www.allitebooks.com CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION In the globally intercon nected world, conflicts often arise as a result of tensions between different cultural perceptions and diverse social preferences Effectively managing conflicts and harmon izing intercultural relationships are essential tasks of intercultural communication research This book seeks to find effect ive intercultural conflict management solutions by bring ing together a group of leading inter national scholars from different disciplines to tackle the problem Consisting of two parts, this book covers major theoret ical perspect ives of conflict management and harmony development in the first and conflict management and harmony development in different cultural contexts in the second Integrating the latest work on conflict manage ment and intercultural harmony, Conflict Management and Intercultural Communication takes an interdisciplinary approach, adopts diverse perspect ives and provides for a wide range of discussions It will serve as a useful resource for teachers, researchers, students and professionals alike Xiaodong Dai is Associate Professor at the Foreign Languages College of Shanghai Normal University, China He currently serves as the vice pres ident of the China Association for Intercultural Communication (CAFIC) Guo-Ming Chen is Professor of Communication Studies at the University of Rhode Island, USA He is the found ing president of the Association for Chinese Communication Studies (ACCS) He served as the execut ive director of the International Association for Intercultural Communication Studies (IAICS) for six years and is currently the president of the association www.allitebooks.com www.allitebooks.com CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION The Art of Intercultural Harmony Edited by Xiaodong Dai and Guo-Ming Chen www.allitebooks.com First published 2017 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, N Y 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa busi ness © 2017 selection and editor ial matter, Xiaodong Dai and Guo-Ming Chen; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Xiaodong Dai and Guo-Ming Chen to be identi fied as the authors of the editor ial mater ial, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asser ted in accord ance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or util ised in any form or by any electronic, mech an ical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, includ ing photocopy ing and record ing, or in any inform ation storage or retrieval system, without permis sion in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corpor ate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi fication and explan ation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A cata logue record for this book is avail able from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-96283-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-96284-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-26691-6 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk www.allitebooks.com CONTENTS List of figures List of tables Notes on contributors Preface Introduction Xiaodong Dai and Guo-Ming Chen viii x xi xiv PART I Perspectives on the study of intercultural conflict management 11 Moving from conflict to harmony: the role of dialogue in bridging differences Benjamin J Broome 13 A dialogic approach to intercultural conflict management and harmonious relationships: dialogue, ethics and culture Yuxin Jia and Xue Lai Jia 29 Between conflict and harmony in the human family: Asiacentricity and its ethical imperative for intercultural communication Yoshitaka Miike 38 vi Contents Constituting intercultural harmony by design think ing: conflict management in, for and about diversity and inclusion work Patrice M Buzzanell 66 The development of intercultural ity and the management of intercultural conflict Xiaodong Dai 85 Transforming conflict through commu nication and common ground Beth Bonniwell Haslett 98 Conflict face-negotiation theory: track ing its evolutionary journey Stella Ting-Toomey 123 The yin and yang of conflict management and resolution: a Chinese perspect ive Guo-Ming Chen 144 Rethinking cultural identity in the context of global ization: comparative insights from the Kemetic and Confucian traditions Jing Yin 155 PART II Conflict management in cultural contexts 175 10 Intercultural conflict and conflict management in South Africa as depicted in indigenous African literary texts Munzhedzi James Mafela and Cynthia Danisile Ntuli 177 11 Cultural orientations and conflict management styles with peers and older adults: the indirect effects through filial obligations Yan Bing Zhang, Chong Xing and Astrid Villamil 12 Intercultural communication management professionals in the Japanese linguistic and cultural environ ment Yuko Takeshita 194 210 Contents 13 The discursive construction of identit ies and conflict management strategies in parent–child conflict narrat ives written by Chinese univer sity students Xuan Zheng and Yihong Gao 14 A Chinese model of constructive conflict management Yiheng Deng and Pamela Tremain Koch vii 221 239 15 Conflicts in an inter national business context: a theoret ical analysis of inter per sonal (pseudo)conflicts Michael B Hinner 254 16 Intercultural conflicts in transnational mergers and acquisitions: the case of a failed deal Juana Du and Ling Chen 278 17 Intercultural chal lenges in multinational corporations Alois Moosmüller 295 Index 311 FIGURES 8.1 The paradig matic assumptions of Eastern and Western cultures 8.2 The either- or view of paradig matic assumptions between East and West 8.3 The continuum view of cultural values based on paradig matic assumptions 8.4 Similarities and differences of cultural values between nations 8.5 The mutual exclusiv ity of two cultures 8.6 The mutual inclusiv ity of two cultures 8.7 The tai chi model of conflict management 11.1 Unstandardized signi ficant para meter estim ates: IND and COL predict ing peer and intergenerational conflict management styles 11.2 Significant factor correlations of the four conflict styles in the peer and older adult conditions 11.3 Unstandardized signi ficant para meter estim ates: indirect effects of COL on the integ rat ing, accom mod at ing and avoid ing styles in the intergenerational condition 12.1 The number of foreign tour ists in Japan 12.2 Three import ant factors contribut ing to Japanese people’s awareness of inter national ization 12.3 A can- list for the ICM-AP and the ICMP 12.4 The table of contents 12.5 The flow of the qual i fications for the ICM-AP and the ICMP 12.6 The renovation of street signs in Tokyo 13.1 Distribution of actual strategies 13.2 Distribution of proposed strategies 14.1 Emic Chinese model of conflict behaviors 146 149 149 150 150 151 152 202 203 204 211 213 214 216 217 218 229 229 243 Figures 14.2 Components of Chinese culture that influence conflict behaviors 14.3 Model of cooperat ive conflict management with Chinese 15.1 The inter relationship of cognition, metacog nition, social metacog nition, trust and self- disclosure ix 245 246 271 304 Alois Moosmüller actually I actively figured out what I could contribute to the company But in most of the cases, Japanese are passive; they look and wait for the orders or concrete tasks But people described me as “you are not Japanese.” Half Japanese, half Western But still, in my heart I am still Japanese, pure Japanese But anyway, I actu ally learned how to swim The two excerpts provide insight into how Japanese transferees in Germany exper ience, conceptual ize and cope with intercultural ity The first Japanese inpat riate “explains” his frustration by saying that the very same thing could happen back home in a Japanese business environ ment In his opinion, it makes no difference whether one is in Germany or in Japan To him, it is human nature that people simply tend to exclude foreigners There is not much one can about this but to bear the burden of being an outsider This “explanation” supposedly makes it easier to bear the burden The second inpat riate seems to think that Japanese working in Germany face a common problem Notably, Japanese employees are too passive and not act as expected Therefore, he tried to behave differently, to be proact ive and to strive to be accepted by his German colleagues Indeed, this is quite a stressful way to cope with intercultural ity However, in a way his efforts were in vain, as he began having identity problems He could not share this with his German colleagues, for they accepted him for his “un-Japaneseness,” but after all, in his heart, being Japanese was still the most important thing to him It is as if he tried to “explain” the problem by refer ring to particu lar character ist ics of Japanese people and culture As he changed his behavior as a consequence of his “explan ation,” he was frustrated again because he was neither willing nor able to completely give up his Japanese identity The third example is from an inter view with a Japanese inpatriate that was conducted upon his return to Japan after a sojourn of three years in Germany: The whole organ ization has three to four Japanese people Once a week I met them in the canteen, “kind of Japanese Mafia,” we called that, shared some videos and ideas And in the end, sometimes on the weekend, we had some barbecuing with the famil ies Because they were living in Germany already longer, they could tell me how to live in Germany as Japanese And which doctor is good or something, real tips! Most of the cases, the people they talk to all day are Japanese They don’t talk to German people For them they are foreigners Although they are foreigners in Germany they think that Germans are foreigners So, they don’t have to speak to foreigners My wife had a network with Japanese people living in Germany I introduced some Japanese colleagues to my wife, and I also knew one Japanese woman who married a German I contacted her and asked her to give us any support We couldn’t build relations with the local German people If we had had a child, of a certain age, then it would have been easier, but we were without child So, it was not so easy We knew some German people with Japanese wives, so we have contact with such people Intercultural challenges in multinationals 305 This clearly describes a situation in which establish ing social contacts and build ing social networks to satisfy basic social needs are of the utmost importance Obviously, the Japanese inpat riate could hardly satisfy his and his partner’s social needs with German colleagues or Germans outside the company and therefore had to resort to speak ing with other compat riots living in Germany The tendency for migrants to adhere to their own ethnic or national social groups is very common This applies no less to elite migrants such as the Japanese inpatriates, even if the stand ard of living abroad is often higher than it is at home Elite migrants in fact share with ordin ary migrants the feeling of not really belong ing to the society and culture of residency and the feeling of not really being accepted by the local popu lation Living and working in a social and cultural environ ment which in many ways is strange, puzz ling or even reject ing can be extremely stressful and strenuous Thus, migrants try to find situations and surround ings where people and things are famil iar and where they can feel at ease They knowingly or unknow ingly look for anything that makes them feel somehow “at home,” be it famil iar smells and tastes, like the food from home served in ethnic restaurants, or be it famil iar language or famil iar ways of speak ing, talking, looking, gesticu lat ing, joking, or showing emotions (like in an easy and comfortable conver sation in one’s native language) This inner drive to seek the famil iar, which Avtar Brah (1996) called “homing desire,” brings together like-minded people with similar cultural, ethnic and/or national back grounds As a rich body of research has shown, the tendency of migrants to form diaspora communit ies is very strong (Lavie and Swedenburg, 1996; Sheffer, 2003) Although compar atively little research has been done on tran sient elite migrants, such as inter national transferees in big compan ies, we know that the psychological dynam ics of acculturation are about the same as with permanent non-elite migrants They too must develop strategies to cope with transition stress and intercultural problems, and to organ ize life in a strange cultural environ ment (Berry, 2003) Diaspora networks are very helpful in this situ ation because they can provide a basis for retain ing old habits and old ways of doing things But at the same time, diaspora networks also help people adapt to local stand ards and get used to the new culture To live in a diaspora community is to simultaneously live in the home culture and the adopted culture, something which some researchers would call living in a “third space” (Bhabha, 1994) MNCs regard this notion with skepticism They expect their transferees to immerse them selves into the local culture in order to become interculturally competent Living in between cultures, they might reason, is a waste of time because the transferee doesn’t really get to know the local culture Furthermore, inpat riates are sent from different locations around the world to the headquar ters so that they can absorb the knowledge and culture of the headquar ters and convey it to their colleagues working in the subsidiar ies After return ing to their home organ ization, they are expected to act as mediators between headquar ters and their subsidiary and to build up or strengthen transnational commu nication networks in order to dimin ish cultural differences and foster stand ard ization 306 Alois Moosmüller Indeed, inpat riates play a central role in an MNC’s global strategy In order to be able to so, inpat riates are expected to adopt the culture of the company’s headquar ters, that is, of the country in which the headquar ters are located However, as we have so far seen from the first three examples, real life tells a different story MNCs must come to terms with the real needs and neces sit ies of their employees as they arise in actual intercultural situations The next example deals with a problem atic situation that arose in the German subsidiary of a Japanese MNC The Japanese expat riate managers and their European colleagues, includ ing their subordinates, complained about numerous “communication problems.” I was asked to invest ig ate and find a solution I decided to conduct narrat ive inter views with the Japanese and European (British, Dutch and German) managers At that time, the Japanese subsidiary employed more than 500 people About 30 Japanese managers had been sent there from the headquar ters in Japan In this dynamic, newly founded Japanese subsidiary, the Europeans expected the Japanese to adapt to what they referred to as “the European style of management,” whereas the Japanese managers expected the Europeans to adopt what they called “the style of the company.” The Japanese managers criticized the European staff for not working hard enough; taking excessively long vacations; not foregoing holidays when there were crit ical situations in the company; being inflex ible and unwill ing to work longer hours in the evening or on weekends; and not helping and support ing each other proact ively The European managers accused the Japanese managers of holding back infor mation and being secret ive about strategic issues; acting indecisively and uncandidly; not commu nicat ing forth rightly and comprehensibly; lacking funda mental managerial skills; being unable to lead and motivate employees; and being unable to under stand that incent ives are an essential management tool In contrast, the Japanese managers assumed that “working for such an excellent company” must be motivation enough to be a dedicated worker They were “really shocked” when they learned that acting in what was for them an oppor tun istic and selfish manner was considered by the European managers as something completely normal Even after working in Germany for several years, the Japanese managers were still unwill ing to accept this attitude and were therefore unable to trust their European staff The inter viewed Japanese and European managers seemed to be quite aware of these funda mental differences in the way “the Japanese” and “the Europeans” viewed and conducted busi ness But nobody really bothered to try to under stand their differences, let alone try to accept their cultural differences But rather, they were convinced that their own view of what was happen ing in the company was “the object ive view,” and, with this ethnocentric attitude, they would accuse the other side of not being willing or able to change and adapt because they lacked a professional attitude and proper managerial skills In other words, the chal lenges of cultural diversity were not perceived and conceptual ized as cultural issues, but as professional or personal shortcom ings Apparently, this company, which is one of the world’s leading MNCs, still had to find a way to benefit from Intercultural challenges in multinationals 307 cultural diversity Nonetheless, the narrated exper iences could be seen as contain ing implicit intercultural knowledge that, with the help of intercultural communication professionals, could be transferred into explicit intercultural knowledge The fifth and final example relates to the so-called “Triad Project,” a tricultural joint-venture in the 1990s operated by three MNCs from the United States, Japan and Germany, respect ively, for almost four years The Triad Project team consisted of about 100 research and development employees from the three compan ies All functions in the team were organ ized trilaterally: top management positions were equally shared by Americans, Japanese and Germans; everyone was assigned to work in trilateral sub-teams; trilateral staff distribution also reigned in the offices and work rooms The intention was to ensure that intercultural cooperation also worked on the informal level in order to generate intercultural synergy After a euphoric start and a rather success ful first half-year, the Triad Project encountered serious problems that management made every effort to solve They asked an inter national team of researchers and intercultural special ists (of which I was a member) to invest ig ate the problems and to then find a solution We inter viewed several key players in the Triad Project, and then designed and conducted train ing measures (Moosmüller, Spieß & Podsiadlowski, 2001) Research on multinational work groups reveals that consensus is necessary in order to deal product ively with diversity Therefore, it is import ant that team members be able to change perspect ives, tolerate ambigu ity and deal with varying actions adequately According to the team-build ing theory, there are four phases in the team-form ation process In phase 1, the members try to adapt to each other, with national stereotypes and national status playing an import ant role In phase 2, the actual influence of cultural diversity on routine team actions is in the foreground (e.g how time is dealt with; which leader ship style predom inates; how problems are solved and decisions are reached) In phase 3, subgroup alliances are built, with cultural similar ity playing an important role There is a great danger at this point of people becom ing polar ized into national subgroups and intensify ing their ethnocentric attitudes In phase 4, the team members finally learn to cope with their differences and difficulties, and diversity is no longer seen as an imped i ment but as an oppor tun ity (Smith & Noakes, 1996) When we started to work with the Triad Project team, it seemed to be in phase The team members complained that the formal exchange of inform ation in meet ings, present ations and discussions was inef fect ive, and that the informal exchange of inform ation did not come about as expected The initial will ing ness to help each other with mutual cultural under stand ing had waned markedly after a few months The three national groups began to stick together and team members increasingly complained about the lack of mutual trust Many staff members were disappointed because the excitement of the first few months had subsided and management’s proclaimed “open, innovat ive and synergygenerat ing climate” had not set in 308 Alois Moosmüller Team members had a hard time coming to terms with the chal lenges of cultural diversity For instance, when American, Japanese and German employees exchanged inform ation, gave present ations, and held meet ings to try to reach a common decision, they were unaware that the behaviors and the expectations of the different national team members varied considerably For example, when giving a present ation, the Japanese team members started their present ation with detailed facts and did not get to the results until the end The American team members, on the other hand, started with the results and subsequently backed them up with argu ments and facts during the course of the present ation As for the German team members, they briefly outlined the problem or even presented a histor ical survey of it and then proceeded like the Americans Such different “culturally programmed” behavior usually remains concealed to the interact ants One’s own ethnocentric expectations and practices continue to be the unquestioned stand ard accord ing to which others’ actions are considered “not normal”; thus the Japanese were seen as “not logical,” the Americans as “not cred ible” and the Germans as “meticu lous.” This erroneous assessment of other people impedes the quick, uncomplicated and trust worthy exchange of inform ation; instead, it favors turning to one’s own cultural group But still, as we exper ienced in the train ing sessions, when difficult situations arose, there was usually someone who intu it ively under stood the actors’ different expect ations and different ways of doing things But this person was not usually able to keep track of what was going on or was unable to explain the situ ation to others in a cogent manner Thus, intercultural knowledge was already there among the team members, but it was dispersed, as it was bound to specific situations and people, and it was therefore not palpable Our job as intercultural special ists was simply to find ways to explicate the implicit intercultural knowledge and make it usable for the Triad Project employees Conclusion Cultural diversity is considered an important asset in inter national business Unfortunately, intercultural ity, which in one way or another is an integ ral part of cultural diversity, is still ignored or seen as something that employees have to cope with on their own in everyday business life Empirical research reveals that this is rather difficult, since employees are often not as flex ible, global-minded and interculturally competent as the company thinks Nevertheless, the examples we have examined show that the individual actors not only exper ienced difficult situations but that they managed to persevere and in this way somehow gain implicit intercultural knowledge For instance, the Japanese inpatriates “knew” what it meant to live and work abroad, and how to mediate between conflicting identit ies In the second example, the conflicts that European and Japanese managers exper ienced made them aware of what they thought was or was not “professional” and how “effect ive business” ought to be conducted Of course, this was done ethnocentrically, but it still included, at least implicitly, “knowledge” concern ing Intercultural challenges in multinationals 309 cultural differences and maybe even concern ing ways of coping with it The same applies to the trilateral teams, where everyday intercultural interactions offered ample possibil it ies to learn how to cope with intercultural diversity Naturally, it is a big problem that many MNCs not really acknowledge intercultural ity and that, instead of dealing with intercultural ity on the organ izational level, they leave it for the individual actor to deal with However, they can also a lot more to improve the situation For instance, they can listen to their employees’ narrations about their intercultural exper iences; 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livestock 180–4; sankofa 42, 49, 160; ubuntu 161; see also Kemetic perspectives; South Africa, ethnic conflict Africanity 44–5 Afrocentricity 41–2, 43, 44–5, 48 age see generational differences agency, Asiacentricity 41–3 aligning style 243–4 American perspectives: conflict facenegotiation theory 129, 130, 132–3, 136; conflict management styles 241, 245–6; corporate culture 297; cultural context 3; multinational corporations 303–8; religion 169; Sino-US conflict case study 90–3; transnational mergers 281, 282–93 American young adults 7, 194–5; communication case study 197–207; conflict management styles 195–6; cultural orientations 195, 196–7, 199, 200; intergenerational communication 196–7 articulating style 228, 229, 230, 231–2, 234–5, 236 Asante, M K 41–2, 43, 44–5, 53, 156 Asiacentric 39–40, 58–9 Asiacentricity 5, 39–40; agency 41–3; centering 40, 43–5; communication ethics 45–7; ecology and sustainability 53–5; identification and indebtedness 51–3; Kawaida 41, 42–3, 48; outline of theory 40–1; reaffirmation and renewal 49–51; reciprocity 52, 101; recognition and respect 47–9; rootedness and openness 55–7; see also China; Eastern cultures; Japan Asianness 43–4 assertiveness 281 associative cultures 104–6 attribution 260 avoidance: Chinese values 229, 236, 239, 242–3, 246, 248; conflict facenegotiation theory 128, 130, 136–7; conflict styles 104, 105–6; generational differences 222, 229 avoiding style: American young adults 206; Chinese constructive conflict management 247, 248–9; Chinese parent-child conflicts 223, 227, 229, 229, 235; conflict face-negotiation theory 128, 129 balance 17, 21–2 balancing style 243–4 Bapedi, South Africa 181 Bauman, Zygmunt 106–8 behavioral scripts 259 312 Index behaviors see conflict behaviors; conflict management styles benevolent approach, conflict facenegotiation theory 132 the ‘between’ (dialogue space) 18 bias, diversity/inclusion conflict 66, 76, 78; see also prejudice bicultural individuals 130, 136 bilingual individuals 56–7 Broome, B J 5, 18, 39 Buber, M 17–18 Buddhism: co-arising 51–2, 101 business see employment; international business; multinational corporations (MNCs); transnational mergers Buzzanell, P M 5–6, 70 Cai, D A 206, 240, 248 Canary, D J 255, 266, 268 Cartesian philosophy 161, 165 Casmir, F L 32, 33, 249 centering, Asiacentricity 40, 42–5, 49, 100–1 Chen, G M 2–4, 6, 15, 29, 39–40, 78, 88–9, 91–2, 99, 102–3, 113, 127, 136, 144–52, 161, 163, 179, 222, 236, 240–1, 244, 245, 257, 261, 267–9 Chen, L 8, 40, 99–100, 115, 278 children see Chinese parent–child conflicts Chinese constructive conflict management 7–8, 239–40, 248–9; collectivism 240–3; culture 242–6; model of 246–8; values 242–4, 246–7 Chinese parent-child conflicts 7, 221–2, 235–6; management strategies 230–6 Chinese perspectives 6, 144–5, 152–3; communication 145–7; conflict behaviors 147–51; conflict facenegotiation theory 132–3; Confucian influences 241, 242–3; culture 3, 4, 245; diversity/inclusion conflict 78; face 90–1, 147–8, 244, 246–7, 248; filial obligations 197, 198, 295–6; religion 169; Sino-US conflict case study 90–3; transnational mergers 281, 282–93; values 242–4, 246–7; yin and yang 151–2 Citicorp/Travelers Group merger 278 civil rights movement 299–300 closure (sensory stimuli) 258–9 co-arising 51–2, 101 cognition, social 267–8, 269–71 co-living, Asiacentricity 53 collaboration 23, 116, 148 collective intelligence 18 collectivism 2; Chinese constructive conflict management 240–3; conflict face-negotiation theory 6, 125–6, 129, 131; cultural models 104–6; cultural orientations 195, 206–7; individualism/ collectivism (IND-COL) 194–5, 199–207, 201, 202, 245–6; multinational corporations 297; transnational mergers 280, 287–9, 291–2; We-identity cultures 125 collectivity, Kemetic perspectives 160–3 common ground 98–9, 109–11 common humanity 22, 100, 101 communal approach 132 communal-face 127 communication accommodation theory (CAT) 262 communication competence: facework competence model 85; international business 268–71 communication ethics 45–7 communication styles see conflict behaviors; conflict management styles community, interculturality 108–9 competence see communication competence competing style 206 compromising style 129, 223, 227, 229 confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) 200 conflict behaviors: aligning 243–4; balancing 243–4; Chinese perspectives 147–51, 243, 243–4; disintegrating 243–4; Eastern cultures 245–6; smoothing 243–4, 248 conflict face-negotiation theory (FNT) 6, 123–4; core assumptions 124–6; essential constructs and research results 127–32 conflict forgiveness 133 conflict management 1, 180 conflict management factors 4–5, 241 conflict management styles: accommodating 129, 195; American young adults 195–6, 197–207; articulating 228, 230, 231–2, 234–5, 236; Chinese parent-child conflicts 223–4, 226–35; compromising 129, 223, 227; conflict face-negotiation theory 128–9, 137; dominating 128–9, 223, 226, 229–30, 232–3, 235–6; obliging 129, 195, 223, 227; see also avoiding style; Chinese constructive conflict management; integrating style conflicts: culture 104–6, 179–80, 265–7; international business 265–8; Third Index Side 109–11; 21–2; see also Chinese parent-child conflicts confrontational model 104, 105 Confucian values: collectivity 160–3; conflict management styles 222; face 113–14; filial obligations 197–8, 295–6; harmony 15, 16, 241, 242–3; identity 156–7, 169–70; inclusivity 168–9; morality 163–4; reciprocity 101; ren 5, 33–5, 164; rootedness and openness 56; self and other 30, 33–5, 36; selfconcept 158–60; sensitivity 164–6; transformability 166–8 constitutive approach 75–7 constructive conflict management see Chinese constructive conflict management constructive process, conflict as 109–10 contact hypothesis 20 contingency theory 281 convergence: communication accommodation theory 262; conflict face-negotiation theory 137; interculturality 89 cooperation 22–3, 31 cooperative conflict 242, 244, 246, 247, 249 corporate culture 278–9, 284–93, 297 creative engagement 180 creativity: multinational corporations 295–6; tradition 49–50 cross-cultural ignorance 292 cultural centering, Asiacentricity 40, 42–5, 49 cultural difference: accommodation 88; anxiety/uncertainty management theory 268–9; Chinese perspectives 144, 148–9; conflict face-negotiation theory 132–3; dialogue 20, 30, 33; Hofstede’s cultural model 4, 104–6; misunderstandings 266; multinational corporations 296, 305, 306; non-Western perspectives 156–7; 180, 182; transnational mergers 278, 279–80, 284–5, 289–93; values 100, 103 cultural distance 85, 86, 126 cultural diversity see diversity cultural ecology 53–4 cultural essentializing 44 cultural identity: Asiacentricity 50–1; collectivity 160–3; conflict facenegotiation theory 136; culture 100–1, 255–7; Eurocentrism 157, 158–9; globalization 6–7, 155–7, 169–70; identity management 262–3; inclusivity 313 168–9; interculturality 86–7; intersectionality 69; morality 163–4; self-concept 157–60, 169–70, 255–6; sensitivity 164–6; transformability 166–8 cultural norms 256–7, 298, 308 cultural orientation 195, 196–7, 199, 200, 206–7 cultural structures 100 cultural tuning 242 cultural values see values culture 3–5; Asiacentricity 41–3, 47–9; China 3, 4, 245; Chinese constructive conflict management 242–6; conflict face-negotiation theory 124; conflicts 104–6, 179–80, 265–7; face 90–3, 113–14, 115–18; globalization 4, 144–5, 152–3; identity 255–7; interculturality 85–6; multinational corporations 296–8; South Africa 179–81, 184; transnational mergers 278–9, 280–2; values 99–101, 148–51 culture-as-living-tradition approach 159–60 CuPS approach (Culture x Person x Situation) 132 cyclical processes, dialogue 24 Dai, X D 6, 48–9, 101, 108–9 Daimler-Benz/Chrysler Corporation merger 278 Dao/Tao 163 dark side of face 134–5 Deardorff, D K 301 de-centering 32 Deng, Y 7–8, 247, 248 design thinking: constitutive approach 75–7; diversity/inclusion conflict 74–9; human-centered 75, 78 destructive process, conflict as 109–10 Deutsch, M 23, 241, 244 developmentalism 54–5 dialogic approach 5, 29–30; Asiacentricity 45–6; design thinking 79; in a globalizing society 30, 32–6; modern ethics 30–1; postmodern ethics 31–2; ren 33–5; self-transformation 35–6 dialogic ethics 5, 30, 33–6 dialogue: balance and equilibrium 21–2; cooperation 22–3; harmonizing process 17–24; harnessing and transforming tension 20–1; identifying differences 20; inclusiveness 22 direct conflict approaches 239, 240 disagreement 15, 79, 179, 241, 264, 265 314 Index disconfirmed expectations 260 discrimination: civil rights movement 299–300; diversity 66–8; gender issues in engineering case study 73–4, 76–7; South African indigenous texts 185; see also diversity/inclusion conflict; inequality disintegrating style 243–4 dissimilarity 15–17 divergence: communication accommodation theory 262; conflict face-negotiation theory 137; interculturality 89 diversity 2; harmony 16; interculturality 88; multinational corporations 296, 297–302, 307–8; personhood 158; self-concept 158 diversity/inclusion conflict 5–6, 66–72; constitutive approach 75–7; design thinking 74–9 dominating style 128–9, 223, 226, 229–30, 232–3, 235–6 dual concern 223, 224, 226 Eastern cultures: collectivity 160–3; conflict behaviors 245–6; harmony 15; polychronous approach 282; see also Asiacentricity; China; Confucian values ecology, Asiacentricity 53–5 economy, multinational corporations 295, 296–8 egocentrism 34 emic 239–40, 242 emotions: conflict management styles 226, 228; dark side of face 134; facesensitive 132–3; facework 136–7; intergenerational face 134 empathic design 75, 78 empathy: face 116; interactive 46; projective 46; reflective 46; relational 18 English language: competence needs in Japan 211–12; as lingua franca 8, 254, 260–1, 270; linguistic auditing 212–13 environmental issues: Asiacentricity 53–5; multinational corporations 295 equality see discrimination; diversity/ inclusion conflict; inequality equilibrium 17, 21–2 equity, face 117 ethical: African perspectives 42; Asiacentricity 39, 40, 42–3, 45–53, 55–8, 170; caring 31–2; Chinese perspectives 33–4; communication 5, 31, 39; humanity 30; justice 107; Kemetic perspectives 163, 164, 169; otherness 33 ethical leadership 70–1 ethics: Asiacentricity 41–3; diversity/ inclusion conflict 68, 79 ethnic conflict see South Africa, ethnic conflict ethnic groups: migration 177–8; nurturing inclusiveness 22 ethnocentrism: communication 102; conflict face-negotiation theory 138; interculturality 88; multinational corporations 306–7, 308 etic 242 Eurocentrism 4, 7, 102, 157, 158–9 European Diversity Charter 300 Evanoff, R 89 face: American society 91; Chinese society 90–1, 147–8, 244, 246–7, 248; in conflict face-negotiation theory 123, 126, 127–8, 135; cultural context 90–3, 113–14, 115–18; Goffman’s model 111–15, 117; honoring 6, 98–9, 111–18, 113–15, 135; Western cultures 244 face concern 6, 29, 124, 125–8, 130–7, 290 face conflict, Sino-US conflict case study 90–3 face-negotiation perspective 2, 29; see also conflict face-negotiation theory face-sensitive 91, 100, 132, 138 face-sensitive emotions 132–3 face-threatening process (FTP) 126, 133–4 facework: in conflict face-negotiation theory 123, 125, 128–9, 136; cultural differences 90, 92–3, 111, 113, 115, 117; emotions 136–7; meaning of 113; Sino-US conflict case study 90, 92–3 facework competence model 85 family: agency 41–3; Asiacentric perspective 39–41; centering 43–5; communication ethics 45–7; ecology and sustainability 53–5; identification and indebtedness 51–3; Kawaida 41, 42–3; reaffirmation and renewal 49–51; recognition and respect 47–9; rootedness and openness 55–7; see also Chinese parent-child conflicts Fei X T 58 filial obligations 197–8, 199, 207 flexibility, conflict management 180 frames 259–60, 267, 270–1 framing (relationships) 266–7, 270 FTP (face-threatening process) 126, 133–4 Index gender issues: diversity/inclusion conflict 69–70; engineering case study 73–4, 76–7 generational differences: American young adults case study 197–207; Chinese parent-child conflicts 221, 222, 236; intergenerational communication 196–207; South African society 186 giving face 137 Glenn’s cultural models 104–6 global citizenship 7, 101 global community 5, 30, 36, 39, 40, 151–2 global society 32, 34, 39, 48, 55 global village 29, 39, 50, 56, 156 globalization 1, 8; communication 106–8; and culture 4, 144–5, 152–3, 296–7; dialogic approach 30, 32–6; identity 6–7, 155–7, 169–70; multinational corporations 295; rootedness and openness 56–7; see also international business Goffman, E 6, 111–15, 116, 117, 259, 267 Goffman’s model of face 111–15, 117 Greek philosophy, harmony 15–16 Gricean Maxims 31 guanxi 78, 247, 248 harmonizing process 5, 23–4; violent conflict 13–14 harmony: Chinese constructive conflict management 242–3, 247–9; conflict face-negotiation theory 138; Confucian values 15, 16, 241, 242–3; definition 14–17; design thinking 78; dialogue 19; Eastern cultures 15; Western cultures 15 harmony conflict model 104, 105, 105–6 Haslett, B B 6, 93, 98–9, 102, 111, 115, 117 high-context cultural schema 125, 280–1 high-power-distance 2, 104, 289 Hinduism, communication 102 Hinner, M B Hofstede’s cultural models 3–4, 104–6 honoring face: communication 6, 98–9, 111–18, 113–15; conflict facenegotiation theory 135 human relationships see personal relationships human-centered design work 75, 78 humanity: African perspectives 161; Afrocentricity 42; dialogue 22; interculturality 108; ren 33–5, 165; shared 21–2; universal values 100, 101 humanness principle, Asiacentricity 45–6 Hwang, K K 242, 244, 245, 248, 249 315 identification, Asiacentricity 51–3 identity see cultural identity identity management 262–3 I-identity cultures 125 ‘I-It’ encounters 17–18 impartial approach, conflict facenegotiation theory 132 inclusion see diversity/inclusion conflict inclusivity 168–9 incompatibility 123–4, 222, 263–4, 265–6 indebtedness, Asiacentricity 51–3 indirect approaches 245–6 individualism 2; communication 102; conflict face-negotiation theory 6, 125–6, 129–31; cultural orientations 195, 206–7; I-identity cultures 125; inclusivity 168; self concern 30–1; transnational mergers 280, 284, 291–2 individualism/collectivism (IND-COL) 194–5, 199–207, 201, 202, 245–6 inequality: diversity 66–8; gender issues in engineering case study 73–4, 76–7; meaning of 68; prejudice 20, 66, 76, 78; see also discrimination; diversity/ inclusion conflict ingroup 4, 90, 126, 127, 130, 137, 245 integrated approaches, intersectionality 69 integrating style: American young adults 206; Chinese parent-child conflicts 223, 226–7, 229, 230, 233–4, 236; conflict face-negotiation theory 128, 129, 195 interactive empathy 46 interconnected 22, 73, 99–100, 101, 162 intercultural conflict 1–3 intercultural personhood 86–8, 90, 93, 156 interculturality 6; global citizenship 101; self-other concern 35–6; Sino-US case study 90–3 interdependence: African perspectives 161; dialogue 18, 32; disagreement 179; globalization 8; parent-child conflicts 221; self-construal 130–1 interethnic conflict see South Africa, ethnic conflict intergenerational communication 196–207 intergenerational face 134 international business 8, 254–5, 271–2; communication competence 268–71; conflict types 265–8; culture 256–7; ethical leadership 70–1; identity 255–6; interpretation and evaluation 259–61; see also multinational corporations; transnational mergers 316 Index international communication associate professionals (ICM-APs) 214, 214–17 International Communication Management Professionals (ICMPs) 213–19, 214 interpersonal relationships see personal relationships interpretive listening 18 intersectionality 69 intersubjectivity 18, 86, 108–9 intracultural differences 4; Asiacentricity 39, 40, 50–1, 54, 56–7; China 147; universal values 100 ‘I-Thou’ relationships 18 Jia, Y X 5, 29, 68, 79 joint action 90 justice 19, 92, 105, 107, 111 Karenga, M.: Afrocentricity 42–3, 45; humanity 170; identity 158–60; inclusivity 168–9; Kawaida 41, 42, 48; morality 163; multiculturalism 100; openness 56; recognition and respect 47, 48, 49; sensitivity 164–6; transformability 166 Kawaida 41, 42–3, 48, 158 Kemetic perspectives: collectivity 160–3; identity 156–7, 169–70; inclusivity 168–9; morality 163–4; self-concept 158–60; sensitivity 164–6; transformability 166–8 Khakimova, L 194 language: diversity/inclusion conflict 70; face 137–8; intercultural communication 48; interlocutors 260–1; linguistic auditing 212–13; misunderstandings 254–5; rootedness and openness 56–7; sensory stimuli 258–9; South Africa 178–9; transitivity processes 225, 230–4 Lee, H O 281 Leung, K 132, 239, 242, 243–4, 247, 248 lingua franca, English 8, 254, 260–1, 270 linguistic ability see communication competence linguistic auditing, Japan 212–13 localization 56–7, 72 low-context cultural schema 125, 280–1 low-power-distance 2, 234, 290 M&A see transnational mergers Maat 163, 166 Maatian ethics 49, 163, 164–5, 166 Martin, J N 39, 45–6, 117 mergers see transnational mergers metacognition 269–71 mianzi 78 microaggressions 66, 76 the middle way 103 Miike, Y 50, 99–100, 102–3, 156, 170 mindfulness: anxiety/uncertainty management theory 268–9; conflict face-negotiation theory 138; diversity/ inclusion conflict 78; interculturality 115–16 misunderstandings: international business 254–5, 261, 266–7, 271–2; transnational mergers 284–5, 287 MNCs see multinational corporations modern ethics 5, 30–1 Moosmüller, A moral face 135 morality 163–4, 166 motivations (workplace) 306 multiculturalism 100 multiethnic research 129–30, 136 multilevel perspective 2–3, multinational corporations (MNCs) 8, 295–6, 308–9; Chinese constructive conflict management 249; cultural diversity 296, 297–302, 307–8; culture and economy 296–8; economy 295; examples 302–8; interculturality 296, 299, 301–2, 308–9; see also international business; transnational mergers mutual exclusivity 150, 150–1 mutual inclusivity 151, 151 mutual incorporation 34 mutual respect 18, 86 mutual responsibility 34 mutual understanding: Chinese perspectives 147; common ground 117; interculturality 85, 86, 88–9, 92, 108; Sino-US conflict case study 92–3; transnational mergers 285 mutual-face 2, 127 mutuality 40, 48, 49, 86 Nakayama, T K 39, 45, 117 negotiation, harmony 16; see also facenegotiation perspective neo-Confucianism 33–5 non-verbal communication 262 obliging style 129, 195, 223, 227, 229 older generation see generational differences Index openness: Asiacentricity 55–7; communication 117; interculturality 88; multinational corporations 301–2 organizational communication perspective 5–6, 66–8, 71–4, 76–7 organizational culture 278–9, 284–93, 297 organizational level 279, 280, 291–2, 309 other-face 2, 127, 128 otherness 32, 33 others, concern for: dialogic approach 29, 31–3; interculturality 86, 87 outgroup 4, 90, 127, 137, 148, 245 parent-child conflicts see Chinese parent–child conflicts peace 19, 21, 39 peaceful coexistence 2, 7, 85 perception of others 263, 266–7 personal relationships: Asiacentricity 51–3; communication accommodation theory 262; guanxi 78, 247, 248; identity management 262–3; interculturality 87; international business 261–71; intimate relationships 128, 130; social exchange theory 263–4, 267; trust 264–5, 272; uncertainty reduction theory 264, 268–9 personhood: Confucian values 158; Kemetic perspectives 158; ren 34; see also self pluralism: of beliefs 116–17; conflict face-negotiation theory 129–30; self and other 33 polychronous approaches 282 positive attitude 6, 21, 88, 91 positive reciprocity 23 postmodern ethics 5, 31–2 power: conflict face-negotiation theory 138; emancipatory movements 300 power distance value dimension: Chinese perspectives 244–5; conflict facenegotiation theory 125–6, 131; cultural variability 280; transnational mergers 287, 289, 290 prejudice: contact hypothesis 20; diversity/inclusion conflict 66, 76, 78; stereotypes 20, 76, 78, 269, 299, 307 professionals, International Communication Management Professionals (ICMPs) 213–19 projective empathy 46 pseudo-conflicts 266 psychodynamic approaches 19 317 racial issues, diversity/inclusion conflict 71–2; see also South Africa, ethnic conflict Rahim, M.A 29, 199, 265 rational approaches: dialogue 19; diversity/inclusion conflict 67–8, 78; interculturality 89 reciprocity: Asiacentricity 52, 101; culture 100–1; Kemetic perspectives 164, 165 recognition 47–9 reflective empathy 46 regulative model 105, 105 relational empathy 18 relationships see personal relationships relativizing self 32 religion: communication 102–3; creation 167; inclusivity 168; rootedness and openness 56–7 ren: dialogic approach 5, 33–5; morality 164; sensitivity 165 respectability 90–1 rootedness 55–7 sameness 15–17 sankofa 42, 49, 160 saving face 137 second language use 270; see also lingua franca, English self-awareness 255, 263 self-concept: collectivism 161–3; culture 256–7; identity 158–60, 169–70, 255–6; identity management 262–3; morality 163–4; personhood 34, 158 self-concern: dialogic approach 29, 30–1, 32–3; interculturality 86; ren 34–5 self-construal 130–1 self-disclosure 263 self-esteem 256 self-face 2, 127, 128, 131, 133–3 self-image 255–6 self-other concern 32–6, 86 self-transformation: Confucian values 166–8; dialogic approach 35–6; Kemetic perspectives 166–8 sensitive: culture- 124; dialogue 23; face- 91, 100, 132, 138; identity- 128; Kemetic perspectives 165; self-esteem 256 sensitivity: communication 103, 111, 114; Confucian values 165–6, 167, 168–9, 170; Kemetic perspectives 164–6, 170 sensory stimuli 258–9 serudj ta 42, 49, 166 shared humanity 21–2 318 Index situational perspective 4, 281, 290–1 smoothing style 243–4, 248 social cognition 267–8, 269–71 social exchange theory (SET) 263–4, 267 social identity theory social justice 92, 107, 111 solution-orientation South Africa, ethnic conflict 7, 177–80, 191–2; indigenous texts 181–91; socioeconomic aspects 180–4; sociopolitical aspects 184–91 Spitzberg, B H 255, 268 Starosta, W J 78, 103, 144, 179, 268 stereotypes 20, 76, 78, 269, 299, 307 strategic essentialism 157 strategies see conflict management styles structural equation model (SEM) 133, 199–200 structurational divergence 71 subjectivity: inter- 18, 86, 108–9; post theories 160; self-development 164; Western cultures 157–8 sustainability (ecological) 53–5 taboos 134–5 tai chi model 151–2, 152 Takeshita, Y team-building theory 307–8 tension 15–17, 20–1 ‘third culture’ 242 third party mediation: conflict facenegotiation theory 130; cultural contexts 3; dialogue groups 18–19 third side 109–11 ‘third space’ 99, 156, 305 time management 282, 290–1 Ting-Toomey, S.: conflict face-negotiation theory 6, 29, 123, 128, 131, 132, 244; conflict management factors 4–5; face 112–13; face-negotiation perspective 2; facework competence model 85; high-context and low-context cultures 144; mindfulness 78 tolerance 38, 265, 267, 272 transformability 166–8 transitivity processes 225, 230–1, 230–4, 235–6 transnational mergers 8, 278–9; case study 282–93; communicative strategy 280–2; culture 278–9, 280–2; see also international business; multinational corporations Triandis, H C 196, 199 trust: face 116; multinational corporations 306, 307; personal relationships 264–5, 272; transnational mergers 290 Tu, W 36, 38, 55–7, 158, 162, 165 ubuntu 161 universal values 100, 101 university students, parent-child conflict 221–2, 235–6; case study 223–30; literature review 222–3; management strategies 230–6 Ury, William 109–11 values 2, 3; Chinese constructive conflict management 242–4, 246–7; Chinese parent-child conflicts 234–5; culture 99–101, 148–51; multiculturalism 100; organizational culture 278–9, 284–93; self-other concern 36; universal 100, 101 We-identity 125 ‘wicked problems’ 70–2 Worchel, S 2, 85 Yin, J 6–7, 99–100, 102–3 yin and yang 151–2, 152 Zhang, Y B 7, 91, 128, 131, 132, 236 Zheng, X ... She is the past president of the International Communication Association (ICA) and the president of the Council of Communication Associations (CCA) and the Organization for the Study of Communication, ... Professor at the University of South Africa in the Department of African Languages Yuko Takeshita is Professor of English and Intercultural Communication in the Department of International Communication. .. Professor at Southwestern University of Finance and Economics xii Contributors Juana Du is Assistant Professor and the program head of the Master of Arts in Intercultural and International Communication