Theory of international law

THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW This book seeks to analyse various aspects of international law, the link being how they structure and marshal the different forces in the international legal order It takes the following approaches to the matter First, an attempt is made to determine the fundamental characteristics of international law, the forces that delineate and permeate its applications Secondly, the multiple relations between law and politics are analysed Politics are a highly relevant factor in the implementation of every legal order (and also a threat to it); this is all the more true in international law, where the two forces, law and politics, have significant links Thirdly, the discussion focuses on a series of fundamental legal-political notions: the common good, justice, legal security, reciprocity (plus equality and proportionality), liberty, ethics and social morality, and reason ii Theory of International Law Robert Kolb OXFORD AND PORTLAND, OREGON 2016 Hart Publishing An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc Hart Publishing Ltd Kemp House Chawley Park Cumnor Hill Oxford OX2 9PH UK Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK www.hartpub.co.uk www.bloomsbury.com Published in North America (US and Canada) by Hart Publishing c/o International Specialized Book Services 920 NE 58th Avenue, Suite 300 Portland, OR 97213-3786 USA www.isbs.com HART PUBLISHING, the Hart/Stag logo, BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2016 © Robert Kolb Robert Kolb has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as Author of this work All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers While every care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of this work, no responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting or refraining from action as a result of any statement in it can be accepted by the authors, editors or publishers All UK Government legislation and other public sector information used in the work is Crown Copyright © All House of Lords and House of Commons information used in the work is Parliamentary Copyright © This information is reused under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3) excepted where otherwise stated All Eur-lex materials used in the work is © European Union, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/, 1998–2015 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: HB: 978-1-78225-880-3 ePDF: 978-1-78225-881-0 ePub: 978-1-78225-883-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Kolb, Robert, author Title: Theory of international law / Robert Kolb Description: Oxford ; Portland, Oregon : Hart Publishing, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016020804 (print) | LCCN 2016020917 (ebook) | ISBN 9781782258803 (hardback : alk paper) | ISBN 9781782258834 (Epub) Subjects: LCSH: International law—Philosophy Classification: LCC KZ3410 K657 2016 (print) | LCC KZ3410 (ebook) | DDC 341.01—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016020804 Typeset by Compuscript Ltd, Shannon ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many thanks to the Schneiter Foundation (University of Geneva) for its generous financial support I am also most grateful to Catherine Minahan for her highly competent, painstaking and precise copy-editing; she alone made the text readable vi CONTENTS Acknowledgements��v List of Abbreviations�� xiii Table of Cases and Practice��xv Table of Legislation��xxv Table of International Instruments�� xxvii Introduction��1 Part One: The Main Pillars of the Legal System History and Characteristics of International Law��5 I Historical and Conceptual Aspects��8 A The ‘Two Histories’ of Public International Law��8 II The Substantive Subject Matter of Public International Law��43 A Introductory Remarks��43 B The Impossibility of Defining International Law Through its Subject Matter: Kelsen��44 C ‘Necessary’ and ‘Contingent’ Subject Matters of Public International Law��45 D Branches that were Part of International Law and Have Ceased to be Part of It��53 III Types of International Law��57 A Universalism, Supranationalism and Internationalism��57 B Law of Subordination and Law of Coordination��62 C Inter-State Law and Transnational Law��68 IV Phases of Development of International Law��71 A Classical and Modern International Law��71 B First Phase of Development of Modern International Law: The ‘Juridisation’ of International Society��74 C Second Phase of Development of Modern International Law: The ‘Constitutionalisation’ of International Society��82 D Third Phase of Development of Modern International Law: The ‘Community Orientation’��89 viii Contents Foundation, Sources and Structural Principles of International Law��99 I General Aspects��99 II The Relationship Between the Foundation and the Sources of International Law��100 III The Basis of Obligation in International Law��103 A General Aspects��103 B Legal Positivism��105 C Sociological Doctrines��110 D Natural Law Doctrines��112 E Conclusion��121 IV The Sources of International Law��123 A General Aspects��123 B Customary International Law��127 C General Principles of Law��134 D Treaties��145 E Soft Law ��152 F Final Considerations��155 V The Structural Principles of International Law��157 A International Law as Horizontal ‘Coordinative Law’��157 B International Law as ‘Primitive’ Law?��162 C International Law as Individualised Law��168 D International Law and Fragmentary, Empirical and Uncertain Normativity��170 E International Law as Permeable and Non-Formalistic��174 F International Law Between Coexistence and Cooperation��177 G International Law as Non-self-sufficient Law��179 The Subjects of International Law��183 I General Aspects��183 II The Question of Circularity Between the Sources and the Subject��185 III The Quantity or Quality of the Subjective Legal Positions��187 Questions of Method and the Structure of Rules in International Law��193 I Method in International Law��193 II Conceptual and Terminological Problems��196 A Conceptual Confusions��196 B Systematic Confusions��200 C Terminological Confusions��201 D Conclusion��203 Contents ix III What Place can be Made for Method in International Law?��203 IV The Individualisation of International Law Rules and its Consequences��206 A Generalising and Individualising Perspectives��206 B The Individualising Perspective in International Law��209 The ‘Lotus Rule’ on Residual State Freedom��217 I General Aspects��217 II Origin of the Residual Rule��221 III Relativity of the Residual Rule��222 IV Objections Against the Residual Rule��224 A Objections Under the General Theory of Law��224 B Objections Under International Law��228 C Objections to the Authorisation Theory��232 D Scope of the Residual Freedom Rule in International Law��232 The Effectiveness of International Law��237 I General Aspects��237 II Elements Pushing States towards Compliance��241 III The Comparison of Municipal Law with International Law��244 IV In Search of an Inventory��246 V The Public Perception of International Law��253 International Society or International Community?��259 I General Aspects��259 II Short Historical Aspects in the Western World��261 A Primitive Societies��262 B The Development of a ‘Common Humanity’��262 C The Christian Republic in the Middle Ages��264 D From the Spanish Scholastics to the Nineteenth Century��264 E The Concert of Europe in the Nineteenth Century��265 F The Twentieth Century and the Return of a Global International Community��266 III Conceptions of the International Community��267 A Necessary International Community��267 B Specific International Community��268 C Institutional International Community��270 IV Society or Community?��270 462 Selected Reading —— and —— (eds), Towards World Constitutionalism: Issues in the Legal Ordering of the World Community, Leiden, 2005 Manning CAW, The Nature of International Society, London, 1962 Mapel DR and Nardin T (eds), International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives, Princeton, 1999 Marks S (ed), International Law on the Left: Re-Examining Marxist Legacies, Cambridge, 2008 Martin PM, Les échecs du droit international, Paris, 1996 Maturi G, Il problema giuridico della comunità internazionale, Milan, 1956 McDougal MS, Studies in World Public Order, New Haven, 1960 —— and Reisman M, International Law in Contemporary Perspective, The Public Order of the World Community, New York, 1981 Midgley EBF, The Natural Law Tradition and the Theory of International Relations, New York, 1975 Miele M, La comunità internazionale, Turin, 1997 Morgenthau H, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5th edn, New York, 1973 ——, La réalité des normes: En particulier des normes du droit international, Paris, 1934 Mosler H, The International Society as a Legal Community, Alphen aan den Rijn/ Germantown, 1980 Moynihan DP, On the Law of Nations, Cambridge, Mass/London, 1990 Mukherjee SK, A New Outlook for International Law, Calcutta, 1964 Müllerson R, Ordering Anarchy, International Law in International Society, The Hague/ Boston/London, 2000 Nardin T, Law, Morality and the Relations of States, Princeton, 1983 Nathan M, The Renascence of International Law, London, 1925 Nawaz MK, The Changing Law of Nations: An Indian Focus, Calcutta, 2000 Neff SC, War and the Law of Nations: A General History, Cambridge, 2008 Neuchâtel University, Law Faculty (ed), International Law Tomorrow, Neuchâtel, 1974 Nijman JE, The Concept of International Legal Personality, The Hague, 2004 Nippold O, Die Gestaltung des Völkerrechts nach dem Weltkriege, Zurich, 1917 (English edn: The Development of International Law after the World War, Oxford, 1923) Nolte G, Le droit international face au défi américain, Paris, 2005 Nussbaum A, A Concise History of the Law of Nations, New York, 1954 Nys E, Etudes de droit international et de droit politique, Brussels/Paris, 1896 Nys E, Les origines du droit international, Brussels/Paris, 1894 O’Connell ME, The Power and Purpose of International Law: Insights from the Theory and Practice of Enforcement, Oxford, 2008 Okeke CN, Controversial Subjects of Contemporary International Law, Rotterdam, 1974 Onuma Y, A Transcivilizational Perspective on International Law, Leiden, 2010 Oppenheim L, The Future of International Law, Oxford/Washington, DC, 1921 Orakhelashvili A (ed), Research Handbook on the Theory and History of International Law, Cheltenham, 2011 Orford A (ed), International Law and its Others, Cambridge, 2006 Osiander A (ed), The States System of Europe, 1640–1990, Oxford, 1994 Paech N and Stuby G, Völkerrecht und Machtpolitik in den internationalen Beziehungen, Hamburg, 2001 Selected Reading 463 Pahuja S, Decolonizing International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Universality, Cambridge, 2011 Papaligouras P, Théorie de la société internationale, Zurich, 1941 Papaux A and Wyler E, L’éthique du droit international, Paris, 1997 Paradisi B, Storia del diritto internazionale nel Medio Evo, vol I, Milan, 1941 Parlett K, The Individual in the International Legal System: Continuity and Change in International Law, Cambridge, 2011 Parry C, The Sources and Evidences of International Law, Manchester, 1965 Paulus A, Die Internationale Gemeinschaft im Völkerrecht: Eine Untersuchung zur Entwicklung des Völkerrechts im Zeitalter der Globalisierung, Munich, 2001 Picone P, Comunità internazionale e obblighi erga omnes: Studi critici di diritto internazionale, Naples, 2006 Pillet A, Les fondateurs du droit international, Paris, 1904 Poggi G, The Development of the Modern State: A Sociological Introduction, London, 1978 Politis N, La morale internationale, Neuchâtel, 1943 ——, Les nouvelles tendances du droit international, Paris, 1927 (English edn: The New Aspects of International Law, Washington DC, 1928) Portmann R, Legal Personality in International Law, Cambridge, 2010 Posner EA, The Perils of Global Legalism, Chicago/London, 2009 Prost M, The Concept of Unity in Public International Law, Oxford/Portland, 2012 Rabkin JA, Law without Nations? Why Constitutional Government Requires Sovereign States, Princeton, 2005 Rajagopal B, International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance, Cambridge, 2003 Ralston JH, Democracy’s International Law, Washington, 1922 Ramel F, Philosophie des relations internationales, Paris, 2002 Ratner S, The Thin Justice of International Law, A Moral Reckoning of the Law of Nations, Oxford, 2015 Redslob R, Das Problem des Völkerrechts, Leipzig, 1917 Redslob R, Histoire des grands principes du droit des gens, Paris, 1923 Reibstein E, Die Anfänge des neueren Natur- und Völkerrechts, Bern, 1949 Reibstein E, Völkerrecht—Eine Geschichte seiner Ideen in Lehre und Praxis, vols, Freiburg/ Munich, 1957 Reisman WM, International Law in Contemporary Perspective, 2nd edn, New York, 2004 —— and Willard AR (eds), The Law that Counts in World Politics, Princeton, 1988 Rodriguez Iglesias GC, Memoria sobre concepto, método, fuentes y programa de derecho internacional publico, Madrid, 1982 Röling BVA, International Law in an Expanded World, Amsterdam, 1960 Romano S, L’ordinamento giuridico, 2nd edn, Florence, 1962 Rosenne S, Practice and Methods of International Law, London, 1984 Rubin AP, Ethics and Authority in International Law, Cambridge, 1997 Salmon J (ed), Dictionnaire de droit international public, Brussels, 2001 Salvioli G, Studi sui caratteri dell’ordinamento giuridico internazionale, Spoleto, 1922 ——, Alcuni concetti generali del diritto internazionale, Camerino, 1919 Sandoz Y (ed), Quel droit international pour le 21e siècle?, Brussels, 2007 Sarat A, Douglas L and Umphrey MM, Law Without Nations, Stanford, 2011 Scelle G, Théorie du gouvernement international, Paris, 1934 Schiffer W, The Legal Community of Mankind, New York, 1954 464 Selected Reading Schindler D, Recht, Staat, Völkergemeinschaft, Zurich, 1948 Schmitt C, Der Nomos der Erde im Jus Publicum Europaeum, Cologne, 1950 Schücking W, Die völkerrechtliche Lehre des Weltkrieges, Leipzig, 1918 ——, Die Organisation der Welt, Leipzig, 1909 Schwarzenberger G, The Inductive Approach to International Law, London/New York, 1965 ——, Power Politics, A Study of World Society, 3rd edn, London, 1964 ——, The Frontiers of International Law, London, 1962 Sereni AP, The Italian Conceptions of International Law, New York, 1943 Shelton D (ed), International Law and Domestic Legal Systems: Incorporation, Transformation and Persuasion, Oxford/New York, 2011 ——, Commitment and Compliance: The Role of Non-Binding Norms in the International Legal System, Oxford, 2000 Skouteris T, The Notion of Progress in International Law Discourse, The Hague, 2010 Slaughter AM, A New World Order, Princeton/Oxford, 2004 Smith HA, The Crisis in the Law of Nations, London, 1947 Sperduti G, La fonte suprema dell’ordinamento internazionale, Milan, 1946 Spiropoulos J, Théorie générale du droit international, Paris, 1930 Spruyt H, The Sovereign State and its Competitors, Princeton, 1994 Stadtmüller G, Geschichte des Völkerrechts, Hannover, 1951 Stone J, Legal Controls of International Conflict, London, 1954 Strayer JR, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State, Princeton/Oxford, 1970 Strupp K, Eléments du droit international public universel, européen et américain, vols I–III, Paris, 1930 Sturzo L, The International Community and the Right of War, London, 1929 Tan KC, Justice without Borders: Cosmopolitanism, Nationalism and Patriotism, Cambridge, 2004 Ter Meulen J, Der Gedanke der Internationalen Organisation in seiner Entwicklung, 1300– 1800, The Hague, 1917; and 1789–1889, The Hague, 1929 and 1940 Téson F, A Philosophy of International Law, Boulder, 1998 Teubner G (ed), Global Law without a State, Aldershot, 1997 Tilly C (ed), The Formation of the National States in Western Europe, Princeton, 1975 Tomberg V, Grundlagen des Völkerrechts als Menschheitsrecht, Bonn, 1947 Trachtman JP, The Future of International Law, Cambridge, 2013 Triepel H, Völkerrecht und Landesrecht, Leipzig, 1899 Truyol y Serra A, Die Entstehung der Weltsaatengesellschaft unserer Zeit, Munich, 1963 ——, Fundamentos de derecho internacional publico, Barcelona, 1955 —— and Kolb R, Doctrines sur le fondement du droit des gens, Paris, 2007 Twining W, Globalization and Legal Theory, London/Edinburgh/Dublin, 2000 Vandenbosch A, Toward World Order, New York, 1963 Vedovato, G, La comunità internazionale, Florence, 1950 Verdross A, Die Verfassung der Völkerrechtsgemeinschaft, Vienna/Berlin, 1926 ——, Die Einheit des rechtlichen Weltbildes, Tübingen, 1923 Verzijl JW, International Law in Historical Perspective, vols 1–10, Leiden, 1968–79 Vinogradoff P, Historical Types of International Law, Leiden, 1923 Virally M, Le droit international en devenir, Paris, 1990 ——, L’Organisation mondiale, Paris, 1972 Vollenhoven C, van, Du droit de la paix, De iure pacis, The Hague, 1932 ——, Les trois phases du droit des gens, The Hague, 1919 Selected Reading 465 Walker TA, A History of the Law of Nations, From the Earliest Times to the Peace of Westphalia, Cambridge, 1899 Walker TA, The Science of International Law, London, 1893 Walz GA, Wesen des Völkerrechts und Kritik der Völkerrechtsleugner, Stuttgart, 1930 Watson A, The Evolution of International Society, London/New York, 1992 Weeramantry CG, Universalizing International Law, Leiden/Boston, 2004 Weiss L, The Myth of the Powerless State, Ithaca, NY, 1998 Wheaton H, Histoire des progrès du droit des gens en Europe depuis la paix de Westphalie jusqu’à nos jours, vols, 3rd edn, Leipzig, 1853 Wight M, Systems of States, Leicester, 1977 Winfield PH, The Foundations and the Future of International Law, Cambridge, 1942 Wolfrum R (ed), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, vols I–X, Oxford, 2012 Wolzendorff K, Die Lüge des Völkerrechts, Leipzig, 1919 Wright Q, The Role of International Law in the Elimination of War, Manchester, 1961 Wyler E and Papaux A, L’extranéité ou le dépassement de l’ordre juridique étatique, Paris, 1999 Xue H, Chinese Contemporary Perspectives on International Law, The Hague, 2012 Ziccardi P, La costituzione dell’ordinamento internazionale, Milan, 1943 Ziegler KH, Völkerrechtsgeschichte, 2nd edn, Munich, 2007 Zimmern A, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918–1935, London, 1935 Zitelmann E, Die Unvollkommenheit des Völkerrechts, Munich/Leipzig, 1919 466 INDEX alien law, 20 ancient China, 36–37 Empire, 40–41 prevention of war, 38 rites and law, 47 ‘Spring and Autumn’, 37–40 ‘States in War’, 40 ancient India, 32–33 diplomacy, 33–34 jus ad bellum, 34–35 jus in bello, 35–36 rights and duties of States, 34 treaties, 34 reliance on written sources, 33 arbitration, 21–22, 446 ancient Greece, 13–14 diplomatic arbitration and legal arbitration distinguished, 321–23 exclusion of certain matters, 213 Greco-Roman times, 14 mediation and, 20 Middle Ages, 16–17 Newfoundland/Nova Scotia arbitration, 176–77 Spanish dominance, 18 tribunal powers, 188 see also disputes; dispute settlement balance of powers principle, 19, 20 Barberis: legal personality, 186 Church: arbitration, 17 conclusion of treaties, 16 impact of, 16 colonialisation, 13, 21, 24 common good, 73, 86, 130, 178, 265, 365–70, 414, 455 freedom and regulation and, 217 ‘good’, 367–70 international society and, 370–71 weaknesses of common good, 371–73 morals and, 423–24 obligation and, 109, 113, 117 politics and, 282 policy and, 284 proportionality, 368–70 utilitas publica and, 91–92, 93–94 common spaces, 48, 50, 419 common heritage principle, 352–53 deep seabed, 352 international legal order, 52 supranationalism and, 59 ‘community’ and ‘society’, 259–60 Christian Republic in the Middle Ages, 264 development of ‘common humanity’ and, 262–63 differences, 260–61 consequences, 274–75 anarchy of power, 273–74 associated relative weakness of law, 274 excessive decentralisation of international society, 271 excessive division of international society, 271–72 international socialisation, 272 indirect and fragmentary nature, 273 lack of sense of international solidarity, 271 Europe of 19th century, 265–66 global international community, 266–67 ‘international community’: institutional international community, 270 necessary international community, 267–68 specific international community, 268–69 modern times, 266–67 primitive societies and, 262 Spanish scholastics and the New World, 264 ‘community orientation’, 330 bilateralism and, 266–67 benefits of approach, 93 communitarian spirit in international law, 89–90 concept of international community, 89 concerns, 96–98 dangers of approach, 94 paradoxical nature of approach, 95–96 utilitas publica, 91–93 community-orientated international relations, 296, 325–26 erga omnes obligations, 330 jus cogens, 326–30 ordinary sources: aggressive customary law, 330–31 468 Index extension of territorial sea, 333 non-international armed conflicts, 331–33 quasi-sources: resolutions by UNGA, 332–36 utilitas publica, 326 compulsion and duress, 131–32 constitutionalisation of international society: anti-positivist reaction, 84–86 consequences, 86–89 positivism, 82–84 coordination, law of, 63–64 features: creation and modification, 64–65 execution of law, 65–66 quality of law, 66–67 horizontal coordinative law, 157–58 absence of centralised organs, 159–60 dispute settlement, 161 features, 158–59 good faith, 159, 161–62 precision and consistence of jurisprudence, 160–61 internationalism and, 59 customary law, 21, 47, 73–74, 101–02, 111–12, 125–26, 127–28 aggressive customary law, 330 extension of territorial waters, 333 non-international armed conflicts, 331–33 compulsion and duress, 131–32 delimitation of continental shelves, 131 difficulties, 130–34 failure to act, 132–33 formalisation, 129–30 forms of, 128–29 functions, 134 municipal law and, 181 piracy, 46 relativity of constitutive notions, 133–34 sources of international law, 123, 125–26 treaties and, 126–27 de Vattel, 19, 56, 76, 78–80, 265, 431, 441 decolonisation, 73, 433–34 international law in practice, 312–13, 334–36 principle of nationalities, 349 principle of self-determination, 350 delimitation of continental shelves, 129–31, 176, 208, 335, 343, 354 development of international law: classical international law, 71 coexistence, 71–72 predation, 72–73 modern international law: coexistence, 73–74 cooperation, 73–74 community orientation, 89–98 community values, 73–74 consitutionalisation of international society, 82–89 juridisation of international society, 74–82 diplomacy and diplomatic law, 9, 47–48, 81, 134, 142, 178, 203, 295 ancient Greece, 13 ancient China, 37, 39 ancient India, 33–34 dispute settlement, 51, 321–23, 347–48 English dominance, 20, 21 Greco-Roman times, 14 International courts and tribunals, 188 Middle Ages, 16 pre-Columbian America, 24–26 sub-Saharan Africa, 29–30 disputes, see international disputes dynastic succession, 24–25, 38–39, 55–56 effectiveness of international law, 237–38, 252 imposition of sanctions, 238 incentives for State compliance, 244 bearers of interest, 241 law created voluntarily, 243 moral repercussions, 242 number of applicable norms, 241–42 quest for stability by powerful, 242 rationality of States, 243 reciprocity, 242 role of municipal law, 243 interpretation of texts, 251–52 judging effectiveness, 246 different approaches, 248–49 moderating record of international law, 247 nuance and balance, 246 rule of law and, 249–50 substitutive effectiveness, 250 time factors, 247–48 lack of sanctioning mechanisms, 238–40 municipal and international law compared, 244–46 violations at international law, 240–41 Enlightenment, 5–6 individualism, 115 justice, 379 liberty, 413–14 natural law and, 116, 205 positivism and, 82–84 primacy of law, 281 public law and, reciprocity, 402 residual rule, 221 rule of law, 122 sociological doctrines, 110–11 will and reason, 437, 439 see also Natural Law School equity, 77, 81–82, 131, 135, 144, 173, 263, 288, 307, 341–43, 355 correcting function and, 140–41 Index individualisation and, 207–08, 211–13 justice and, 175, 374, 379, 381, 391 legal certainty, 395, 397–98 trans-generational equity, 359 will and reason, 440 erga omnes obligations, 330 failure to act, 132–33 formalism, 5, 15, 263, 282 absence of, 18, 122 domination of non-formalism, 166, 174–77 legal doctrine of sources, 100 positivism and, 106 foundation of international law, 101–02 obligation, 103–05, 121–23 legal positivism, 105–09 natural law doctrines, 112–21 sociological doctrines, 110–12 sources and, 99–102 legal doctrine, 102–03 see also obligation; structural principles general principles of law, 134 adapting function, 141–44 axiological function, 136–37 correcting function, 140–41 logical function, 136 normative function, 137–39 unifying function, 139–40 types of principle, 134–35 see also structural principles good faith, 159, 161–62, 199–200, 400, 422, 443 Grotius, 61, 78, 80–81, 93, 297, 417, 430 Law of War and Peace, 247 public and private law distinguished, 17–18 reason and will: international law as, 441 history and characteristics, 5–8 parallel histories, 8–12, 42–43 extra-European public international law: development, 22–41 merging of European public law and that of other regions, 41–42 public international law of Europe development, 12–22 Hobbes, 61, 76–77, 79, 113, 416–17 absolutism, 116, 197, 437 sanction, 447, 450 horizontal coordinative law, 157–58 absence of centralised organs, 159–60 dispute settlement, 161 features, 158–59 good faith, 159, 161–62 precision and consistence of jurisprudence, 160–61 469 inter-State law, 68–69 international and municipal law, 49–50, 244–46 international disputes: arbitration, 21–22, 446 ancient Greece, 13–14 diplomatic arbitration and legal arbitration distinguished, 321–23 exclusion of certain matters, 213 Greco-Roman times, 14 mediation and, 20 Middle Ages, 16–17 Newfoundland/Nova Scotia arbitration, 176–77 Spanish dominance, 18 tribunal powers, 188 diplomacy and diplomatic law, 51, 321–23, 347–48 ‘high politics’, 317 legal and political disputes, 318–23 horizontal coordinative law, 161 law as a framework for political action: peaceful settlement of disputes, 347–48 settlement of, 51–52 international legal order, 9–11, 42, 43–44, 67 ancient China, 37, 40 ancient Greece, 13 ancient India, 32–33 Europe, 19 internationalism, 57, 59–60 Polynesia, 27–28 pre-Columbian America, 23–26 primitive and modern legal orders compared, 47–48 degrees of necessity, 52–53 international and municipal law, 49–50 law of common spaces, 50 war, 48–49 sub-Saharan Africa, 28 supranationalism, 57, 58–59 universalism, 57, 58 international organisations, 21, 183–85 international responsibility, 51–52, 189–90, 252, 305–06, 398–99 constitutionalism, 210 duty to make reparation, 383 sanction, 448 internationalism, 57, 59–60 juridisation of international society, 74, 80–82 effectiveness of legal norms, 76–77 jus gentium, 78–80 Middle Ages, 74–75 modern age, 76–77 natural law, 77–78 ‘ought’ and ‘is’, 76 justice, 373–74, 391–92 different conceptions of, 375 divine justice, 376–77 470 Index elements of, 374–75 Enlightenment, 379 fragmentary nature, 379–80 inconsistencies, 381 international law and, 382 commutative justice, 383 distributive justice, 383 constitutional justice, 384 equity, 391 just distribution of charges, 388–91 just distribution of rights, 387–88 protective justice, 385–87 open-ended nature, 375 particular justice, 378–79 positivistic conceptions, 375 relative nature, 375–76 universal justice, 377–78 virtue and, 381–82 jus ad bellum, 21, 30, 47, 265 ancient China, 39 ancient India, 34–35 liberum jus ad bellum, 54–55, 72 Sub-Saharan Africa, 30 jus in bello, 21, 47, 55 ancient India, 35–36 Polynesia, 28 pre-Columbian America, 25 protection of civilians in warfare, 431 Sub-Saharan Africa, 30–31 jus inter potestates, 9, 22–23, 69 ancient China, 36–41 ancient India, 32–36 integration of jus inter potestates: public law of Europe, 41–42 political autonomy, 190 Polynesian Islands, 27–28 pre-Columbian America, 23–27 public law of Europe and, 41–42 Sub-Saharan Africa, 28–32 Kant, 20, 61 anarchy of power, 273 conceptions of international community, 269 liberty and, 414 morals and law, 425–26 reciprocity, 402 sanctions, 444, 447 subjective idealism, 415 Kelsen, 44–45, 79–80, 85, 194, 222 primitiveness of international law, 163 sanctions, 447–48 law and politics, 281, 360–61 community-orientated international relations, 325–26 aggressive customary law, 330–31 extension of territorial sea, 333 non-international armed conflicts, 331–33 erga omnes obligations, 330 jus cogens, 326–30 resolutions by UNGA, 332–36 utilitas publica, 326 differences, 281–82 law as a framework for political action: League of Nations, 344–45 peace-keeping operations, 346 peaceful settlement of disputes, 347–48 recognition of states and governments, 346–47 UN Security Council, 345–46 law deferring to politics, 338–39 legal inroads into politics, 355 judicial review of political acts, 355–58 juridification of political aspirations, 359–60 restriction of State immunities, 358–59 mutual indifference, 336–37 normative accommodation of political needs, 341–43 politics seeking to consolidate realisations in a legal regime: legal regimes to the benefit of group of powers, 351 legal regimes to the benefit of individual states, 348–50 legal regimes to the benefit of international community, 351–54 self-determination, 349–50 politics seeking to remain unaffected by law, 343–44 ratification by law of a political fact, 337–38 separate/parallel activities, 354–55 State-orientated international relations: effectiveness, 304–06 absolute prescription, 309–10 acquisitive prescription, 307–08 colonial effectivités, 308–09 effective occupation of territory, 306–07 ‘high politics’, 317 legal and political disputes, 318–23 vital interests, 323–25 nationalism, 301–04 practice in international law, 311–13 constitutive function, 313–14 derogative function, 314–17 sovereignty, 296–301 weakening of the law by political interests, 339–41 law of common spaces, 48, 50, 419 common heritage principle, 352–53 deep seabed, 352 international legal order, 52 supranationalism and, 59 Index legal certainty, 392 international law and, 397 normative insecurity, 397 controversial nature of international normativity, 400 fragmentation, 399 lack of hierarchy of sources, 398 lack of precision, 398–99 unilateralism and, 399–400 weak systems, 397 objective legal certainty, 397–400 subjective legal certainty, 400–01 objective legal certainty, 394 executive security, 395–96 normative certainty, 394–95 security between parties, 396–97 security, 392–94 objective legal certainty, 396–97 legal history, 5–8, 42–43 concept of sovereignty, constitutional law, development of law, 5–6 emergence of the modern State, ‘international legal order’, 9–11 jus inter potestates, 8–9, 22–41 public law of Europe and, 41–42 natural law, public and private law distinguished, public law of Europe, 8–9, 12–22 jus inter potestates and, 41–42 social ideologies, 11–12 State and international law distinguished, transition, 11 legal personality, 16 capacity and personality distinguished, 190–91 definition, 183–84 rights and duties, 184–85 liberty, 413–17 international law and, 417–20 Locke, 437 common good, 370 liberalism, 116 liberty, 415, 417 rule of law, 437–38 Lotus Rule on residual state freedom, 217–21 double relativity, 222 difference according to branch of law/legal order, 223–24 scope of what is prohibited, 222–23 objections to the authorisation theory, 232 objections under general theory of law logical objections, 224–26 practical objections, 227–28 theoretical objections, 226–27 objections under international law, 228–31 origins, 221–22 scope in international law, 232–35 471 Luard: national societies and international society distinguished, 271–72 consequences of differences, 273–74 excessive decentralisation of international society, 271 excessive division of international society, 271–72 lack of sense of international solidarity, 271 reasons for differences, 272–73 maritime law, 314 freedom of the seas, 18 territorial waters, 20 warfare, 15 method in international law, 193, 203–04 conceptual confusions, 196 good faith, 199–200 sovereignty, 196–99 generalising perspectives, 206–07 individualising perspectives, 207 consequences, 214–15 equity clauses, 208–09 explicit individualisation clauses, 208 historical aspects, 209–10 legal standards, 208–09 techniques, 211 equity clauses, 212–13 individualisation clauses, 211–12 standards, 213–14 methodological disaffection, 194–96 sources of confusion, 196, 203 conceptual confusions, 196–200 systematic confusions, 196, 200–01 terminological confusions, 196, 201–03 systematic confusions, 196, 200–01 techniques: analogy, 204–06 deduction, 204–05 induction, 204–05 terminological confusions, 196, 201–03 Middle Ages, arbitration, 16–17 commonalities with international law, 167 ‘community’ and ‘society’, 264 juridisation of international society, 74–75 public law of Europe: external influences, 15 morals and social morals, 420–21, 434 application of law and, 433–34 formation and law and, 430–33 individual morality, 421–22 international morals, 426–28 apology for egoism, 428–29 utilitarianism, 429–30 law distinguished, 424–26 social morality, 422–24 472 municipal law, 49–50 customary law and, 181 dependency of international law on, 180–81 effectiveness of international law: incentives for State compliance, 243 implementation and enforcement, 181 international customary law and, 181 international law compared, 244–46 renvois and, 180–81 structural principles of international law: dependency on municipal law, 180–81 natural law, 7, 56, 83, 86–87, 102, 121–22, 330 common humanity and, 262–63 criticisms of, 119–21 derogation, 315 development, 115–18 effectiveness of international law, 307 Greco-Roman times, 14 jus publicum Europeaum, 54 justice and, 375 liberty and, 416, 417–18, 420 obligation and, 112–15 deficiencies, 118–21 historical development, 115–18 origins, 19, 21, 60, 77, 105 politics and law, 281 positivism and, 82, 85–86, 105–06, 315, 366–67 primacy of law, 281 public and private law and, 82 rational deduction and, 78, 110–11 sanction and, 79 will and reason, 430, 435, 437–38, 439, 441 Natural Law School, 5–6, 108, 205 positivism and, 82 necessity: absolute necessity, 52 contingency compared, 53 necessity to some, 52–53 relative necessity, 52 obligation, 103, 121–23 natural law doctrines, 112–15 deficiencies, 118–21 historical development, 115–18 positivism and, 103–05 legal positivism, 105–08 strengths, 108–09 sociological doctrines: foundation of law, 111–12 objective theories, 110 strengths, 112 subjective theories, 110 opinio juris, 10–13, 22, 28, 37, 65, 97, 128, 233, 252 customary law and, 330 Index pacta sunt servanda, 20, 34, 38, 77–78, 116, 124, 128, 135–37, 148–49, 210, 287, 327–28, 394, 442 good faith and, 199, 400, 422 positivism and, politics and power, 7–8 ‘power’, 279 ‘politics’, 279–80 power and law, 280–81 law and politics, 281 differences, 281–82 see also power in international law Polynesian Islands, 27–28 positivism, 82–84 anti-positivist reaction, 84–86 consequences, 86–89 constitutionalisation of international society: anti-positivist reaction, 84–89 positivism, 82–84 justice: positivistic conceptions, 375 natural law and, 82, 85–86, 105–06, 315, 366–67 obligation and, 103–05 legal positivism, 105–08 strengths, 108–09 power in international law, 282–84, 291 absence of policy, 284–85 international relations under the exclusive influence of force, 285–88 law of power and law of coordination, 288–89 New Haven’s policy-orientated approaches, 289 certainty, 291 characteristics, 290–91 foreseeability, 291 normativity, 291 political tensions, 291–92, 295 general international tensions, 292–93 tension and détente, 293 tensions despite general solidarities, 294–95 tensions surround specific subject matter, 295 tensions within hegemonic situations, 293–94 theory of social authority, 289 pre-Columbian America, 23–27 primitive societies, 5, 7, 112, 119, 126, 166 international community, 262 reciprocity, 401 sanctions, 445 treaties, 47 private law, 5–6, 59, 91–92, 96, 127, 178, 207, 220 development, 6–7 justice and, 378, 382 legal certainty, 397 natural law and, 82 predominance, 158–59, 168–69, 194 Index public law distinguished, 63, 64 reciprocity, 402 structure of international law and, 61 subject matter, 43 will and reason and, 435–36, 439 proportionality, see reciprocity and proportionality public international law, 9–12 branches no longer part of international law: dynastic succession, 55–56 sacral causes of war, 53–55 self-preservation of nations, 56–57 development: classical international law, 71–73 modern international law, 73–74 ‘community orientation’, 89–98 constitutionalisation of international society, 82–89 juridisation of international society, 74–82 jus inter potestates, 9, 22–41 public law of Europe, 8–9 external influences, 12–22 substantive subject matter, 43–44 contingent and necessary subject matters, 45–53 degrees of necessity, 52–53 difficulties defining international law, 44–55 international and municipal law, 49–50 international responsibility, 51–52 law of common spaces, 50 settlement of international disputes, 51–52 war, 48–49 public law of Europe, 8–9 external influences, 12 Ancient Greece, 13–14 English dominance, 20–22 evolution of international law, 20–22 French predominance, 19 Greco-Roman Times, 14–15 Middle Ages, 15–17 Near East, 12–13 Spanish dominance, 17–19 transition to Middle Ages, 15 jus inter potestates and, 41–42 Pufendorf, 79, 80–81, 221–22, 416, 441, 444, 447, 450 public perception of international law, 256–58, 455–56 impact of the press, 254–56 inter-war years, 253 League of Nations, 253–54 multilateralism and, 254–55 Quadri: legal personality, 185–86 social authority, 289 473 reciprocity and proportionality, 401–02 correlative reciprocity, 403, 407 effectiveness of international law: incentives for State compliance, 242 equilibrium reciprocity, 404–05, 408–12 international law and, 406 correlative reciprocity, 407 equilibrium reciprocity, 408–10 adequacy, 410 necessity, 410–11 proportionality in the strict sense, 411–12 limits to, 412 moral reciprocity, 412 relation reciprocity, 407 moral reciprocity, 405–06, 412 relation reciprocity, 402–03, 407 renvois: municipal law and, 180–81 residual state freedom, 217–21 see also Lotus Rule on residual state freedom right to use force, see jus ad bellum rights and duties: legal personality, 184–85 State, of the, 34 Roman law, 5–6, 7, 22, 123, 403 formation of international law and, 430, 435 jus gentium, 440 residual rule and, 221 sanctions, 446 Rousseau, 85, 370, 447 democracy, 116 liberty, 416–17 rule of law, 437 rule of law, 6, 107–09, 122, 129, 172, 314, 323, 452 dispute settlement, 195, 347 effectiveness of international law, 238, 249–50, 304 international relations, 161 justice and, 379, 385 law and politics and, 281, 292, 355–56 legal certainty and, 400 liberty and, 417 residual rule and, 221–22 will and reason and, 437, 439 sacral causes of war, 53–55 sanctions, 444–48 effectiveness of international law, 238 international law, 451–54 weakness of sanction, 449–50 evolutionary arguments, 451 existential arguments, 450 structural arguments, 451 legal and social fact, as, 448–49 norm or fact, as, 448 single norm, as, 449 474 Index self-preservation of nations, 56–57 settlement of international disputes, 51–52, 136 social ideologies, 11–12 ‘society’ and ‘community’, see ‘community’ and ‘society’ sociological doctrines: obligation and: foundation of law, 111–12 objective theories, 110 strengths, 112 subjective theories, 110 soft law: definition, 152 development, 153–54 advantages, 154 drawbacks, 154–55 expanding reach, 152–53 role, 152 sources of international law, 123–24 creation of law, 100–01 spontaneous creation of legal rules, 100 voluntary creation of law, 100 customary law, 125–26, 127–28, compulsion and duress, 131–32 delimitation of continental shelves, 131 difficulties, 130–34 failure to act, 132–33 formalisation, 129–30 forms of, 128–29 functions, 134 treaties and, 126–27 features of international law and, 155–56 foundation of international law and, 99–101 legal doctrine, 102–03 general principles, 134–35 adapting function, 141–44 axiological function, 136–37 correcting function, 140–41 logical function, 136 normative function, 137–39 unifying function, 139–40 relativity of constitutive notions, 133–34 treaties and, 126–27 soft law, 152–55 treaties, 124–25, 145–51 customary law and, 126–27 sovereignty, 6, 81, 88, 173, 196–99, 280, 285, 296–301, 455 development, 15–16, 18–19, 26 fundamental values and, 97–98 international disputes and, 52 law of common spaces, 50 law of coordination, 63–65, 67, 157–58 residual freedom and, 219, 229–30, 233 rights and duties of the State, 34 treaties, 124 State-orientated international relations: effectiveness, 304–06 absolute prescription, 309–10 acquisitive prescription, 307–08 colonial effectivités, 308–09 effective occupation of territory, 306–07 ‘high politics’, 317 legal and political disputes, 318–23 vital interests, 323–24 fundamental rights, 324–25 nationalism, 301–04 practice in international law, 311–13 influence on the law: constitutive function, 313–14 derogative function, 314–17 sovereignty, 296–301 Sub-Saharan Africa, 28–32 subjects of international law, 186–87 capacity and personality distinguished, 190–91 expert committees, 187–88 functions, 189 growth, 187–89 hybrid entities, 188 international courts and tribunals, 188 non-governmental organisations, 188–89 transnational corporations, 189 subordination, law of, 62–63 substantive subject matter, 43–44 branches no longer part of international law: dynastic succession, 55–56 sacral causes of war, 53–55 self-preservation, 56–57 defining international law through, 44–45 necessary and contingent subject matters distinguished, 45–48 degree of necessity, 52–53 international disputes and responsibility, 51–52 law of common spaces, 50 relationship between international and municipal law, 49–50 war, 48–49 supranationalism, 57, 58–59 State compliance: incentives for, 244 bearers of interest, 241 law created voluntarily, 243 moral repercussions, 242 number of applicable norms, 241–42 quest for stability by powerful, 242 rationality of States, 243 reciprocity, 242 role of municipal law, 243 structural principles of international law: coexistence and cooperation, 177 coexistence, 177–78 cooperation, 178–79 dependency on municipal law, 180–81 empirical nature, 170–72 Index fragmentary nature, 170–72 consequences, 173–74 horizontal coordinative law, 157–58 absence of centralised organs, 159–60 dispute settlement, 161 features, 158–59 good faith, 159, 161–62 precision and consistence of jurisprudence, 160–61 ‘individualised’ law, 168–69 consequences, 169–70 non-formalistic nature, 175–77 non-self-sufficient nature, 179–81 normative development, 172–73 permeable nature, 174 ethics and, 175 policy and, 174–75 ‘primitive’ law, 166–68 affirmers of primitiveness, 163–64 deniers of primitiveness, 165–66 international law as, 162–63 ‘primitive’ defined, 162 territorial waters, 20, 144, 283, 333 transnational law, 69–70 treaties, 20, 21, 34, 145–46 ancient Greece, 13 application of treaties, 146–48 customary law and, 126–27 French predominance, 19 human rights treaties, 148 lex posterior rule, 149 modification of treaties, 148–49 sources of international law, 124–27, 145–51 sovereignty, 124 types of treaty, 146 uncertainties, 149–51 types of international law: inter-State law and transnational law, 68, 70–71 inter-State law, 68–69 transnational law, 69–70 475 internationalism, 57, 59–60 subordination and coordination, 62, 67 law of coordination, 63–67 law of subordination, 62–63 supranationalism, 57, 58–59 unity, duality and plurality, 60 univeralism, supranationalism and internationalism compared, 61 universalism, 57–58 universalism, 57–58 utilitas publica and, 91–92, 93–94 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 124, 146–51, 213, 259–60, 295, 327, 407 warfare law, 20, 48–49 ancient Greece, 13–14 Greco-Roman times, 14 just war doctrine, 14, 18 maritime warfare, 17, 18–19 Middle Ages, 15–17 Spanish dominance, 18 see also jus in bello will and reason, 434–35 antiquity, 435–36 Buddhism, 438 Christianity, 436–37 Enlightenment, 437 Far East, 438 international law and, 440 Grotian system, 441 jus gentium, 440 modern international law, 443 good faith, 443 international law of cooperation and, 443 jus cogens and, 443 positivism, 441–43 Islam, 438 law, relationship with, 439 modern times, 438 476 ... Recueil officiel AVR Archiv des Völkerrechts BYIL British Yearbook of International Law CYIL Canadian Yearbook of International Law EJIL European Journal of International Law EPIL Encyclopedia of International. .. International Law GYIL German Yearbook of International Law ICJ International Court of Justice ICLQ International and Comparative Law Quarterly IDI Institut de droit international ILC International Law. .. Principles of International Law ��157 A International Law as Horizontal ‘Coordinative Law ��157 B International Law as ‘Primitive’ Law? ��162