al 2001, 2005) This renders it difficult to reconstruct its architecture and to correlate its now dispersed components In the following we review the different elements of Euxinus Orogen and the characteristics of allochthonous terranes they include Dobrogea Orogen The Dobrogea Orogen forms the suture between the EEC and the Late Precambrian Moesian micro-continent (Figure 2) and consists of Upper Ordovician to Devonian accretionary complexes and Carboniferous to Early Permian marine to continental molasse-type sediments (Carapelit Formation) The main folding phase occurred probably during the Visean, prior to the deposition of the Carapelit formation (Kruglov & Tsypko 1988; Sandulescu et al 1995; Pharaoh 1999) The Carapelit Formation was intruded by Upper Carboniferous– Permian granitoids (Sandulescu et al 1995; Seghedi 2009; Balintoni et al 2010) In the Pre-Dobrogea Depression, corresponding to the northern foreland basin of the Dobrogea Orogen, Upper Carboniferous and older EEC passive margin sequences are overlain by synorogenic Upper Visean–Serpukhovian greycoloured, coal-bearing lower molasse series, derived from the rising orogen to the south These grade upward into Stephanian to Permian red-coloured 575 GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE UR St.Petersburg AL Kazan’ IA Early Permian, Sakmarian- Oslo Artinskian N O R Riga O G Moscow E N ary goj Mu IC NIDE Warsaw S VA R Precaspian basin Volgograd T Ustyurt Kiev IS CI Donbass foldbelt DE S Ukrain ian Ar ch 200 L E EDO B Minsk Voron ezh Arc h CAL Do bro 200 400 km gea E Moesia LEGEND palaeoenvironments and sediments Balkan Rh od op P W on U tid XI es Karpinsky foldbelt Scythian orogen N Kara-Bogaz O R O G E N I CGrB E L T eat Cauc US And ruso v asus orogen Shats ky Dzirula E Pontides Kura Karaba kh PALAEOTETHYS OCEAN e continental sands and shales shallow marine, sands and shales shallow marine, carbonates mainly evaporites and dolomites I I I I I deeper marine clastics and shales deeper marine shales and carbonates tectonic symbols: eroded land: cratonic areas and inactive foldbelts, low to intermediate relief active foldbelts, high relief normal faults subduction zones active thrust fronts Precambrian terranes within collisional belts intraplate volcanism oceanic floor hypothetic Devonian oceanic crust Figure Early Permian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the southern parts of the Eastern Europe Platform (modified after Nikishin et al 2005) continental clastics, which contain Lower Permian (?) volcanics, ranging from basalts to andesites and rhyolites to ignimbrites (Belov et al 1987, 1990; Kruglov & Tsypko 1988) During the Visean docking of the Moesian Platform against the southern margin of the EEC the Dobrogea Orogen underwent its main deformation phase (Yanev 2000) Subsequently, Dobrogea was repeatedly affected by compressional events until Early Permian times; however, the timing and scope 576 of these late phases of the Dobrogea orogeny are still poorly constrained Moesian Terrane The Moesian terrane, which is located southward adjacent to the Dobrogea Orogen (Figure 2), is characterized by a Upper Precambrian Panafrican basement that is covered by an up to 10 km thick, nearly continuous Cambrian to Neogene A.M NIKISHIN ET AL sedimentary sequence (Tari et al 1997; Yanev 2000; Vaida et al 2005; Seghedi 2009; Kalvoda & Babek 2010) The Gondwana affinity of this microcontinent is evidenced by the faunal content of its Cambro–Ordovician series, as well as by the occurrence of Upper Ordovician glacio-marine deposits The Moesian terrane was probably detached from Gondwana at the end of the Ordovician, was transferred across the Palaeotethys and began to collide with the Rheic arc-trench system at the transition from the Devonian to the Carboniferous During its accretion to the EEC, the Moesian Platform was subjected to repeated compressional events until Middle Permian times (Yanev 2000) Balkan Terrane The Balkan Terrane is located southward adjacent to the Moesian Terrane and is characterized by deformed Ordovician to Upper Carboniferous sediments (Figure 2) As Ordovician to Devonian series of the Balkan Terrane differ from those of the Moesian Platform, Yanev (2000) suggested that it represents a separate entity that probably collided during the Early Carboniferous (intra-Visean Sudetic event) with the Moesian terrane Subsequently both terranes underwent further compressional deformation until mid-Permian times Rhodope Terrane The Rhodope or Rhodope-Thracian Terrane is located to the south and southwest of the Balkan Terrane (Figure 2) and is characterized by a very complex pre-Mesozoic structure Yanev (2000) shows that its basement consists of a Precambrian (?) and a Variscan metamorphic complex, which underwent polyphase orogenic deformation The Palaeozoic sedimentary record of the Rhodope Terrane is poorly constrained (Moix et al 2008) However, the occurrence of granitoids, ranging in age between 340 Ma and 320 Ma, indicates that during Carboniferous times it was affected by major orogenic activity This suggests that during the Late Palaeozoic the Rhodope and Balkan terranes were incorporated, into the branch of the Euxinus Orogen, which fringed the Moesian Platform to the south (Ziegler 1989; Stampfli et al 2001a, b) Western Pontides The Western Pontides or İstanbul Terrane, located in northwestern Turkey (Figure 2), probably formed during pre-Cretaceous times the eastern prolongation of the Moesian Terrane (Okay et al 1994) Similarly to the latter, the basement of the Western Pontides Terrane was consolidated during the Panafrican Orogeny (Okay et al 2008) Moreover, the Palaeozoic sedimentary sequences of both terranes show considerable similarities (Okay et al 1994, 2008; Şengör 1995; Yılmaz et al 1997; Kozur & Stampfli 2000; Kalvoda & Babek 2010) The İstanbul Zone of the Western Pontides is characterized by a nearly complete Lower Ordovician to Upper Carboniferous sedimentary sequence, which was deformed during the Hercynian Orogeny (Okay & Tüysüz 1999; Okay et al 2008) Visean pelagic sediments, grading laterally into shallow water carbonates, are overlain by Visean to Bashkirian flysch and shales and grade upwards into Upper Carboniferous coal-bearing series (Kozur & Stampfli 2000; Okay et al 2006, 2008) This suggests that the İstanbul Zone formed part of a Carboniferous foreland basin that was associated with the eastern prolongation RhodopeBalkan branch of the Euxinus Orogen Eastern Pontides and Sakarya Terrane Southward adjacent to the İstanbul Terrane, and separated from it by the Intra-Pontide suture, lies the Hercynian-deformed Sakarya Terrane which extends eastward over a distance of some 1500 km into the Eastern Pontides (Figure 2) Its basement consists of Precambrian (?) to Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks that were intruded by Devonian and Early Carboniferous to Early Permian granitoids (Okay et al 2008) Thick Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian (?) shallow marine to continental, molassetype sediments unconformably overlay this basement complex (Okay & Şahintürk 1997; Okay 2000; Okay et al 2008) Great Caucasus Orogen The Palaeozoic basement exposed in the central parts of Great Caucasus (Figures & 4), can be subdivided into the following units (Letavin 1980, 1987; Belov 1981; Somin 2007, 2009): (1) a Palaeozoic 577 GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE metamorphic sequence that is intruded by Palaeozoic granitoids; (2) Upper Palaeozoic, mainly deep-marine sediments containing intersliced ophiolites and arcrelated volcanics; (3) a Middle to Upper Devonian subduction-related magmatic island arc complex of unknown subduction polarity Isotopic zircon data (Somin 2007, 2009) document exclusively Palaeozoic ages (±460, 450–280 My) for these metamorphic, intrusive, volcanic and sedimentary rocks According to stratigraphic and structural data, a main phase of folding and large-scale thrusting occurred during the early(?) Visean (Belov 1981) Upper Visean strata are mainly developed in a continental molasse-type facies The Middle to Upper Carboniferous is represented by coal-bearing grey clastics containing andesites, rhyolites and basalts Lower Permian continental red-beds contain flows of andesites, dacites and trachytes The Upper Permian is partly represented by shallow-marine sediments During Middle Carboniferous to Early Permian times the setting of the Great Caucasus segment of the Euxinus Orogen was probably akin to an Andeantype magmatic belt (Mossakovsky 1975; Somin 2007, 2009) There are considerable similarities between the basement of the Great Caucasus and the Eastern Pontides Pre-Caucasus or Scythian Orogen In the Pre-Caucasus area, located to the north of the Great Caucasus, the Palaeozoic and older(?) basement is concealed by Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments (Figures & 3) Thus, its evolution is only constrained by subsurface data Numerous deep wells penetrated below Mesozoic sediments highly folded, thrusted and regionally up to greenshist facies metamorphosed Palaeozoic black shales, cherty shales, chloritic shales, phyllites and silty shales that contain rare carbonates (Letavin 1980, 1987; Belov 1981) Limited palaeontological data give Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous ages, and in a few cases possible Early Palaeozoic to Middle Devonian ages In some zones, possibly corresponding to a volcanic arc or a rift, andesitic and basaltic volcanics were encountered (Belov 1981) The main phase of folding, thrusting and uplift occurred during late Visean–Serpukhovian times (Letavin 1987) The pre-Caucasus segment of the Euxinus Orogen, also 578 referred to as the Scythian Orogen, was intruded by many Carboniferous–Lower Permian granitoids (Letavin 1980, 1987; Belov 1981) During Middle to Late Carboniferous and Permian times, some minor molasse-type basins developed within the preCaucasus segment of the Scythian Orogen (Belov 1981) Although Kostyuchenko et al (2004) and Chalot-Prat et al (2007) argue for a Precambrian age of the Scythian Orogen, there is no hard data that it contains some Precambrian terranes Nevertheless, our new, still unpublished age determinations on detrital zircons from Cretaceous to Paleocene turbiditic sandstones of the Great Caucasus yielded numerous ages of ±613 Ma This suggests that the Scythian Orogen may indeed contain a so far unidentified Late Neoproterozoic terrane, comparable to İstanbul and Moesian terranes Crimea Also in Crimea, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments largely conceal the Palaeozoic and older basement (Figure 2; Muratov 1969; Letavin 1980; Gerasimov 1994; Nikishin et al 2005) Nevertheless, borehole data permit to define four basement units The South Crimean unit is buried beneath the Mesozoic South Crimean Orogen; however, along its northern boundary a metamorphic zone contains remnants of Upper Precambrian(?)–Palaeozoic ophiolites (mainly talc-bearing shales and serpentinites; Muratov 1969; Gerasimov 1994) The northward adjacent Simferopol unit consists of a metamorphic, possibly Upper Precambrian complex (Muratov 1969; Kruglov & Tsypko 1988) Further north, the Novoselovskoe unit represents a fold belt, which contains metamorphosed Devonian–Lower Carboniferous deep-marine mudstones and volcanics, including remnants of a volcanic arc (Muratov 1969; Gerasimov 1994); however the presence of Lower Palaeozoic sediments cannot be excluded (Kruglov & Tsypko 1988) In the Crimean segment of the Scythian Orogen the main orogenic event, though only poorly constrained, presumably occurred during Visean, pre-Serpukhovian times Lower Jurassic flysch, exposed directly to the south of the Simferopol unit, contains in a few places huge olistoliths, the oldest of which consist of Serpukhovian–lower Bashkirian shallow-water limestones and Upper Permian A.M NIKISHIN ET AL bioherms (Muratov 1969; Mazarovich & Mileev 1989a, b) Although the source of these olistoliths is unknown, Serpukovian development of shallowwater conditions suggests that by this time the preexisting Early Carboniferous deep-water trough had been closed This is compatible with the postulated Visean main deformation phase of the Crimean segment of the Scythian Orogen, the most external unit of which may correspond to the very poorly controlled Late Palaeozoic Sivash molasse basin (Letavin 1980) Unfortunately, available lithological data and age constraints provide only a fragmentary picture of evolution of the Palaeozoic Crimean basement that was severely overprinted by Mesozoic orogenic activity Dzirula and Possibly Related Terranes The Dzirula Terrane, which is located in Georgia just to the south of the Great Caucasus (Figure 2), is characterized by a Upper Precambrian basement that yielded isotopic ages in the range of 800–540 Ma and contains Neoproterozoic (±800 Ma) ophiolites, as well as by deformed, probably Lower Palaeozoic sediments (Zakariadze et al 2000, 2007) These complexes are covered by an up to 1300-m-thick Visean–Bashkirian volcano-sedimentary sequence that contains rhyolitic lava flows and pyroclastics Similar to the Great Caucasus, also the Dzirula Terrane was intruded by Permo–Carboniferous granitoids, which yielded isotopic ages in the 330–280 Ma range (Zakariadze et al 2000, 2007) Geochemical data show that the Permo–Carboniferous granitoids were intruded under a supra-subduction setting (Zakariadze et al 2000, 2007) With its Panafrican–Upper Neoproterozoic basement, the Dzirula Terrane was probably derived from Gondwana and was accreted during the Early Carboniferous to the southern Great Caucasus segment of the Euxinus Orogen This is compatible with the occurrence of subduction-related K-granites in the Trans-Great Caucasus area, which yielded ages in the range of 330–280 Ma (Zakariadze et al 2007; Nikishin et al 2001) The basement of the Karabakh Terrane (Figure 2), which is located to the southeast of the Dzirula Terrane, is exposed in small areas only However, as it is very similar to that of the Dzirula Terrane it may actually form part of it (Milanovsky 1996; Zakariadze et al 2007) Thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments cover the basement of the Shatsky, Kura and Andrusov blocks (Figure 2) Geophysical data indicate that the Shatsky Block forms the offshore prolongation of the Dzirula Terrane No data are available on the pre-Mesozoic of the Kura and Andrusov blocks, which probably also formed part of Precambrian or Palaeozoic terranes prior to the Late Cretaceous to Palaeogene opening of the Eastern Black Sea Karpinsky Fold Belt The Karpinsky Swell bounds the pre-Caucasus segment of the Scythian Orogen to the North (Figures & 4) It represents the inverted southeastern part of the Devonian Dniepr-Donbass-Karpinsky rift (Milanovsky 1996; Sobornov 1995; Nikishin et al 1996, 2001, 2005; Stephenson et al 2001; Kostyuchenko et al 2004) According to reflectionseismic data, the Karpinsky Swell involves a nearly 15–20-km-thick sequence of folded sediments, the bulk of which is Carboniferous in age (Brodsky et al 1994; Kostyuchenko et al 2004) However, no strata older than Bashkirian have been penetrated by wells (Letavin 1980) Bashkirian–Asselian series consist mainly of claystones, shales and siltstones An angular unconformity is evident at the base of the Artinskian molasse (Nikishin et al 2001) This indicates that the main deformation phase of the Karpinsky Basin, involving folding and thrusting of its sedimentary fill, occurred in pre-Artinskian times, possibly during the Sakmarian Wells and reflection-seismic data from the northern flank of the Karpinsky Swell indicate that it was thrust northwards by at least a few tens kilometres over the margin of adjacent peri-Caspian Basin (Kapustin 1982; Brodsky et al 1994) Well data from this external Karakul-Smushkovoe thrust belt and its associated foredeep basin show that Tournaisian(?), Visean and lower Serpukhovian series are developed in a relatively shallow-marine carbonate facies and contain bioherms By contrast, upper Serpukhovian–Bashkirian sediments consist of deep-water cherty carbonates and radiolarites, containing volcanic ash Mainly argillaceous 579 GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE sediments represent Moscovian and Gzhelian series, whereas the Asselian is developed in a flyschtype facies (Nikishin et al 2001) The rapid late Serpukhovian–Bashkirian subsidence of the North Karpinsky zone probably reflects tectonic loading of the southern margin of the peri-Caspian Basin by the evolving Karpinsky-Karakul-Smushkovoe thrust belt, the main deformation of which occurred during the Early Permian (Sakmarian), as evidenced by borehole and seismic data (Kapustin 1982; Brodsky et al 1994; Volozh et al 1999; Nikishin et al 2001) From Late Visean times onwards, the evolution of the Karpinsky Basin was paralleled by orogenic activity in the Caucasus and pre-Caucasus segment of the Scythian Orogen During Visean to Asselian times the Karpinsky Basin was gradually incorporated into the flexural foreland basin of the Scythian Orogen from which clastics were shed into it (Letavin 1987) Similarly, the Dniepr and Donbass segments of the Devonian Dniepr-Karpinsky rift experienced during their Carboniferous post-rift evolution repeated phases of accelerated subsidence (Nikishin et al 1996; Stovba et al 1996; van Wees et al 1996) that probably can be related to the development of the Scythian Orogen This suggests that large flexural foreland basins developed during Carboniferous times along the northern flank of the evolving Scythian Orogen, remnants of which are now only preserved in the inverted Donbass and Karpinsky Basin Cordilleran-type Euxinus Orogen The Euxinus Orogen, as summarized in Figure 4, was characterized by a very complex structure and included a number of continental Gondwana-derived allochthonous terranes These terranes formed part of the composite Hunic Terrane that was detached from Gondwana during the Late Ordovician–Early Silurian, components of which were incorporated into the Euxinus Orogen during Late Devonian to Carboniferous times in conjunction with progressive closure of the Rheic Ocean and opening of the Palaeotethys (Stampfli et al 2001a, b; Stampfli & Borel 2004; Cocks & Torsvik 2006) Within the Euxinus Orogen well-defined allochthonous continental terranes are the Moesian-West Pontides, Rhodope, and the Dzirula (Balkan, Eastern Pontides, Shatsky, Karabakh, Kura - ?) terranes In the Turan 580 area possible allochthonous continental terranes are the Kara-Bogaz and Usturt blocks (Golonka 2000) The Euxinus Orogen contains also Lower Palaeozoic ophiolites (Great Caucasus), Ordovician (?) to Devonian subduction-related accretionary complexes (Dobrogea), Devonian volcanic arcs (Great Caucasus) and Carboniferous to Lower Permian molasse basins and widespread granitic plutons The Early Permian southern margin of the Euxinus Orogen is thought to coincide with the ophiolitic suture which extends from the Vardar zone on the Balkan Peninsula via the İzmir-AnkaraErzincan zone of Turkey to the Sevan zone of Armenia and Azerbaijan (Robinson 1997; Okay 2000; Stampfli et al 2001a, b; Nikishin et al 2005) Continental terranes and fragments of Upper Palaeozoic basement blocks, which are interpreted as forming part of the Euxinus Orogen owing to their Permo–Carboniferous deformation, are all located to the north of this suture On the other hand, continental terranes located to the south of this suture were not affected by Permo–Carboniferous orogenic processes and therefore are attributed to the composite Cimmerian terrane, which was rifted off the northern margin of Gondwana during Permian times and was accreted to the Euxinus Orogen during the Mesozoic Cimmerian orogenic cycle, involving closure of the Palaeotethys Ocean (e.g., Ziegler 1989; Dercourt et al 2000; Golonka 2000; Stampfli et al 2001a, b; Stampfli & Borel 2004; Cocks & Torsvik 2006) During the Early Permian the southern margin of the Euxinus Orogen was associated with the Palaeotethys arc-trench system that fringed the southern margin of the accreted Gondwana-derived Moesia-Rhodope, Pontides and Dzirula terranes The tectono-stratigraphic record of the Euxinus Orogen is, however, too fragmentary to determine the docking age of its different allochthonous terranes and of potential suture sealing overstep sequence Nevertheless, there are indications that the evolution of this orogen involved multiple deformation phases, going back as far as the Siluro–Ordovician, as evident in the Great Caucasus Orogenic activity apparently increased sharply during the Early Carboniferous (Late Visean?), presumably in response to closure GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE Northern Shatsky, system of U Jurassic carbonate buildups Scythian Platform Karkinit Graben on oc lin e We st- M ea rim C S O ro ge Ku Kerch-Taman Basin n So rok in B An West-Black Sea Basin Gr as in tC au Tu a ps eB 32 assin ca su sO Mo rog 30 dr us Sha ov Hi Si no p Ea gh Ar kh G C Pontide Orogen an be tsky Rid ge stBl Ba ack S sin ea ge n en no clin Southern Shatsky, U Jurassic evaporites, clastics, basalts e Def 31 orm C Shatsky Gudauta Oc ed S hats mc ky m hir arg a in S Shatsky Д lsk y Eocene rift Hi gh in as lex G nal comp Accretio nB ea N Shatsky Central Shatsky, U Jurassic carbonate platform ba ur ia B Cretaceous volcanic arc Metamorphic massif o io ph lit u es tur e Figure 29 Tectonic scheme of eastern Black Sea region and location of geological cross-sections (numbers in circles) demonstrated in Figures 30–32 as rifting, extrusion of plateau basalts, inversion of pre-existing tensional basins, gentle lithospheric folding, and regional uplift and subsidence thought to related to a super-regional tension event marking the onset of the Pangea break-up (Ziegler et al 2001; Nikishin et al 2002) On the EEP, Mesozoic rifting activity was largely restricted to the Scythian Platform where it was related to back-arc extension Only the Late Cretaceous Konka-Yaly Basin to the south of the Donbass developed during a pulse of back-arc compression and collision Triassic rifting affected only the marginal areas of the EEP, such as the Polish Trough, Dobrogea, the Scythian Platform and the Pechora Basin However, Triassic rifting played a major role in Western Siberia, Western Europe and the Arctic-North Atlantic domain (Figure 5) and is On the EEP, extrusion of flood basalts occurred only at the Permo/Triassic transition in the Pechora Basin close to Pay-Khoy where it is related to the impingement of the Tunguska mantle plume (Nikishin et al 2002) 620 During Permian to recent times, multiple phases of compression-induced basin inversion are evident on the EEP (Nikishin et al 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001; Fokin et al 2001) Resulting structures are asymmetric anticlines and thrust-related flexures, which are superimposed on pre-existing rifted Eastern Black Sea Basin 8000 msec 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 10 km Maikop megasequence of regional subsidence water K2 highly rifted continental crust Pal-Eo Pli Maikop - Oli-Mio1 Cal -J3 Shatsky Ridge WBS-02-14 Mio2-3 Q Eastern Black Sea Basin K1 Maikop K2-Pg2 Tuapse Trough Caucasian thrust continental crust Tuapse Trough water Shatsky Ridge sec Figure 30 Geolocical interpretation of seismic line across the Eastern Black Sea Basin (for location see Figure 29; modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al 2007) 20 km Cal-J3 continental crust K1 Andrusov Ridge A.M NIKISHIN ET AL 621 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 Time 1000 Sar-1-2 Sar3-Pont J3 reef Deep-water basin with isolated carbonate buildups May Tar Pli1 Pli2 Q rapid subsidence Platform margin Tar K-Pal Maykop-Mio1 Eo C Po nt May South-Adler carbonate platform J3 ? hok Gadauta High SE Figure 31 Geolocical interpretation of seismic line along Shatsky Ridge (for location see Figure 29; modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al 2007) NW Chok-Kon Q Ochamchira-4 Pg J3 K Eo Pal May Ng1 Ng2 680 250 4350 4500 3240 1780 1900 2200 1350 meters 622 Ochamchira High GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE section compiled using parallel seismic lines A.M NIKISHIN ET AL Pre-folding width (during Eocene) Recent width of foldzone recent section EastGreat Caucasus Black Sea Shatsky Ridge Tuapse Trough Basin sea-level K2 Oli-Mio1 10 km P West-Kuban Basin K1 Pli–Quaternary Mio2+3 Pg1+2 J3 g1+ Oli-Mio1 pre-Callovian complexes undivided pre-Callovian complexes undivided End-Maikopian restoration (Early Miocene) Maikopian covered Great Caucasus(?) Oli-Mio1 Pg1+2 K2 Oli-Mio1 K1 J3 10 km Mid-Eocene restoration (before orogeny start) Great Caucasus rift basin Basin width ~ 80 km 10 km water depth 1,5 km Pg1+2 K2 K1 J3 pre-Callovian complexes undivided Figure 32 Balanced restoration of Western Caucasus history, for sedimentary basins based on interpretation of seismic data and on field data for Caucasus foldbelt (modified after Nikishin et al 2010) basins The main phases of intraplate compressional deformation coincided with the main orogenic events that affected the margins of the EEP during the Early Permian (Sakmarian to Artinskian), Late Triassic to Hettangian, Santonian to Paleocene and Oligocene– Neogene (Figure 34) On the EEP, gentle lithospheric folds developed during the Visean to Early Permian (Nikishin et al 1996, 2001; Fokin et al 2001), Late Triassic to Hettangian (Figures & 8), Santonian to Paleocene (Figure 25; Nikishin et al 1999) and Oligocene to Recent (Nikishin et al 1997; Cloetingh et al 1999) The typical wavelength of such folds is about 500–700 km and their amplitude is of the order of 100–700 m Similar to the main phases of inversion tectonics, the main phases of lithospheric folding coincide with main orogenic events affecting the margins of the EEP Dynamic processes controlling regional uplift and subsidence of the EEP are still poorly understood For example, during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, and again during Oligocene to recent times, large parts of the EEP were subjected to regional uplift Although both uplift periods coincide with eustatic low-stands in sea level (Haq et al 1988), they also coincide with periods during which the EEP was subjected to regional compression This raises questions about processes controlling the syn-compressional uplift of 623 GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE OLIGOCENE shelf basin, mainly shales Indol-K uban B shales & turb Tuaidpitses eB system E asin Bla of islan ck An dr us ov Se eroded highland Great Caucasus asin ds aB Shatsky deep-water basin, a mainly shales sin sediment supply system Figure 33 Oligocene palaeogeograpnic/palaeotectonic map of eastern Black Sea region (modified after Nikishin by Afanasenkov et al 2007) a large cratonic area (diameter up to 2000–2500 km) by 100–400 m On the other hand, during late Albian to Eocene times, an about 1000-km-wide belt on the southern parts of the EEP subsided regionally As this belt paralleled the evolving Tethyan orogenic system, its regional subsidence may be in some way related to subduction dynamics Origin of a High-level Intraplate Stresses The distribution of intraplate deformations, both of a tensional and a compressional nature, indicate that high-level intraplate stresses can apparently affect specific regions but also entire cratons, and in some cases several cratons at the same time In the latter case we speak of a ‘super-regional’ stress event The origin of stresses controlling such super-regional events is more problematic, whereas those controlling regional events can be readily explained 624 Development of regional tensional stresses, which intermittently affected the southern margin of the EEP during the Mesozoic, can be related to backarc extension On the other hand, development of regional intraplate compressional stresses, which intermittently affected the EEP during Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic times can be variably related to its collisional mechanical coupling with orogenic wedges which evolved along its margins, to back-arc compression or to the initiation of new subduction zone (Ziegler et al 1998, 2002) Amongst the different pulses of intraplate compression, the intra-Senonian deformation of the EEP can be considered as being related to a superregional compressional stress event which affected at around 84 Ma also Northern Africa, Arabia and Western and Central Europe This event coincided with a global plate kinematic reorganization, involving the onset of the counter clockwise A.M NIKISHIN ET AL M Y PERIOD CAUCASUS STAGE SUBDUCTION MAGMATISM BACK-ARC EXTENSION BACK-ARC COMPRESSION & COLLISION PONTIDES-BLACK SEA SUBDUCTION MAGMATISM BACK-ARC EXTENSION BACK-ARC COMPRESSION & COLLISION BACK-ARC CYCLE BACK-ARC STRESS CYCLES QUAT BURDIGALIAN CHATTANIAN MAIN ALPINE L E M MESSINIAN TORTONIAN SERRAVALLIAN LANGHIAN L MIOCENE PLIOC L E PALEOC E 50 RUPELIAN PRIABONIAN BARTONIAN LUTETIAN YPRESIAN THANETIAN SELANDIAN DANIAN E E EOCENE L M OLIG AQUITANIAN TURONIAN C R E TA C E O U S CENOMANIAN Intra-arc rifting ALBIAN EARLY 100 BA SANTONIAN CONIACIAN EARLY ALPINE RC -A CAMPANIAN CK LATE CY CL MAASTRICHTIAN APTIAN BARREMIAN VALANGINIAN MALM BERRIASIAN 150 TITHONIAN KIMMERIDGIAN DOGGER CALLOVIAN BATHONIAN BAJOCIAN AALENIAN TOARCIAN LIASSIC JURASSIC OXFORDIAN PLIENSBACHIAN Intra-arc rifting SINEMURIAN CL E RHAETIAN C -A R BA CK CARNIAN M TRIASSIC L CY NORIAN LADINIAN E ANISIAN OLENEKIAN INDUAN EARLY CIMMERIAN HETTANGIAN 200 250 MIDDLE LATE CIMMERIAN CIMMERIAN HAUTERIVIAN Figure 34 Subduction related back-arc stress cycles 625 GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK SEA, SE EUROPE convergence of Africa-Arabia with Eurasia (Guiraud & Bosworth 1997; Nikishin et al 1999; Ziegler et al 2001; Rosenbaum et al 2002), and possibly with a period of true Polar Wander (Sager & Koppers 2000) This suggests that during a period of global plate reorganization intraplate compressional stresses may reach very high levels in more than one plate A super-regional tensional event occurred at the Permian/Triassic transition (Nikishin et al 2001, 2002), as evidenced by rifting that affected an area, which extended from the North Atlantic domain to the Verkhoyansk Range in Eastern Siberia, and from the Barents Sea and Taymyr to Middle Asia This event coincided with the transition from maximum Pangea amalgamation to the onset of its dispersion (Nikishin et al 2002), reflecting a global plate reorganization This suggests that during periods of global plate reorganization also tensional intraplate stress may reach very high levels Acknowledgements Our compilation work was funded by the Russian RFFI (08-05-00588, 11-05-00471) grants, supported by the DARIUS project and sponsored by the Russian oil company Rosneft We thank A.S Alekseev, O.A Almendinger, E.Yu Baraboshkin, A.V Ershov, V.V Gayduk, V.E Khain, L.F Kopaevich, N.V Koronovsky, M.V Korotaev, V.A Lavrischev, N.A Malyshev, E.E Milanovsky, A.V Mityukov, A.F Morozov, Sh.M Murzin, N.K Myasoedov, D.I Panov, K.O Sobornov, M.L Somin, S.N Stovba, P.L Tikhomirov, Yu.A Volozh, G Zakariadze, S Cloetingh, W Cavazza, J.-P Cadet, E Barrier, M.-F Brunet, A Demirer, J Dercourt, H Eichenseer, R Guiraud, G Georgiev, E Henriksen, J Lyle, J Mosar, A.I Okay, H Posamentier, A.H.F Robertson, A Saintot, A Seghedi, G.M Stampfli, R Stephenson, T Ustaömer and M Wannier for fruitful discussions and joint field works We thank geologists of the oil companies Rosneft, Total, Shell, ExxonMobile, Statoil, BP, Chevron, TPAO, Promulgation for important and stimulating discussions and the 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Denmark to the Black Sea and marks the boundary between the Precambrian EEC and the West and Central European domains of Caledonian and Variscan crustal consolidation, was tensionally reactivated... Toarcian palaeogeographic/palaeotectonic map of the East-European Platform (modified after Nikishin et al 2005) Upwards these grade into upper Pliensbachian to lower Aalenian deeper-water shales