Marine and Coastal Resource Management In this new and highly original textbook for a range of interdisciplinary courses and degree programmes focusing on marine and coastal resource management, readers are offered an introduction to the subject matter, a broad perspective and understanding, case study applications, and a reference source Each chapter is written by an international authority and expert in the respective field, providing perspectives from physical and human geography, marine biology and fisheries, planning and surveying, law, technology, environmental change, engineering, and tourism In addition to an overview of the theory and practice of its subject area, many chapters include detailed case studies to illustrate the applications, including relationships to decision-making requirements at local, regional, and national levels Each chapter also includes a list of references for further reading, with a selection of key journal papers and URLs Overall, this volume provides a key textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate courses and for the coastal or marine practitioner, as well as a longterm reference for students David R Green is a specialist in the application of geospatial technologies to coastal and marine environments He is director of the Aberdeen Institute for Coastal Science and Management (AICSM) and the UAV/UAS Centre for Environmental Monitoring and Mapping (UCEMM) in the Department of Geography and Environment, School of Geosciences, at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, UK; director and vice-chair of the East Grampian Coastal Partnership (EGCP Ltd) in Aberdeen; and editor-in-chief of the Journal of Coastal Conservation, Management and Planning (Springer) He is also the editor of a number of books on coastal zone management Jeffrey L Payne is director of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office for Coastal Management Under his leadership, the nation’s coastal management activities are coordinated to address the significant challenges affecting our coastal communities, with a focus on customer needs and a commitment to partnerships He brings 30 years of experience in environmental policy, natural resources management, community resilience, climate adaptation, oceanographic research and organisational development He has held previous positions as the NOAA deputy chief of staff and deputy of the NOAA policy office, as the budget examiner for NOAA programs in the White House Office of Management and Budget, and as legislative staff on Capitol Hill as a Congressional Science and Engineering Fellow Among his current interagency appointments, he serves as the NOAA representative to the Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, the Recovery Support Function Leadership Group, the Mitigation Framework Leadership Group, and the U.S Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology Earthscan Oceans For further details please visit the series page on the Routledge website: www. outledge.com/books/series/ECOCE Marine and Coastal Resource Management Principles and Practice Edited by David R Green and Jeffrey L Payne Marine Transboundary Conservation and Protected Areas Edited by Peter Mackelworth Transboundary Marine Spatial Planning and International Law Edited by S.M Daud Hassan, Tuomas Kuokkanen, Niko Soininen Marine Biodiversity, Climatic Variability and Global Change Grégory Beaugrand Marine Biodiversity Conservation A Practical Approach Keith Hiscock The Great Barrier Reef An Environmental History Ben Daley Governing Marine Protected Areas Resilience through Diversity Peter J.S Jones Marine Policy An Introduction to Governance and International Law of the Oceans Mark Zacharias Marine and Coastal Resource Management Principles and Practice Edited by David R Green and Jeffrey L. Payne First published 2017 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 selection and editorial matter, D Green and J Payne; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the editors to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978 -1- 84971-289-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978 -1- 84971-290 -3 (pbk) ISBN: 978 - -203-12708 -7 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by codeMantra Contents Contributors vii 1 Introduction 1 David R G reen and J effre y L Pay ne Part I Fundamentals 2 An introduction to integrated coastal zone management 7 R hoda C B allinger 3 Beach management 27 S haw M ead 4 Marine law and designations 43 A lison M ac D onald 5 Marine spatial planning 61 A nne - M ichelle S later and G eorgina R eid 6 Coastal engineering and management 79 N igel P ontee Part II Mapping, monitoring and modelling 101 7 Coastal data collection: applying geospatial technologies to coastal studies 103 David R G reen and J ason J H agon 8 Basic prediction methods in marine sciences 121 T omas z N ied z ielski vi Contents 9 Electronic coastal and marine atlases 142 David R G reen 10 Hydrographic surveying 159 V ictor A bbott Part III Current and emerging sectors and issues 179 11 Coastal ecology, conservation, sustainability and management 181 J Patrick D oody 12 Management of marine ecosystems 202 Roger J H H erbert and J ustine S aunders 13 Public participation, coastal management and climate change adaptation 223 M elissa N urse y- B ray, Robert J N icholls , J oanna V ince , S ophie Day and N ick H arve y 14 Offshore energy 240 H ance D S mith and Tara T hrupp 15 Marine and coastal tourism 267 C arl C ater and S cott R ichardson 16 Surf science and multi-purpose reefs 288 S haw M ead and J ose B orrero 17 Epilogue: current and future developments 312 David R G reen and J effre y L Pay ne Index 321 Contributors Victor Abbott is lecturer in hydrographic surveying, School of Biology and Marine Sciences, Plymouth University, UK Rhoda C Ballinger is a senior lecturer in marine geography in the School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, UK Jose Borrero is a coastal engineer/director at eCoast Marine Consulting and Research, Raglan, New Zealand Carl Cater is associate professor, Swansea University, Wales, and researches the sustainable development of adventure, marine and ecotourism Sophie Day works on the challenges associated with adaptation to long-term coastal change in the UK and abroad in the context of future climate change She pays particular attention to the issue of broad stakeholder engagement in the future planning of complex issues J Patrick Doody was principal advisor on coastal conservation for the UK government nature conservation agencies; since taking early retirement in 1998, he has worked as an independent coastal consultant David R Green is a specialist in the application of geospatial technologies to coastal and marine environments He is director of the Aberdeen Institute for Coastal Science and Management (AICSM) and the UAV/UAS Centre for Environmental Monitoring and Mapping (UCEMM) in the Department of Geography and Environment, School of Geosciences, at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, UK; director and vice-chair of the East Grampian Coastal Partnership (EGCP Ltd) in Aberdeen; and editor-in-chief of the Journal of Coastal Conservation, Management and Planning (Springer) Jason J Hagon is a graduate in geography and geographical information systems (GIS) from the Department of Geography and Environment at the University of Aberdeen He is a research assistant in UCEMM (UAV/UAS Centre for Environmental Monitoring and Mapping), and marketing director of GeoDrone Survey Ltd Nick Harvey is emeritus professor of geography and environmental studies at the University of Adelaide, Australia, with forty years of research expertise in coastal geomorphology and management, focusing on impacts of climate change and sea level rise on coastal evolution and human adaptation viii Contributors Roger J.H Herbert is principal lecturer in coastal and marine biology, Bournemouth University, UK Alison MacDonald is a qualified but non-practising solicitor and PhD candidate in the School of Law, University of Aberdeen, UK Shaw Mead is an environmental scientist and managing director at eCoast Marine Consulting and Research, Raglan, New Zealand Robert J Nicholls is professor of coastal engineering, University of Southampton, UK, with interests in long-term coastal engineering and management, especially the issues of coastal impacts and adaptation to climate change and sea level rise Tomasz Niedzielski is an associate professor in the Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wrocław, Poland Melissa Nursey-Bray is associate professor and head of the Department of Geography, Environment and Population at the University of Adelaide, Australia She is interested in how communities get involved in environmental decision making, especially in relation to Indigenous issues and climate change adaptation management Jeffrey L Payne is director of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office for Coastal Management Under his leadership, the nation’s coastal management activities are coordinated to address the significant challenges affecting our coastal communities, with a focus on customer needs and a commitment to partnerships He brings thirty years of experience in environmental policy, natural resources management, community resilience, climate adaptation, oceanographic research and organisational development Nigel Pontee is global technology leader, coastal planning and engineering, at CH2M, based in Swindon, UK, and also visiting professor, natural and environmental sciences, University of Southampton, UK Georgina Reid is a postgraduate student at the Marine Institute, Memorial University Newfoundland, Canada, studying MMS marine spatial planning and management Scott Richardson is associate professor at RMIT University, Singapore, with academic and professional interests in the cruise industry and tourism education Justine Saunders is senior marine policy advisor, DHI Water and Environment (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore Anne-Michelle Slater is head of the School of Law, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK Hance D Smith is editor-in-chief of the journal Marine Policy and is based at the School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, UK Tara Thrupp is a researcher, Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK Joanna Vince is a senior lecturer in the Politics and International Relations Program, School of Social Sciences, University of Tasmania, Australia, with research interests in ocean and coastal governance Chapter Introduction David R Green and Jeffrey L Payne Introduction The idea for this textbook originated with a need to provide undergraduate students studying the broad discipline of marine and coastal resource management at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, UK, with a framework of reference and support for their studies over the duration of their three-to-four-year degree programme In many ways, marine and coastal resource management is very similar to the discipline of geography It is an integrating discipline and one that draws upon the expertise, tools and techniques from many other disciplines In addition, it is also a vocational degree that ultimately provides a basis for students to pursue a broad-based career that falls under the terms coastal or marine management The coast involves aspects of the landward side of the coastline, including the hydrological catchment, and the marine or offshore environment For some students undertaking a three- or four-year degree programme, it can be difficult at the start to grasp just how the many degree programme subjects are interconnected to provide them with the knowledge and understanding they need to enter a career and be well prepared for a competitive job market This is particularly so in the first couple of years Feedback from students in the university degree programme mentioned above revealed that many students – despite attempts by academics to link modules (e.g in course outlines and handbooks) within a semester or year and from year to year – did not really put two and two together to comprehend how their curriculum evolved over the duration of the degree programme In part, this is because time constraints may require that an entire discipline get covered in one module at the start of the programme This may be followed with an advanced module on the subject, but, if not, the coverage may be present only as part of another module, one for which the student is expected to recall the earlier content sometimes years later Not all students make comprehensive notes as part of their degree module, relying instead on online materials delivered through software such as Blackboard In addition, they may not retain recommended course texts or keep notes beyond the end of a module These challenges are compounded by the fact that the titles coastal manager and marine manager are not commonly found in job adverts What is a coastal manager? It is a name given to someone who is responsible for managing the coast What does it entail? For some, given that much of the management of a coast is often perceived to be carried out by the coastal engineer – a coastal manager is a coastal engineer Will degree graduates find a job advert with the name coastal manager in the title? 314 David R Green and Jeffrey L Payne attention has gradually been drawn to the underwater environment, particularly in nearshore areas for sand and aggregates for use as building and beach nourishment materials, but also in deeper waters where the mining of deep sea minerals such as copper, nickel, cobalt, gold and zinc – present in much higher grades in the ocean than are present on land – has become a possibility The field of renewable energy has also focused attention on the power of the sea with respect to both the traditional means of acquiring energy through wave and current action, but also investigating the potential for energy production through tapping subsurface temperature and density gradients Marine debris – A growing concern Marine and coastal debris have long been recognised as being not just a local issue but also a global problem At the local scale, community-led litter and debris removal is often a voluntary process and successfully raises awareness and helps to educate people about the sources of litter and the ways we try to ensure that it does not reach the coast and enter the sea and ecosystems At the global level huge accumulations of litter have been identified since the 1980s in all our ocean basins as a result of ocean circulation, the best known of which is probably the Pacific gyre Amongst the most damaging elements of litter are plastics, often found in the gut of marine birds and mammals (Gall and Thompson, 2015) Various reports suggest between 10,000 and 35,000 tons of plastic debris are floating on the surface of our oceans This does not account for the amount of debris that has settled to the seafloor or is resident for long periods in the water column The duration of plastics in the marine environment can also be hundreds to thousands of years However, recent reports (van Sebille et al., 2016) have presented scientific evidence that the amount of marine plastics does not appear to be increasing at the present time even though we know more plastic is being produced worldwide Research hypothesises that some of the small fragments of plastics that result from breakdown in the environment may in fact be moving to greater depths and into the stomachs of mesopelagic fish Although the reason for this is not known, it is thought that some of the material is either sinking or being digested by fish higher up in the water column before descending to greater depths Although such research raises new concerns, the fact that we are now better able to monitor, quantify and predict the transport and accumulation of oceanic litter helps to provide new insight into opportunities to find ways to counter its impact Policy and science Linking science and policy has been an on-going theme at many coastal and marine conferences over the last twenty to thirty years The desire for science-informed policy has been recognised for some time The recognition that scientific research is a fundamental underpinning of coastal management has, for example, in the UK led to the creation of science and policy divisions of coastal management organisations e.g Marine Scotland Scientific studies are continually providing us with new data, information and approaches as well as an improved knowledge and understanding about the marine and coastal environment, much of it aided by the role of many new technologies Whilst much of our work has focused on understanding the physical Epilogue 315 and ecological environment, there is a growing recognition that people are often key in linking science to policy through an increasing awareness of the role and value of the coastal and marine environment as an essential part of our terrestrial existence and security There is a continuing need to develop an appreciation of the coastal environment, landscape or seascape given the challenges of climate change and adaptation, increasing development and pressures on coastal resources, and our individual and community participatory roles as players in planning and decision making for the future of marine and coastal resources and human generations Landscapes and seascapes Recognition that the coastal landscape or seascape is an important element of the way people both perceive and value the coastal environment has gradually found its way into approaches to coastal management Growing pressures on the coastal and marine environment are leading to dramatic changes in the visual appearance of the coast, such as, for example, new developments along waterfronts, the emergence and siting of marine renewables, and changes to the appearance of the coastline resulting from climate change through erosion, deposition, chronic inundation, and recurrent flooding Past records of the coastal landscape included in written and illustrated documents, landscape paintings, and more recently photographs and video have been increasingly used to try to help us understand how coastlines have changed and evolved over time; bearing in mind that these are not always accurate records and include an element of artistic licence Written records in the form of poems, travel documents, music, and photographic illustrations can also provide insight into how the coastal and marine environment e.g physical form, infrastructure, buildings, boats and shipping etc have changed over time Descriptive and visual records have also been an important element of understanding what the coast means to us as individuals and communities, and why proposed changes to coasts need to take into account some way of assessing the visual landscape to try to preserve some of the essence of what attracts us to these special places Such considerations need to be at the forefront of both unsympathetic changes as well as those that may spoil a pristine view Today these aspects of the coast are being considered through the use of landscape indicators, character assessments, visualisation tools, and virtual reality This even extends to the use of virtual tours of coasts and oceans with the aid of Google Earth, Google Ocean and StreetView Such information and the related tools are central to today’s planning processes, e.g the visual character of renewable energy at the coast Human adaptation, migration and relocation With climate change leading to a significant rise in sea levels in some parts of the world, coupled with the unprecedented rate of this change, it has already led to the displacement of large numbers of people from the lower-lying coastal areas e.g Bangladesh that are no longer sustainable Indeed many other coastal cities around the world are increasingly vulnerable (Pelling and Blackburn, 2013) Far more significant in the short term, however, is the impact on low-lying island and atoll nations where populations have been compelled to begin migrating to other parts of the country or the world e.g Maldives, Marshall Islands, Kiribas Where such displaced 316 David R Green and Jeffrey L Payne populations cannot move to another part of their country, the impact of sea level rise and salt water intrusion will of course be a far more significant problem, necessitating the identification and acquisition of land elsewhere for relocation, or through movement of people as climate refugees to willing adoptive nations Island populations are especially vulnerable due to the impacts of rising seas and infiltration of salt water into agriculture areas, resulting in a loss of food and water security and the related health impacts In addition to the impacts of rising sea levels, there are also the potentially devastating impacts of increased storm frequency and severity affecting the low-lying areas of the world, leading to economic and environmental consequences through the loss of natural coastal protective features and habitable land itself largely due to erosion In western Alaska, native Alaskan communities are losing land at an alarming rate due to storms and wave action, and the average annual reduction in residence time of sea ice As Arctic temperatures warm and conditions change, the loss of sea ice also affects the natural habitats for species that provide for the traditional subsistence and cultural needs of these communities Finally, where coastal economies are highly dependent on tourism, the impacts of climate change will be significant in terms of either lost revenue and/or the added costs to maintain access to and quality of the features that attract tourism Access to waterfronts and beaches Construction of coastal defences and the development of new and often elite coastal tourist resorts with their associated leisure facilities, housing and infrastructure has already been shown to disadvantage existing coastal communities by limiting access to the beach, creating divides between the rich and poor, and contributing to the loss of livelihoods Growing conflicts have arisen in some coastal areas between municipalities and residents as a result, including disagreement over property and rights and the loss of public amenity and space In the US, for example, the so-called ‘sandboxes’ of Malibu illustrate a dynamic where private property owners sometimes restrict or not provide for access by the public to the beach In such areas, the concept of private beaches does not exist, and attempts through placement of signage and other more physical restrictions designed to displace public beachgoers have met with social resistance under the California Coastal Act of 1976 Elsewhere in the world, social inequalities have arisen due to re-development of land along waterfronts, changing run-down and forgotten areas into new luxury homes In some parts of the world at risk from coastal surges and tsunami waves, development of giant and continuous seawalls has also divorced established and historic coastal communities from the beach and their livelihoods Accompanying this are the growing concerns about who will pay for and maintain such projects that protect business and real estate assets, including for example costly beach re-nourishment activities that can be wiped-out with a single storm Coastal hazards and vulnerability With climate change has come growing concerns worldwide about the vulnerability of coastal communities to a number of coastal and marine hazards Amongst these are tsunami Following the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean that attracted worldwide Epilogue 317 attention as a direct result of the magnitude of impact over a large area on coastal populations and livelihoods, including many deaths, greater attention was focused on developing global monitoring networks sensitive enough to provide early warning information about the origin of a tsunami wave, its timing, and spatial impact Today, there is greater global awareness of tsunami events, and warnings are communicated to the public with greater lead-time and reliability These early warnings can lead to the successful evacuation of vulnerable communities well in advance of the impact of tsunami-generated waves Higher resolution seamless topographic and bathymetric digital elevation models, mapping, and scenarios and simulations now also provide the basis to identify coastlines and populations that are more or less vulnerable to the impacts of tsunami Other impacts include sea level rise, the increased frequency of riverine and coastal floods due to stronger precipitation events, shallow tidally-induced coastal flooding due to a higher baseline of sea level, greater damage to coastal defences due to erosion by waves, and even inland warping and cracking of roads and paved areas due to saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers altering the subsurface hydrodynamic balance To examine this, tools are emerging to enable advanced coastal vulnerability mapping, some with online, publicly available information through web-mapping portals that provide greater awareness of those stretches of the coastline with greater or lesser vulnerability (Fitton et al., 2016) Coastal communities, climate change adaptation and uncertainty With many coastal areas now being impacted by climate change, attention is increasingly being focused toward developing climate change adaptation strategies in an attempt to plan ahead and be prepared to adjust to changes as they occur Some of these issues have been addressed in Chapter 13 Strategies include working with nature through installing living shorelines, restoring impacted habitats, and implementing natural and nature-based features in tandem with traditional hard structures to obtain hybrid solutions that often create multiple benefits of shoreline protection, water quality and habitat improvement, flood control, carbon sequestration, and recreational opportunities Living shorelines, for example, may be able to adapt to the impacts of climate change and at a fraction of the costs to install and maintain hard structures, which degrade over time A great deal of effort has already been placed on the outcomes of funded research to develop a greater awareness of the marine and coastal environment, the coastal processes at work, and the need to understand and plan for the potential impacts of climate change on coastal communities with the emphasis on being prepared However, the uncertainty associated with climate change continues to be a considerable challenge Despite results from scientific research, and the availability of more data, information, and sophisticated modelling tools and techniques, it remains difficult to compel people to determine their relative risk posture and confront the need to plan for change, including the potential severity of changes that may or may not ever occur Often, short-term expectations for returns on investment and desires for expediency stand in the way of better long-range planning and the benefits of risk reduction and cost avoidance The concept of resilience is changing the dynamics of how communities plan for change by recognizing that a resilient community is one that is able 318 David R Green and Jeffrey L Payne to prepare for, respond to, absorb, recover from, and adapt to an exogenous event A key aspect currently missing from many community and higher-level plans is how to recover from events while improving the resilience posture The natural tendency of communities is to try to recover quickly to the original state, which, if lacking a previously prepared recovery plan, can fail to recognize or account for better, more resilient means of recovery One of the most costly insurance outlays on a global basis is repetitive flood losses, often due to the tendency to build back in the same high risk zones where flooding occurs As communities invest in forward-looking, risk-based recovery planning, or even iterative improvements that reduce risk and improve resilience, the economic and social costs of disasters and climate change can be better managed Maritime transport and shipping Whilst we have used the seas and oceans for transport and built harbours for refuge and trade since the beginning of time, the maritime transport and shipping industry has continued to evolve with technological innovation advancing from manpower, to sail, to fuel-based engines, and nuclear-based propulsion With the tide increasingly turning against pollution of the marine environment and the air, attention has migrated towards new and novel ways to provide clean power sources for global shipping This is in addition to growing concerns about marine diesel, coastal discharges of fuel, and the causes of climate change in general, as well as increased access to pristine areas – such as the Arctic – by large cruise liners Although it may take some time to move away completely from fossil fuels in the immediate future, the long-term prognosis is that ships will increasingly turn to renewable energy to power maritime transport Developments in propulsion technologies have already demonstrated the practicality of solar power, kites, and more modern approaches to harness wind energy As maritime transport continues to form the backbone of a growing global transport network, as well as at the local coastal scale, the future intensity of use, combined with a desire for cleaner and more fuel efficient vessels will necessitate the adoption of new more environmentally friendly technology that ensures clean and healthy seas Cruise liners As has been mentioned in Chapter 15, one of the most rapidly expanding areas of tourism in recent years has been the cruise liner industry Unlike the past, the number of cruise liners, and their size has grown very rapidly Many vessels now carry several thousand passengers and offer a rather grand and romantic link to the ocean liners of the past as well as being tremendous feats of engineering Their popularity for holidays and tourism has developed very rapidly in recent years, providing many coastal communities visited by these vessels with a very valuable and vibrant economy However, aside from being attractive to small community economies, and the potential for developing new harbour infrastructures, the very scale of this new generation of cruise ships has physically dwarfed many coastal towns and harbours, as well as bringing with it the negative impacts of large numbers of people descending on small communities with a limited infrastructure, including communications, and the Epilogue 319 potential for pollution A notable example of the more negative aspects of the industry has arisen due to the melting of the Arctic sea ice, opening up vast expanses of ocean and shipping routes almost all year round Access to previously pristine waters by cruise liners has drawn attention to some of the challenging aspects of this rapidly expanding industry These may include the extent to which the operators are adhering to environmentally friendly practices, the number of ships, now almost year round, and the impacts on very small communities of the thousands of visitors In addition, there are concerns about the ability to deal with a shipwreck and associated oil spill if there is an accident, as the resources in the Arctic are limited when it comes to responding quickly and effectively to a large-scale incident (Klein, 2005) Environmental security Environmental security covers everything from protecting the coastal and marine environment from alien species transported in tanker ballast, to a growing need to counter the problems associated with global maritime piracy affecting many forms of leisure boats and commercial shipping with threats posed by pirates targeting international transport With the growing volume of international shipping, the release of ballast water in locations has led to major problems with invasive species around the world So-called bio-invasion has caused serious and irreversible damage to biodiversity This has largely been addressed through the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention) Maritime piracy has become a major concern globally since the end of the 1990s and is having a huge effect on the safety of people and places around the coastlines of the world Potentially it can mean boarding, hijacking, kidnapping and robbery The financial cost to the shipping industry for goods, ships and people, as well as ransoms, and also for the navy to provide protection is huge In addition, there is also the cost to human life A problem associated mostly with poor coastal countries has grown significantly and will only be countered by development and education As the Arctic ice melts, the Arctic waters are rapidly becoming more accessible to year round shipping, providing shortcuts to international waters With increased accessibility comes an increased intensity of shipping, including military vessels and cruise liners, impacts on the small communities and wildlife, as well as the potential for collisions and oil spills, and security in an area where the current levels of preparedness are inadequate (www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/current-state-global-maritime-piracy/) Summary and conclusion We have always sought to tame and manage the coastal and marine environment from the beginnings of time Whilst we may have been very practical and common sense about coastal management originally, the growth in the importance of the coastal and marine environment over time…ranging from fishing, to industrial location, to shipping, and settlement…has gradually led to increasing pressures This necessitates more formalised management approaches in order to ensure continued use, and more recently strategies for long-term sustainable use Coastal and marine management – as we know it today – is a relatively recent concept, one that is continually evolving It is also undoubtedly a very complex 320 David R Green and Jeffrey L Payne subject, which requires multi-disciplinary expertise, knowledge, understanding and technology, and an ability to work with social and economic domains But the coasts, oceans and seas of the world are also an inherent and deeply rooted part of human cultures, and a part of our world that has a never-ending attraction, romantic links, and value to society The Sea I Dreamt … Burying all my pain, hatred and sorrow, Sinking my yearning and regret, Sailing my hope and dream, I glance at the sea The sea, for me, carries memories of my personal Experience and history (with kind permission of Han Sungpil (www.hansungpil.com/)) References and further reading Armitage, D., Charles, A., and Berkes, F (Eds.) (2017) Governing the Coastal Commons: Communities, Resilience and Transformation Routledge, London and New York Fitton, J.M., Hansom, J.D., and Rennie, A.F (2016) A National Coastal Erosion Susceptibility Model for Scotland Ocean and Coastal Management 132: 80–89 Gall, S.C and Thompson, R.C (2015) The Impact of Debris on Marine Life Marine Pollution Bulletin 92(1–2): 170–179 Klein, R.A (2005) Cruise Ship Squeeze: The New Pirates of the Seven Seas New Society Publishers, 312pp Pelling, M and Blackburn, S (Eds.) (2013) Megacities and the Coast: Risk, Resilience and Transformation Routledge, London and New York, 272pp van Sebille, E., Spathi, C., and Gilbert, A (2016) The Ocean Plastic Pollution Challenge: Towards Solutions in the UK Grantham Institute Briefing Paper No 19 July 2016 Imperial College London, 16pp Index accidents (blowouts) 249–50 accretion 27, 36, 83, 86, 114, 190 Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) 167 aerial platforms see unmanned airborne vehicles (UAV) aggregates 214, 258 agriculture 23, 90, 183, 193, 195 aircraft, model see unmanned airborne vehicles (UAV) Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) 137 Alder, J 7, 10, 11, 13, 20 Alexander Kielland 250 algae 132, 209 alongshore drift 186, 189, 193 Anti-Trawl-Reefs (ATRs) 215 apps 107, 109, 110–11, 116, 143 aquaculture 217–18 artificial intelligence 131–2 Asia, South East 9, 23 atlases, electronic 142–4, 154–7; GEBCO Digital Atlas 145–6; Google Earth and LIS 153–4; International Coastal Atlas Network (ICAN) 151–3; UK Digital Marine Atlas Project (UKDMAP) 144–5; WWW 146–51 atmosphere-ocean coupling 133–4 augmentation 163 see also positioning Australia 9, 34, 35, 73–4, 231, 237, 271, 278–9 autocorrelation function (ACF) 128–30, 131, 136 autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) 106, 168–9, 202 baselines 48, 166, 204–5 Battjes, J.A 289, 291, 293 Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) 137 beach management strategy 29–36 beach widening 297–8 beaches 81–2, 91, 110, 189, 190, 193, 305; lowering 79; management 27–36; nourishment 300, 302; shingle (gravel) 86, 192 Belgian Coast Atlas 152 Belgium 69, 193 Berlengas Nature Reserve 209 Beukers-Stewart, B.D 208, 214 Bindon 187 biodiversity 47, 49, 50–2, 56, 194, 198, 215, 297–9, 302 biogenic reefs (habitat) 215–16 biotopes 203 birds 191, 209; waterfowl (seabirds) 183–5, 190, 215–16, 219, 249, 258 Black, K.P 36, 39B, 289, 293–4, 298, 301, 303 boats 211, 215, 269–70 Borrero, J.C 34, 35, 297, 305–6 Borth Reef 306–7 Boscombe Reef 305 boundaries 48, 65, 166, 203 Braer 250 Brazil 252 breakwaters 35–6, 91, 92, 288, 297 Bristol Channel 255 Brockwell, P.J 127, 128, 130, 137 Burleigh Heads 302 by-catch 208, 212 Ballinger, R.C 11, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22 Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission 54 Baltic Sea 54, 57 bar check (calibration) 170 barriers 81–2, 91, 189, 190 bars 81, 189 Cable Station Reef 303 Canada 70–3, 216, 237 carbon sequestration 218 Cartesian coordinate system 162–3 Cater, C 267, 273, 275, 276, 280 Census of Marine Life 202 Channel Coastal Observatory (CCO) 150 322 Index Chart Datum (CD) 165–6, 173 charts 165; nautical 48 see also mapping Chile 215–16 cities 218, 224 cliffs 81, 82–3, 90, 92, 181–8 climate change 105, 151, 194–5, 223–4, 232, 246, 249; coastal engineering 79, 85, 88, 96–7; SLR 23, 28, 39B, 217 Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS) 106–7, 204 coastal engineering 79–81, 85–90, 104–5; defence measures 90–5; design considerations 95–8; environments 81–5 coastal environments 81–5 coastal forums 237 coastal morphology 79, 80, 85 Coastal Ocean Management, Planning and Assessment System (COMPAS) 144 coastal processes, assessing 85–8 coastal protection 297 coastal recession 79 coastal resilience 194 Coastal Resilience (website) 151 coastal squeeze 195 coasteering 276–7 coastline, changes 115 coasts: classification 181–2; hard rock cliff 182–6; sedimentary 188–94; soft rock cliff 186–8 Cod Hole 278 communities 29, 76, 88, 105, 116, 117, 118, 143, 231 Conference of Parties to the Convention of Biological Diversity 44, 52 conservation: climate change 194; goals 50; habitats 192–4; values 190–2 Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) 98 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) 55, 66 Convention of Biological Diversity 47, 50, 63 coordinates 161–3 costs 252; data 117; defense designs 97 cross-correlation 136 cross validation 139 cruising 269–70 Cuba 255 currents 36, 81, 83, 85–6, 248 Darwin Mounds 215 Data Archve for Seabed Species and Habitats (DASSH) 147 data collection 16, 32, 103–6, 111–18, 204; GIS 109–10; mobile technologies 110–11; remote sensing 107–9; spatial models and SDIs 106–7 data handling 74, 144–6, 155, 159, 165, 202, 254, 281; analysis 68; geospacial 104–5, 107, 110–11; processing 172; storage 107, 109; supply for use 261; visualisation 106–7, 125–33, 155 data mining 131, 132 databases 132, 293; spatial 107 datums 165–7 Davis, R.A 127, 128, 130, 137 de Klem, C 43, 47, 49, 51 Dean, R.G 34, 87, 98 decision making 74, 89, 105 decision support systems (DSS) 107, 110 Deepwater Horizon 250 delayed oscillator theory 134 Denmark 255 densiometers 173 Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) 113 discharge-recharge oscillator theory 134 discharges 50, 249, 270 diurnal inequality 166–7 diving 279–80, 283–4, 302 Doody, J Patrick 184, 185, 189, 191, 192–5 drainage 196 dredging 210 drilling rigs 247–8, 250 drones see unmanned airborne vehicles (UAV) ducks 191, 209 see also wildlife dunes 189–91, 198, 300–1; coastal engineering 91; loss 193; sand 81, 82; vegetation 28, 31, 34–5, 38B–39B Dungeness 193 Dunwich 80 dykes 92 Earth Summit 10 earthquakes 105, 122–3 East Anglia 196 economies 196–7, 251 ecosystems 56, 73, 188, 195, 198, 250, 278; case study: Pacific oyster 218–19; evidence for impacts of measures 208–16; health 22, 49; resource management 205–6; spatial measures 62–3, 65, 69, 206–8, 216–18, 218; surveying 202–5 education 117, 272, 274, 277 Ekofisk 249–50 El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 121, 134, 217 embankments 92, 93, 95, 193 empirical models (data-based) 125–33 employment 251, 258, 284 end-users 116, 117, 143, 144–6, 155 Index 323 energy 72, 105, 193–4; offshore 240–2; oil and gas see hydrocarbon industry Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 21, 30 environmental impacts 249, 258 environmental practices 54, 55, 66, 76 Eorosion 194 erosion 109, 113, 114, 187, 188, 197, 297, 301; beach management 27, 39B; coastal engineering 79, 86; downcoast 35–36; terminal 91 ESRI Marine Data Model 106 Esso Bernicia 250 estuaries 21, 83, 110, 168, 198–9 Europe 10–11, 13–14, 20, 21 European Nature Information System 203 exclusive economic zones (EEZ) 65–6 extraction 86, 193, 214, 245, 249 Eyes on the Reef 274 Fenland 196, 198 Fiji 288–289 Final Prediction Error (FPE) 137 finance (industries) 244, 261 fisheries 47, 53, 74, 207, 213, 215–16, 258 fishing (trawling) 63, 72, 206–7, 212–13, 215–16, 269–70, 288 floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) 247 flooding 23, 79, 81–2, 84, 90, 95, 118 food 23, 217 forcing agents 192 forecasting see prediction Fujita, R.M 254, 255, 257 Gansbaii 279–80 gas 105, 216 GEBCO Digital Atlas 145–6 geographical information systems (GIS) 109–10, 112, 116, 133, 143, 146, 203 Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) 137 geoid 160 geomorphology 86, 198, 258 geothermal vents 275 Germany 28 Gillespie, A 44, 50, 53 Global Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) 144 Global Environmental Facility (GEF) 10 Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) 122 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) 162–5, 170 Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE) 122 global positioning systems (GPS) 112, 114, 160, 163 global warming 133, 197 see also climate change; sea level rise (SLR) Good Environmental Status (GES) 68 Google Earth 146, 153–4 Google Ocean 146, 153 governance 13, 24 grasslands 183, 184 gravel 81–2, 213 gravity (gravitational atrraction) 160, 166 grazing 184–5, 191, 193, 194, 195 Great Barrier Reef 50, 62, 73–4, 274, 276 Great Dune of Pyla 190 Green, David R 103, 105–6, 108–10, 117, 143–5, 154, 304 greenhouse gases 217 Greenwich Observatory 161 groundwater 82, 275 growth rates, vertical 192–3 groynes 34–5, 36, 91 Gulf of Mexico 193, 242 habitats 23, 31, 49, 105, 203–4, 206–7; biogenic reefs 215–6; intertidal rock 208–9; intertidal sediments 209–11; seagrass beds 214–15; subtidal 211–14 halophytes 191 hand-gathering 209, 215 Happisburgh 113 harbours 80, 109, 211, 243 headlands, artificial 34–5 heathlands 183, 184 Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) 53–7 hotels 273, 276 housing 184, 193, 198, 251 Houston, J.R 27, 28, 34 hydrocarbon industry 240–2, 261–3; economic, social and political 251–2; governance and management 252–4; marine environments 248–50; marine renewables 254–61; offshore oil 242–4; resources and reserves 244–6; technology 246–8 Hydrographic Society 168 ice sheets 224 Iceland 190, 275 ICES FishMap 147–8 images 107, 108, 109, 110 industries 90, 105, 217 information 16, 29, 48, 67, 106, 107, 117 information technology (IT) 107, 116, 132 infrastructure 90, 118, 193, 198, 244, 251, 271 insects 184, 187 324 Index integrated coastal (zone) management (IC(Z) M) 7–9, 75, 104, 224, 225; development 9–11; institutional and governance 18; policy cycle 14–16; principles 13–14; tools and techniques 16–17 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 13, 15, 146 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 28, 223 International Coastal Atlas Network (ICAN) 143, 151–3 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 10, 43 Internet 105, 107, 111, 112, 114, 116, 143 intertidal areas 90, 184, 190, 198 intertidal rock habitats (habitat): conservation and management 208–209; description 208 inundation 79, 94 invertebrates 187, 190–2, 194, 198, 206, 208 Ireland 191 islands, barrier 85 Isle of Wight 211 isostatic change 196–7 Ixtoc I 249–50 Japan 257 Jennings, S 206, 213 Jiangxia 255 Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) 68 Journal of Coastal Research 35 Kaiser, M.J 206, 213, 243, 257 Kay, R 7, 10, 11, 13, 20 kayaking, sea 271–2 Kessingland 193 Kingston upon Spey 113 Kirra Point 302 Kislaya 255 knowledge, local 234–5 Kovalam Reef 305–6 kriging 137 La Rance 255 Laggan-Tormore Project 252B Lake Maracaibo 241 land 7–9, 23, 64–5, 108, 185; reclamation 80, 90, 276 Las Cruces Marine Reserve 209 latitude 161 lead time 123 learning process 132 least-squares (method) 129, 136 legal systems 46–7 legislation 21, 254, 277; USA levees 92 licences (licencing) 208, 209, 214, 253, 259–61 linear interpolation 137 liquefied natural gas (LNG) 248 local information systems (LISs) 153–4 Long Baseline (LB) 169 longitude 161 Los Angeles/Long Beach (LALB) 307B–308B Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ) 224 low-water marks 48 Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) 165–6 lowlands (wetlands) 81–2 Lundy Island 213 machairs 191–2 magnetometers 174 mangrove forests (maritime forests) 21, 84–5, 91, 108 mapping 105, 107, 110, 112, 114, 143, 161 maps 110, 136, 204 marine environments 202; impact of oil 250; management 205–6; spatial and technical measures 206–8; surveying 202–5 Marine Habitat and Classification System of Britain and Ireland 203 marine law 44–6, 65; HELCOM 56–7; Helsinki Convention 53–5; international 46–7, 58; MPAs 47–53; OSPAR 55–7; protected areas 44–6 marine life 190–91, 212–13, 273–5, 277–9, 249; feeding 284; oysters 85, 216–17; shellfish 306; whale sharks 280, 282–3; whales 50; see also birds, waterfowl (seabirds) Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 47, 57, 203, 206, 217 marine renewables (energy): economic, social and political 258–9; governance and management 259–61; industries 254–6; marine environments 257–8; technology 256–7 marine spacial planning (MSP) 22, 61–5, 104, 105; Australia 73–4; Canada 70–3; European Union 67–9; international context 65–7; Scotland 70; UK 69–70 maritime forests see mangrove forests (maritime forests) marshes 80–1, 83–4, 93–4, 181, 190; salt 84–5, 89, 183–4, 189, 191–8, 209–10, 218 Maun, M.A 191, 193 Mauritius 34 McCreary, S.T 7, 12, 18 McKenna, J 13, 16, 20 Mead, S 289–90, 293–94, 297, 298, 301, 303, 305–6 Index 325 Mead, S.T 28, 34, 35, 36, 38B Mean Absolute Error (MAE) 137–138 Mean High Water of Neap Tides (MHWN) 189 mean sea level 160, 165–6 Mediterranean (area) 9, 11 Menie 193 mesh sizes 207 metadata 106 Microsoft 144 migration 69, 190, 218, 284; human 23, 315; vegetation 84–5 Milankovitch cycle 217 Milford Sound Underwater Observatory 273 Milligan, J 18, 20, 231 mineral extraction 70, 216 mobile devices 116, 143 modelling 113–14, 155, 160–1, 165, 172, 197; data 106–7; empirical (databased) 125–33; geomorphology 86–8; methods 121–5; physical 133–4; reefs 36; verification 137–9 monitoring 15, 32–3, 93, 105, 109, 114, 210 Mount Reef 303–4 mudflats 83, 84, 189, 197, 209 multi-purpose reefs (MPRs) 288, 297–9; case studies 299–308 Nairobi Convention 11 Narrowneck reef 300–2 National Marine Plan 70 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 231–2, 268 Navier-Stokes (equations) 133 navigation 48, 164, 165–7, 249, 258 nesting sites 184 New Zealand 30, 31, 34, 37B–39B, 237, 277, 288 Niedzielski, T 121–2, 134–5 Ningaloo 269, 280–4 No-Take-Zones (NTZ) 212 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) 46, 289 North Sea 242–3, 251 Norway 253, 257 Nursey-Bray, Melissa 231 Ocean Acts 70–1 ocean-atmosphere systems 246 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) 255, 257 ocean zones, definition 48 offshore energy 240–2, 254, 256 oil exploration 216 see also hydrocarbon industry oil spills 250 Olsen, S 14, 16 Olsen, S.B 258 Orams, M.B 274, 278–9 Orders of Outcomes 16 Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) 136 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 10 Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 244 O’Riordan, T 18, 20, 23 Orkney Islands 231 ortho-mosaics 113–14 oscillating water column 257 OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic) 55–7, 66–7 Outer Hebrides 191–2 Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA) 71–3 Packham, J.R 189, 190, 191 paints, tributyltin (TBT) 210, 218 Palau Sipadan 275 Panavue 109 Parkgate 193 passerines 191 pathogens, microbial 205 peat 196 peel angles 289–91 Pentland Firth 255 petrochemical plants 248 photographers 275 photography 107, 110 Pilarczyk, K.W 31, 35, 288, 298 Pinder, D 262 Piper Alpha 250, 254 planning 68, 74, 105 plants 28, 34, 37B–38B; aquatic 53 plate tectonics 122 platforms 247–8, 257 political instability 252 Polluter Pays Principle 13, 54, 55 pollution 9, 47, 49, 53, 55, 249–50, 258 population 21, 23, 47, 251, 269, 284, 315–16 ports 80, 90, 109, 193, 218, 243 positioning (augmentation) 162–5, 168–9 power generation 241 Pratte’s Reef 303 Precautionary Principle 13, 66 prediction 121–5; geographical aspects 134–7; physical-based methods 133–4; times series 125–33; verification 137–9 Prime Meridians 161 Priority Habitats 191 326 Index production decline curve 245 Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) 274 profilers, sub-bottom 173 Prognocean 134–5 protected areas 51–2, 52–3; marine 43–6 public participation 227B–228B, 229–30, 231–2, 235–6; climate change 224–7, 233B–234B; communications 236–7; entry points 234–5; UK 232B–233B see also communities; stakeholders Raglan Point 290–1 rainfall 186, 190 Ranasinghe, R 36, 298, 303 Ranwell, D.S 189, 191, 192, 193, 194 realignment, managed 90 recreation 61, 208–9 Red Sea 276 reef design, surfing 293 ReefBalls 299 reefs 21, 85, 91, 94, 108, 215, 218; artificial 35–6, 275–6, 288 refineries 248 regional marine plans (RMPs) 73 regional seas 50, 53–5 relocation 23, 315 remote access (to data) 111 remote sensors 105, 107–9, 116 remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) 106, 168, 202, 248 Republic of Ireland 69 research 68, 117 resorts, coastal 33, 80 resources 22, 49, 51 restaurants 273, 306 revetments 39B, 91, 92, 97–8 Ribble Estuary 191 Rio Earth Summit 51 Rockloff, S.F 16, 235 Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) 125, 137–8 royalties 253 safety 254, 261, 302 salients 35–6, 298 salinity 168, 170; gradients 257 see also Sea Surface Salinity (SSS) saltation 190 sand 31, 81, 86, 197, 248 sand bypassing 34; loss 37B–38B sand dunes 81, 94 see also dunes sand-filled containers (SFCs) 299, 302 Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) 163 satellites 107, 131, 162–5 Scotland 70, 257, 272 see also individual places by name Scotland Marine Atlas 152–3 Scottish Coastal Forum 237 Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) 277 scrublands 183, 193 scuba diving 274–6, 288 sea defenses 195; hard rock cliff 218 sea ice 252 sea level rise (SLR) 23, 150, 195, 197–8, 217–18, 223–4; beach management 28–9, 32, 39B; climate change 88; coastal engineering 79; coastal environments 82–5 sea levels 131, 133, 134, 196–7 sea surface 23, 121, 133 seabeds 207, 255, 257, 289, 291, 293, 294–6 seagrass 209, 214–15 seamounts 216 seawalls 39B, 91 seawater temperatures 168, 170 sediment 79, 92–3, 187–9, 194, 209, 298, 301; beach management 27, 31, 39B; coastal engineering 81, 84–6, 90 sedimentary coasts 188–94 sensing, acoustic: side scan sonar 171–2; single beam (echo) sounder 169–71 sensors 106, 107–9 service industries 242–3, 255 settlements 80 Severn Estuary 19 sewage treatment 215 Shetland Marine Spacial Plan 154 Shine, C 43, 47, 49 shingle (gravel) 195, 197 shipping 50, 72, 254, 318 shoreline management 80 Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) 89–90, 113, 232B–234B SKOANZ 271–2 smartphones 107, 109 Snell’s Law 172 snorkelling 274–6, 283–4, 288 social impact 251 soft rock cliffs 186–8 software 109, 111, 116, 143, 153, 172 soils 190, 191 solar power 257 Solent 216 Solway Firth 215 Sorensen, J.C 7, 9, 11, 12, 18 soundings (sonar): echo 164, 169–71; swathe 172–3 South America South Pacific Islands 34 sovereign rights 49–50, 65 spacial databases 107 Index 327 Spain 11, 75, 255 Spalding, M.D 122, 203, 276 spatial-correlation 136 spatial data infrastrucures (SDIs) 106–7, 143 spatial interpolation 139 spatial planning initiatives 258 spatio-temporal time series 134 species 49, 183, 189, 194, 198, 204; nonnative 184, 194, 205, 217, 219; non-target 207, 208 sponges 213, 299 spreading (sea floor) 122 St Georges Bank 213 stakeholders 70, 89, 114, 206, 236–7, 253; IC(Z)M 16, 19; UK 231; USA 74 standards 106, 174–6 states 65, 246, 253 static gears 207 static-gears 212 stochastic modelling 130–1 stock, domesticated 184 Stockholm Declaration 49–50 Stojanovic, T.S 11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 storms 38B, 109, 150, 183, 192, 194, 197–8, 302; coastal engineering 81–2, 88; energy 246, 248 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 21 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 52–3 streams, tidal 167 structures, installation of 205 subduction 122 submarines (semi-submersibles), tourist 272–3 subsidies 261 subsoils 55 subtidal rock (habitat): conservation and management 212–3; description 211 subtidal sediments (habitat): conservation and management 213–14 support technologies 248 surface creep 189–99 surfer skill classifcation 290–291 surfing 288–9; breaker intensities 291–94; breaking density 291–4; case studies 299– 308B; MPRs 297–9; peel angles 289–91; seabed shape 294–6 surges, tidal 167 surveying, hydrographic 159–60, 246–7; case study 175–6; Earth 160–2; positioning 162–5, 168–74; tides 165–7 sustainability 10, 13, 19, 20; climate change 194–5, 194–8; habitats 192–4; nature conservation values 190–2 Sustainable Coastal Communities and Ecosystems (SUCCESS) 232 Swansea Bay 255 Sweden 255 swimming 274–6, 302 talus 82 tankers 248, 250 taxation 253, 275 technologies 54, 55, 66, 103, 114–18, 251; geospacial 104–5, 110–11 terns 192 territorial seas 48, 65–6, 67, 166 test drilling 243 Thermhaline Circulation (THC) 122 tidal currents 167 tidal flats 195 tidal power 254, 255, 256 tidal streams 167 Tide Tables 166 tides 81, 85, 165–7, 306 time, GPS 163 time scales 86 tombolos 35–6 tools: management 116; online 205 Total Allowable Catch (TAC) 207, 215–16 tourism 74, 184–5, 193, 198, 267, 300, 318; case study, Ningaloo 280–4; coastal engineering 80, 93; interactions with wildlfie 277–80; management 280; recreational origins 268–72; underwater observation 272–7 Trail Smelter Arbitration 50 Transboundary 13 transducers 169–70 transponders 168 transportation 244, 247–8, 255 treaties 47 tsunamis 105, 122–3 tube rides 292 turbines 257 Turkey 183 UK 207–8, 211, 232B–234B, 251, 253, 258; governance 20, 23, 97, 106; MPAs 9; MPS 69–70; SMP 89–90 UK Digital Marine Atlas Project (UKDMAP) 144–5 Ultra Short Baseline (USBL) 169 underwater observations 272–7 United Nations 48–55, 216; UNCLOS 48–9, 65, 166 see also OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic) United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 31, 35, 39B univariate time series 134 Universal Tranverse Mercator (UTM) 161 328 Index unmanned airborne vehicles (UAVs) 106, 108–9, 112–14, 115, 116, 117 USA 34, 44, 190, 216, 235, 241, 251, 255; IC(Z)M 9, 19 user interfaces see end-users variables, prediction 121–3 variation modes (time series) 126–7 vegetation 81, 83–4, 94–5, 183, 186–7, 189–90, 194–5 velocimeter 168, 170 vessels 218; draft 169; movement 172 visualisation see mapping volcanoes 122 Voluntary No-Anchor-Zones (VNAZ) 215 voluntary organisations 253 vortex ratios 293 vulnerability indexes 113 Wadden Sea 190, 193, 216 Walker, J.R 289–90, 297 walking, intertidal 276–7 Wash 193 Washington Post 289 waste disposal 61, 184 water 165, 168, 255; quality 210, 215 water columns 168–9, 189, 249 water levels 79, 85 water table 191 waterways, internal 55, 67 wave energy 81, 301 wave peel 289 wave power 254, 257 waves 81–3, 85–6, 182, 189, 194, 291–4, 306; energy 203, 248, 255 weathering 182, 186 web map service (WMS) 135, 146 websites 29; mapping 110 weed mats 108, 112 Wellington City Council 38B wildlife 190–1, 194, 195, 209 see also birds; insects Willis, A.J 189, 190, 191 wind farms 218, 255–7 wind power 241, 259 wind speed 165 wind turbines 255, 256 winds 81, 165, 167, 189–90 woodlands 183, 189, 193 World Bank 10 World Commission for Nature 51 World Summit on Sustainable Development 52 World War II 80 World Wide Web (WWW) 146–51 Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) 10 wrecks 171, 174, 273 Wroclaw, University of 134 Ythan Estuary 112 Zoraster 241 .. .Marine and Coastal Resource Management In this new and highly original textbook for a range of interdisciplinary courses and degree programmes focusing on marine and coastal resource management, ... of coastal ecology, coastal conservation, sustainability and coastal management Chapter 12 by Herbert and Saunders considers marine and coastal biology, marine fisheries and aquaculture, and. .. scales and orientations of coastal management programmes, and includes integrated coastal area management (ICAM), integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) and integrated coastal and ocean management