EDITED BY PAYAL KUMAR INDIAN WOMEN AS ENTREPRENEURS An Exploration of Self-Identity www.allitebooks.com Indian Women as Entrepreneurs www.allitebooks.com www.allitebooks.com Payal Kumar Editor Indian Women as Entrepreneurs An Exploration of Self Identity www.allitebooks.com Editor Payal Kumar New Delhi, India ISBN 978-1-137-60258-9 ISBN 978-1-137-60259-6 DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60259-6 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016940922 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd London www.allitebooks.com I dedicate this book to one of the contributors, my dear friend Prathibha Sastry, And to other women like her, Who have the courage and indomitable spirit To transform adversity into opportunity Again and again, and yet again Foreword Entrepreneurship is a gender issue Risk-taking, the essence of entrepreneurship, is commonly understood to be a male characteristic, the type of behaviour that leads men to leave home and family and strike out to succeed in an often-hostile world Women, conversely, are by definition those who are rooted in that left-behind home and family and responsible for making the best of a weak position But as the contributors to this volume demonstrate, that common trope is at best a misunderstanding and at worst an unconscious and yet pervasive attempt to misrepresent women’s reality and restrict their potential That even in the highly gender-differentiated economic environment of India, women’s regular success as entrepreneurs requires a careful re-examination of the nature of entrepreneurship, the conventions of gender that lie behind it, and the outcomes that emerge from it The entrepreneur is one who applies a range of resources in an uncertain situation in the belief a better outcome will take place in this manner, rather than if one is simply consuming those resources Thus the traditional farmer seeds the ground in the hope of a bounteous crop in the future and many descendants yet to come, despite the vagaries of nature and tribal and regional politics In a similar vein, the businessman invests his capital in the hope of a return in the future, and yet greater returns to come, despite the vagaries of nature and the powers of civilization vii viii Foreword In the traditional rural world, women and children appear to stand on the consumptive side, with women especially seen as metaphoric or actual passive recipients of what chance and the power of their men hand out This same “passivity” seemingly makes women inadequate for the role of entrepreneur in complex contemporary economies, especially when capital (or land) is the core resource, and women fail to have full traditional access to the same This simple dichotomy, of men as traditional and contemporary risktakers, and women as passive consumers and caretakers of family, misreads traditional life and sets barriers on real opportunities for women in contemporary industrial society It also radically restricts the abilities of cultures with this mindset to compete globally Risk-taking turns out, upon careful observation, to be an activity with which women, no less than men, are familiar and for which women, no less than men, are well suited It is also the core skill by which any culture adapts to change and creates the possibility for success Valuing women as entrepreneurs changes the world for the better Valuing women as entrepreneurs begins with understanding their traditional roles with more accuracy In the 1980s, I had the opportunity to work in a rural American community of Amish and Mennonites While the Amish maintained visibly close ties to rural–patriarchal traditions of farm life with their horse-drawn farming, the Mennonites, despite satellite dishes and four-wheel drive tractors, also remained closely tied to rural–patriarchal traditions If anything, the Mennonite men I encountered were hyper-patriarchal, clearly intent on competitive mastery of their families, land, and economic conditions Despite legal equality and educational opportunity, there were no women in prominent public roles in that community, whether those roles were economic, religious, or political The men were front and centre with traditional and contemporary resource control and risk-taking Yet, it turned out upon closer analysis that the women of the community, far from being passive consumers and protectors of the home, were active participants in this risk-taking world When commercial decisions in the community were examined it turned out that active webs of women were central to all the decisions such as who received bank loans, what developments were supported, even what crops were grown As the women talked among themselves, key community decisions were Foreword ix made and the men responded by writing and signing the contracts the women recommended Strong men turned out to often be backed by even stronger wives, women of stature in the community, with wisdom regarding how resources should be best allocated for maximum return While no man would ever openly acknowledge the impact of the women, tracking the actual flow of ideas demonstrated that in many respects, the community was run from the homes of the women and that its prosperity was backed by their risk-taking insights rather than those of the men What I experienced in rural Indiana turns out to be a global commonplace In many rural communities, women are the driving force behind prosperity through their webs of communication and analysis, providing key insights into where the family, village, or tribe should be investing its limited resources Women are often the entrepreneurs of traditional life Men may front the decisions with their legal titles and formal access to land and capital, but often the men are proxies for competent and entrepreneurial women who act through them to create the conditions in which they and their families can thrive So while a simplistic analysis of the traditions supports a narrative of male risk-taking in the context of consumptive women, the truth is more complex Women are often the key entrepreneurial brains even of the traditional world This brings to light a new aspect of entrepreneurship, one often missed in economic and social analyses: the role of the personal At the heart of every entrepreneur is a simple wager: if I, with my intelligence and hard work take risks with my resources, I believe I can return even more resources to myself Entrepreneurs are always at heart individuals with a risk-taking mindset, a desire for personal engagement and success, of ingenuity and deep emotional commitment, who apply themselves to economic opportunities Entrepreneurship is at heart an intellectual and emotional exercise Risk-taking is about the analysis of conditions, assessment of resources, and sensitivity to needs and opportunities in the surrounding environment It is about intelligence, training, wisdom, and intuition Also it is about the emotional drive to apply those resources to perceived opportunities The true entrepreneur is excited by the risk, perhaps careful to minimize how much risk, but always energized by the potential for gain and loss This has always been true, and never more so than in the emerging global service economy where large pools of capital or land are not 11 Case Study 3: Personal Evolution and Assertion of Identity 191 all the decisions, and if the enterprise does well, she is seen as a success story People around her treat her with respect Her peers treat her as an equal Within the family too, a woman entrepreneur is seen as a person to be respected A woman working outside the home is treated differently from a homemaker even if they both work the same number of hours An “office” job is treated with deference for whatever reasons, thereby generating more respect for the working woman For me, the transition from homemaker to “working woman” was not an entirely easy one I was fortunate to belong to a family that did not treat women as inferior or unimportant However, having been a homemaker for 15 years, it required adjustment from all quarters There were several things that were taken for granted; numerous things that “got done” without anyone realizing how they happened I was fortunate that the initial resistance was superficial; it was more a resistance to the reshuffling of patterns than to the idea of my working The move I had made also came with my own psychological adjustment Despite the fact that the necessity of my constant presence in the home had reduced, there were times when there was a feeling of guilt for spending long hours at work Over time, however, I learned to balance things and make the required compromises, without feeling the pangs of guilt I also faced some challenges in starting up my publishing enterprise I had to brush up on my computer skills and take some courses in publishing software technology I spent a substantial amount of time at presses to understand the print process I had to knock on the door of almost every book distributor and almost every time in the initial stages, be turned down for not having a “substantial list” of books The other issue was that of finance I borrowed start-up capital from my family and tried to roll it over so I did not need to borrow more This strategy was difficult to implement considering the long credit period to be given to distributors “In the initial business stages, most women are forced to rely on personal funding, including for meeting working capital requirements” (Times of India, 2015) These are some of the common issues faced by women who start their own ventures For first-time entrepreneurs, the lack of experience is also a stumbling block “The experience of women entrepreneurs of first generation has indicated high degree of mortality due to inadequate inputs in technical, managerial and financial areas” 192 S Desai (Vinze, 1987, p. 68) I was unsure of myself, in a profession about which I knew little Stepping out of the home to work after so many years was psychologically difficult too Once I had set up the publishing house I began to see changes around me One of the obvious changes was the transformation of several relationships I found that family, friends, and acquaintances began to react differently to me Within the family, after the initial aversion to change, things settled into a new pattern fairly quickly It was understood that I was no longer available all the time In fact, I was able to assert myself more Maybe this stemmed partly from the fact that running an enterprise transformed me too I gained a level of confidence that I had not possessed earlier I had more conviction in my judgement and no longer hesitated to voice my opinion Although I had always kept up with current affairs, I felt that I was now more conversant with what was going on in the world of business It was like coming out of a shell into a world of opportunity My relationship with friends and acquaintances, too, became tinged with a little incredulity, with almost all being positive and wishing they could make a similar change I realized that a working woman has the power to speak her mind and be heard within her circle of family and friends Her opinion is taken seriously and, in fact, often sought “An employed woman has greater freedom in family decisionmaking … and more equal opportunity in inter-personal relationship within the family” (Singhal, 2003, p. 102) I firmly believe that running my own business also gave me a new platform to share with my spouse As I began to gain a better understanding of the business world and business-related issues, the sense of bonding and companionship increased Having common areas of interest and being able to help each other with advice or support definitely makes a relationship stronger In my case, I found that the strengthening of my marriage was an added dimension to building up my business Contribution to Society It is seen that women often set up organizations that are non-commercial in nature Many of the women are also homemakers who want to help out in different social causes Their motivation is a concern for society 11 Case Study 3: Personal Evolution and Assertion of Identity 193 as a whole and for the betterment of some areas of social concern in particular There is a feeling of empathy and a sense of satisfaction in lending a helping hand to improve the lot of other segments of society Participation in such an activity is very often on a voluntary basis and with flexible working hours which allow her to primarily take care of home and family Women who set up commercial ventures are motivated by several different factors Economic independence is certainly one of the motivations but does not necessarily have to be the only one Self-expression, utilization of creative talents, independence, and social networking are some of the other motivators The desire to benefit society too is a very important factor in women’s entrepreneurship An enterprise necessarily creates jobs in the economy, thereby benefitting several individuals and families Moreover, the product or service provided by the enterprise can benefit society as a whole In the larger scheme of things, an enterprise that does not benefit society or the nation would eventually have negative implications An entrepreneur who grows his enterprise will have the power to change society and create conditions that ensure the progress of the country Women entrepreneurs often have a psychological need to succeed Living in a male-dominated society, there is a sense of tremendous accomplishment in succeeding to grow an enterprise The venture may not always yield very high monetary dividends but the other rewards of running it make it worthwhile “Employment provides women great psychological relief from the monotony of home and routine work” (Kulkarni, 2011, p. 182) I started a book publishing venture for several reasons It was an area of interest and I felt a need to something and use my intellectual potential I was aware that monetary returns in the book business, especially a new, small, independent one, would be hard to come by However, the work involved in the creation of a book, from conception to delivery, was exciting It gave me an avenue to be creative I was able to meet new, interesting people and broaden my intellectual horizons It gave me the opportunity to constantly learn something new And as I did not have a publishing background, I had to keep raising the bar as I went along, learning on the job 194 S Desai Every venture needs monetary returns to survive and grow Mine was no different The challenge of surviving, even if the profits were not very large, was in itself a motivating factor It made me keep trying different ways of doing things; it made me work harder, with greater persistence The fact that my effort was not taken seriously by many people in the book trade and was, in fact, derided, did not deter me It is worth mentioning here in the context of how women entrepreneurs are looked at that there were men in the trade whom I had to deal with who felt that since my husband was doing well in his profession, I was probably just working “for fun” and did not need my invoices to be paid! Comments from “educated” men in twenty-first century India! As more and more women take to entrepreneurship, it is important that the men in our society change their attitudes According to the 2015 Female Entrepreneurship Index, India ranks a lowly 70 out of 77 countries in the ranking for the potential for women entrepreneurs to succeed (Times of India, 2015) While it was true that I was not the bread-winner who had to support the family, like any working woman my employment supported me economically, psychologically, and emotionally I came from a family that set high store by education The idea of working with “knowledge” was therefore very appealing to me It gave me intellectual satisfaction One of the factors that encouraged me to continue with the business even when the monetary gains were yet to materialize was the level of fulfilment gained from contributing something to society The books I published were related to spirituality, history, and Indian culture I felt I was tapping into and adding something constructive to a valuable knowledge bank An entrepreneur is a participant in the process of economic change that benefits the individual, the family, the community, and the nation as a whole The feeling of doing something positive, along with financial earnings gave me a sense of accomplishment, leading to a much more fulfilling life Empowerment and Self-Identity Although the phenomenon of Indian women taking up employment is well accepted, enterprises started and managed by women are a more recent trend Today, with the backing of educational qualifications and 11 Case Study 3: Personal Evolution and Assertion of Identity 195 a changing social order, more women are taking to entrepreneurship As women become educated in diverse areas, they take up intellectual challenges Their ability to start new ventures increases They enter precincts previously dominated by men Setting up a self-owned enterprise is very empowering and starting one in uncharted waters gives a woman an even stronger sense of accomplishment Self-esteem is confidence in one’s own worth A woman who is marginalized often does not value herself and has a low level of confidence Her self-worth is minimal and she identifies herself in the context of her father or husband A woman who breaks out of this structure begins to understand her own potential and value Given the opportunity for education, she has the capacity to be financially independent She becomes the mistress of her own life There is a direct correlation between economic independence and empowerment An empowered woman has high self-esteem She develops her own personality She has an identity apart from the male members of her family Running my publishing house was empowering It added several new dimensions to my life I was interacting with interesting, creative people As the enterprise grew, I began to lead a team of people in an activity that was eminently satisfying I had given birth to an enterprise that had every prospect of growing into a reputed publishing house I was constantly learning new things I had started earning income There were targets to be set, goals to be achieved, and challenges to be encountered There were ups and downs, but every up was a victory to be savoured and every down had a lesson to teach There was intellectual stimulation and the satisfaction of a worthwhile contribution to society at large I was able to satisfy my need to prove myself—not just to people around me but also to myself It gave me a sense of selfworth, and personal value It earned me the respect of people around me All this happened because I had stepped out of the four walls of my house and followed a dream I had carved out an independent identity for myself through my publishing house It was something I was not ready to give up even when I had lucrative offers from larger publishing houses to merge I identified with what I had begun and was identified with it by others too My entrepreneurial venture had transformed my personality by giving me a higher level of confidence and a wider perspective on life I had found my independent identity through the 196 S Desai enterprise that I had built and nurtured, which gave me a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment Conclusion In conclusion, through my personal experience, I believe that entrepreneurship results in a modern, empowered, confident woman It gives her the ability to express her creativity and realize her inherent potential by stepping outside her traditional role An entrepreneur has the power to create change A woman entrepreneur has the power to change patriarchal mind-sets By becoming a leader in her own sphere, a woman entrepreneur develops a strong self-identity and self-worth She leads a life of respect and dignity She works towards a life which is not only personally fulfilling but also translates into larger good through contribution to nation-building and overall progress of the society that she lives in References Books Das, G (2009) The difficulty of being good Delhi, India: Allen Lane Kapoor, S (Ed.) (2002) Encyclopaedia of vedanta philosophy Delhi, India: Cosmo Publications Kulkarni, S. K (2011) Women in hindu society Mumbai: Indus Source Books Singhal, T (2003) Working women and family Jaipur: RBSA Publishers Thapar, R (2002) Early India India: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press Vinze, M. D (1987) Women entrepreneurs in India Delhi: Mittal Publications Newspapers Harijan (18 February 1939) Times of India (20 June 2015) Women entrepreneurs get a raw deal in India Index A Abe, Shinzo, 111 Academy of Women Entrepreneurs, 157 “Ajeevika” programme, 86n1, 90, 93 apartheid system, 146 Arthashastra, 182 B barriers faced by women entrepreneurs access to education, 139–40 commitments towards their families, 141 financial assistance, lack of, 138–9 gender stereotypes of women, 140–1 information and access to networks, 139 patriarchal issues, 137–8, 150 Bem, Sandra Lipsitz, 76 Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), 76 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 110 Biocon, 102 biotechnology, business in, 102 Brahamanical Hindu (Vaishnavite) society, Branson, Richard, 102 Brazilian women entrepreneurs, 68–9 British Council, 159 business associations, 139 business ownership, 44, 59, 66, 143 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 P Kumar (ed.), Indian Women as Entrepreneurs, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60259-6 197 198 Index C call centre industry, in India, 103–4, 106–7 contribution to gender equality, 104 employment of women in, 103 empowerment of women through, 104–5 outsourcing services, 103 salary, 104 Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), 104 cattle rearing, 86 Cherie Blair Foundation for Women, 161 child marriage, 83 “Chipko” movement, 86 civil disobedience, non-violent, 86 Clinton Foundation, 110 Clinton, Hillary, 110 commercial ventures, 193 competencies, self-evaluation of, 48 context-driven knowledge, development of, 43, 45 cottage industry, cultural heritage, 117, 126 D dairy farming, 91 decision-making activities, 66 on matters involving sale and investment in property, 86 religion and the caste system, impact of, 37–8 rural women entrepreneurs, 82, 90, 93 women entrepreneurs, 33 deprecation, Devi, Pramodini, 11, 13 diaspora, Indian female entrepreneurs of Indian origin, 119 identities, 121 information technology, 119 population of, 118 in USA, 119 #DigitalDesh, 160 digital knowledge, 160 dignity, 5, 18, 188, 196 division of labour, gendered, 31 domestic violence, 83, 94, 158 dowry, 83 E Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 45–6 economic empowerment, 92, 104–5, 110 economic independence, 87, 89, 104, 183–5, 187–90 and empowerment, 195 motivation for, 193 self-expression and, 187–90 education as a tool, 183, 185–7 employment, 9, 52, 59, 66, 68, 70, 84–5, 87, 117–18, 122–3, 125, 183, 193–4 Employment Equity Act (1998), South Africa, 147 employment generation schemes, 85 empowerment of women, 48, 87, 194–6 components of, 89 definition of, 90 Index rural women, 95 through call centres, 104 enterprise(s), 167 benefits for society, 193 benefits for women, 183 definition of, 163–4 entrepreneurial identity (See entrepreneurial identities) pathways, 24, 102, 117–18, 122–4 entrepreneurial autonomy, 16 institutional conditions for, 17 maintenance of, 8, 17 of women entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial behaviour, factors influencing, 10 entrepreneurial identities, 25–6, 36, 38, 44, 58, 136, 141–3, 142–5, 150 acquiring an, 58–9 factors promoting and constraining, 36 formation and development of, 26 entrepreneurial skills, 24 entrepreneurs, 129, 163, 193 aspiring, 102 female (See women entrepreneurs) first-time, 191 participant in economic change process, 194 Schumpeterian concept of, 119 in USA, 102 entrepreneurs as men, stereotype of, 32–3 entrepreneurship, in developing countries, 45 entrepreneurship, notion of, 111, 120 among highly skilled migrant women, 118 199 as consequence of self-initiated expatriation, 122 definition of, 142 expression of each individual, 125–6 in India, 102, 107 motivation for, 120 women participation and, 104 equality, idea of, 88, 183, 186, 190–2 F family and social networks, 69 family income, 52, 59, 124, 134 family-owned business, 28, 30, 33, 37 family planning, 92–3 Female Entrepreneurship Index, 46, 194 female Indian-ness of entrepreneurial activity, 125–9 financial capital, 68 flexible organizational lifestyle, 64 Flexible Working Hours, 64, 77, 193 forest production, 86 freelance model challenges for, 167–70 See also Serendipity Authors and Editors (SAE) freelance services, 163, 178 disadvantages of, 170 G Gandhi, Kasturba, 182 Gandhi, Mahatma, 110, 182, 184, 186 Gates, Bill, 102 200 Index Gehrel, Sjoerd, 68 gender discrimination, 66 gender disparity, in access to education, 83 gender equality, 103–11 Gender–GEDI Female Entrepreneurship Index, 46 gender identity, 78, 125, 149 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), 24, 103 globalization, 107 GLOBE study, 107–9 Goldman Sachs, 110–11 Global Market Institute for Women, 111 The Grace Hopper, 161 H handicraft production, 91 health care, maternal and child, 93 Healthy Pregnancy Program, 64 Her Entrepreneurial Network (HEN), 161 Himalayan Action Research Centre (HARC), 90 Hofstede’s Cultural Orientation Framework (COF), 120–1 home-based enterprise, home-maker to entrepreneur, transition from because of disinclination for organizational employment, 52 context-driven knowledge, 45 due to desire to augment income, 52 family background, 50–1 findings from the study on, 50–5 in India, 45–6 microbusiness context of, 46–7 narrative accounts, 49–50 opportunity recognition and, 46 in order to turn their passion into a profession, 54–5 reasons for, 47, 52–5 as a result of gaining flexibility, 53 rewards of, 44, 47–8, 55–9 theoretical background of, 47–8 for use of free time, 53–4 women-owned businesses and, 44 work–life balance and, 47 human capital, 68 I Ima Keithel (Khwairamband Bazaar), 6–8, 13, 15 income generating programmes (IGPs), 86, 90–1 women’s role in, 94 individualism (IND), 120 informal learning, 139 interconnected teams, 171–2 International Finance Corporation (IFC), World Bank, 110 Internet, 164–5 Islamic work-related ethical values, 67 J Jobs, Steve, 102 K Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy, 74, 77 Keithel, 7–8 Keithel bandhs, Index 201 Keithel Lukmaiphambi Marup See Rotating and Savings Credit Associations (ROSCAs) Keithel Nupi (Woman of the Market), 12 Khap panchayats, 83 Krostoff, Nicholas, 111 Microsoft Ventures, 157, 160 Middle Eastern women entrepreneurs, 66 motivation, for entrepreneurship, 4, 50, 124 “push” and “pull” factors, 4, 16, 52, 65–7 L labor market, 134 labour force, 24 labour practices, discriminatory, 77 leadership, 171–2 styles, dimensions of, 107–8 liberalization, issue of, 107 livestock management, 91 loan management, 91 love and friendship, relationship of, 14 low masculinity (MAS), 120–1 N National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD), 87 National Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED), 67 National Rural Livelihood Mission See “Ajeevika” programme necessity entrepreneurship, 4, 103 non government organizations (NGOs), 88, 90 Nooyi, Indra K., 64, 75 M Mahabharata, 182 Malaysia, 68, 108 male entrepreneurial identity, 142 marginalization dynamics, 4–5, 18 maternal and child health care, 93 Mazumdar-Shaw, Kiran, 102–3 Mema Devi, Laishram, 12–14 microbusinesses, 43, 46, 49, 59 stay-at-home women, 47 women owner-managers of, 47 microcredits, 87, 90–1, 95 microfirms in India, 46–7 micro-industries, growth of, 90 micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs), 46 O opportunity entrepreneurship, 103 organizational employment, disinclination for, 52, 59 owner-managers, 23, 26–8, 35, 36, 44, 46 entrepreneurial ability of, 36 identity formation, 37 of microbusinesseses, 47 P personality predictors, 68 Pluggd.in India, 157 poverty, 11, 83, 87, 110 programme for alleviation of, 88 202 Index power distance index (PDI), 120 privatization, 107 product-based businesses, 71 publishing industry, 163, 164, 178 push–pull framework, for motivation, 4, 16, 52, 65–7, 124, 130 Q quiet revolution, 118 R Ramayana, 182 recognitional autonomy, theory of, 5–6, 16 Reserve Bank of India, 87 resource acquisition, respect, of women entrepreneurs See self-respect, maintenance of rewards, of entrepreneurship, 44, 47–8, 55–9 acknowledgment from others, 57–8 acquiring an entrepreneurial identity, 58–9 in becoming confident, worthy, and satisfied, 55–7 risk-taking abilities, women entrepreneurs, 33 Rotating and Savings Credit Associations (ROSCAs), 14 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 75 rural entrepreneurs, 91, 94–6 rural–urban divide, 94 rural women in India cognitive barriers for, 84–5 competence of, 84 cultural contexts of, 92 decision-making activities, 82, 90, 93 economic empowerment of, 92 empowerment of, 95 as home-maker, 83 leadership abilities, 84 literacy rates, 83 membership in SHGs, 92 outcomes of entrepreneurship for, 92 participation in decision-making, 83 ramifications of entrepreneurship, 92–5 reasons constraining foray into entrepreneurship, 84–5 role in income-generating activities, 94 rural employment guarantee scheme, 84 self-help groups (SHGs), 82, 87–8 social empowerment of, 88–91 social identity, 87 social participation and meetings, 92 in Uttarakhand, 85–6 value of education, 93 willingness and freedom to travel, 97 S Sandberg, Sheryl, 75 Scheduled Castes and Tribes, 83 self-efficacy, perception of, 23, 37, 68, 104–6, 144, 150 Index Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), India, 7, 104, 140 aim of, 144 business skills-training for members, 140 foundation of, 109 self-employment, 4, 49–51, 53, 59, 63, 66–7, 70, 86n1 entrepreneurial spouse and parents, 51 stay-at-home women, 47 woman pursuing, self-esteem, notion of, 43, 48, 55–6, 59, 92, 176, 184, 195 self-expression, 123, 181–3, 185, 193 and economic independence, 187–90 self-help groups (SHGs), 82, 87–8 aim of, 89 “Ajeevika” initiative, 93 association with financial institutions, 88 educating women on personal and legal rights, 94 future challenges, 95–7 income generating programmes, 90 membership in, 92 misappropriation of funds, 96 principles governing the existence of, 88 social capital generated by, 93 training activities, 90–1 self-identity, 25, 44, 181, 184 empowerment and, 194–6 self-initiated migration opportunity, 123 self-motivation, 183 203 self-respect, maintenance of, 5, 9, 13, 17, 24, 77, 121, 127–8, 148, 176, 183–4, 190–2, 195–6 self-value, perception of, self-worth, perception of, 3, 5, 17, 45, 55, 82, 89, 195–6 Serendipity Authors and Editors (SAE), 166–70 ethics at workplace, 172–3 impact on women, 175–8 leadership and interconnected teams, 171–2 problem-solving ability, 173–4 women as multi-taskers, 174–5 service-based businesses, 71 sex-based stereotypes, 140 Sheroes, 161 shopping malls, 18 Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad, Silicon Valley, 102 skilled migrant woman, 118 small, and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), 46, 110 small-scale start-ups, 164 social acceptance, of women as entrepreneurs, 24 social capital, 5, 139 generated by SHG activity, 93 social cooperation, social enterprise, 125 social equality, 104 social identities, 23, 25–6, 37 socially gendered roles in India, 129 social networks, 5, 69, 193 social security, for women, 13 204 Index society, women in Indian contribution to, 192–4 empowerment and self-identity, 194–6 equality and respect, 190–2 patriarchal, 181 role in family, 181–2 traditional roles, 182 South Asian women entrepreneurs, 138, 140–1 South Movie Scenes film magazine, 159 supply chain of products, T Taiwan, women entrepreneurship in, 68 tech entrepreneurs, 102 TiE Stree Shakti (TSS) movement, 161 training, for entrepreneurs, 24, 88, 90–1, 94, 104–6, 109–10, 119, 140–1, 189 transnational identities, 121 Twain, Mark, 110 U uncertainty avoidance (UAI), 107–8, 120–1 unemployment, 23, 65, 134 United Nations, 89–90 Fourth World Conference on women in Beijing (1995), 110 Population Fund’s State of World Population (2009), 105–6 Uttarakhand Gramya Vikas Samiti, 90 W wages, gender-based differentials in, 84 Whatsapp, 161 women entrepreneurs, 119–20, 164–5, 170–1, 190 barriers experienced by, 137–41 building of business, 124–5 business opportunities, 104 as business owners, 105 call centres outsourcing, impact of, 103–4 challenges faced by, 105 collective impact as global phenomenon, 110 decision to start non-profit entrepreneurial activities, 120 dominance in trading activities, 108 economic empowerment, 105 estimation of, 134 female Indian-ness of entrepreneurial activities, 125–9 GLOBE study, 107–8 identities of, 150 male-dominated environments, 135–6 opportunities for, 109 orientation towards family and relationship, 105 personal networks, use of, 105 reasons to become, 135 rural India, empowerment of, 106 SEWA impact on, 109 slow progress, reasons for, 106 small and medium-sized businesses, 106 Index women entrepreneurship, 142–5 in Brazil, 68 case study, 145–50 difficulties faced by, 69 gender role identity, impact of, 121 global phenomenon of, 102 in India, 45–6 Jammu and Kashmir, 65 managerial skills, 66 masculine traits, 78 versus men entrepreneurs, 32–3 Middle Eastern, 66–7 psyche of, 69–71 small-to medium scale, 65 in Taiwan, 68 tenets of Islam, 66 of USA, 66 work–life balance of (See work–life balance) women-owned businesses, 44, 111 women owning accounting firms, 22 case studies, 27–8 decision-making activities, 25, 33 entrepreneurial and social identities, 23 entrepreneurial identities, 25–6, 36 entrepreneurial orientation, 23–5 and entrepreneurs as men, 32–3 in family context, 33–6 family-owned, 28 micro-sized, 28 position in the social system, 25 profile details, 27 rigid work practices, 31–2 risk-taking abilities, 33 small-sized, 28 205 women’s professional roles, 23 work–family balance, 31, 38 work practices and lack of role models, 29–31 women’s identities, 70, 77 as entrepreneurs, 27 as homemakers and mothers, 133–4 as supplement family income, 134 Women’s Interest Network, 64 women’s role, in the local economy, Working Groups for Women and New Parents, 64 work–life balance, 31, 38, 47, 64, 70 achievement and risk taking, 75–6 conflict in, 66 data collection technique, 71 dual identity, 69–70, 75, 76 Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) Measure of, 74, 77 literature on, 75 as motivational factor for women, 65 population and sampling design for study of, 71 qualitative findings, 74 quantitative findings, 71–4 religious and cultural factors, role of, 66 studies for research on, 65–9 work-place situation of women, in India, 45–6 World Bank, 110 Z Zuckerberg, Mark, 102 .. .Indian Women as Entrepreneurs www.allitebooks.com www.allitebooks.com Payal Kumar Editor Indian Women as Entrepreneurs An Exploration of Self Identity www.allitebooks.com... constraints of their circumstances as women, their impact on the lives of the women are not Self- esteem and a sense of competence are perhaps as important, or even more important, than the financial... nuanced understanding of the Indian woman entrepreneur In the second section of the book, Neha Chatwani and Nasima Carrim explore in their respective studies the impact of Indian culture upon women s