THE MORAL ECONOMISTS The Moral Economists R H TAWNEY, KARL POLANYI, E P THOMPSON, AND THE CRITIQUE OF CAPITALISM TIM ROGAN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS PRINCETON & OXFORD Copyright © 2017 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TR press.princeton.edu Jacket art: Detail from Early Morning, 1954, by L S Lowry © The Estate of L S Lowry All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Rogan, Tim, 1983– author Title: The moral economists : R.H Tawney, Karl Polanyi, E.P Thompson, and the critique of capitalism / Tim Rogan Description: Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2018 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2017009882 | ISBN 9780691173009 (hardcover : alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Capitalism—Moral and ethical aspects | Socialism | Tawney, R H (Richard Henry), 1880–1962 | Polanyi, Karl, 1886–1964 | Thompson, E P (Edward Palmer), 1924–1993 Classification: LCC HB501 R66657 2018 | DDC 174/.4—dc23 LC record available at https://LCCN.loc.gov/2017009882 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available This book has been composed in Classic Arno Printed on acid-free paper ∞ Printed in the United States of America 10 For Susanne CONTENTS Introduction R H Tawney The North 16 18 Idealism 22 Pluralism 25 Guild Socialism 29 Christian Socialism 40 Religion and the Rise of Capitalism 43 The History of the Present 48 Karl Polanyi Hungary 51 57 Red Vienna 61 Fascism 65 “Beyond Jesus” 70 The Great Transformation 78 The History of Political Economy 83 Capitalism in Transition? The Politics of Democratic Socialism 92 98 Welfare Economics 103 The Future of Socialism? 106 Planning for Freedom 112 The Education Act of 1944 117 Definitions of Culture 127 E P Thompson Romantics and Revolutionaries 133 135 Stalinism 138 The Scrutiny Movement 143 Socialist Humanism 147 The Making of the English Working Class 157 New Lefts 167 After Marx 174 Conclusion Small Is Beautiful? 184 187 Individual Values and Social Choice 189 Amartya Sen 194 Histories of the Future 198 Acknowledgments 201 Notes 205 Index 253 THE MORAL ECONOMISTS Introduction What’s wrong with capitalism? In the twenty-first century, the answer seems simple: inequality Material disparities between the rich and the rest are widening.1 Prosperity has become the preserve of too few This emphasis on material inequality seems unremarkable in our own time But in historical perspective it is extraordinary It represents a radical truncation of the parameters of the critique of capitalism An alternative critical tradition focused less on material outcomes than on moral or spiritual consequences has fallen into disuse This book explains how that happened, and why it matters, and what might be done about it The term “capitalism” was coined by social critics in nineteenth-century Germany and Britain apprehensive about the nature and tempo of social change in the era of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution.2 It described the new form of society in which acquisitive instincts long deemed vicious and countermanded by legal and cultural strictures came to be seen as virtuous and beneficent Concerns about inequality have always been part of the argument against capitalism But until very recently they were never the whole or even the major part of that argument For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, poverty mattered less to capitalism’s critics than moral or spiritual desolation In the twenty-first century, economic arguments take precedence Vivid moral argument has given way to calculations of advantage and disadvantage fortified with anger and indignation Considered from some angles, this replacement of moral argumentation with an emphasis on material outcomes is an improvement It enables reasonable, empirical discussion of the problem, which in turn promises to identify rational, practicable reforms: woolly, inscrutable polemic has given way to exacting analysis Written from this perspective, an account of the means by which moral argumentation yielded to a focus on material inequality might play out as an upbeat story, a whig history for technocratic progressives But from another perspective there is a more sobering story to tell here If this predominance of material reckoning over moral argument in the contemporary critique of capitalism represents a triumph for certain forms of rationality, it also bespeaks the decadence of an alternative approach, the demise of another way of engaging with social problems, the failure of an attempt to open up deeper questions of liberty and solidarity—questions which the narrower economism now prevailing systematically excludes The purpose of this book is to reconstruct the development and demise of this alternative moral critique of capitalism in twentieth-century Britain This critique was a success before it was a failure Between the twentieth century’s two great crises of capitalism the ideas recovered here inspired and informed a sustained push for reform No precise quantification of the popular penetration or purchase of this critique is offered in this book: it is not a “reception” history, and readers interested in the diffusion of learned discourse into everyday life during this period should look elsewhere Nor is any causal or correlative relationship between the vitality of this moral critique and the career of social reform and the construction of the welfare state in Britain specified here Party politics is discussed in some passages of the book, but readers will likely be more impressed by the indifference of the major parties to these ideas and their exponents than by the degree of interest they attracted But readers will I hope be content to accept on the basis of the evidence compiled here that the books and ideas upon which I focus had much the same effect on debate about capitalism in their time as Thomas Piketty’s Capital in the Twenty-First Century or Anthony Atkinson’s Inequality are having in our own time.3 My point is not that there were not books like Piketty’s Capital in this earlier moment.4 My suggestion is that in this earlier moment another suite of books developed a different line of argument against capitalism, complementing the work of the critical economists We are the poorer intellectually, culturally, and even politically for the disappearance of that alternative approach That is not to say that inequality is immaterial, or that we should concern ourselves with moral or spiritual questions alone It is only to suggest that a preoccupation with material inequality which leaves no room for the considerations this moral critique brought up for discussion leaves contemporary debate diminished What then are these books and ideas constituent of the moral critique of capitalism, once ascendant and now abandoned in favor of an emphasis on material inequality? The Moral Economists focuses primarily on three books, published at intervals of two decades between the 1920s and the 1960s They are R H Tawney’s Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), Karl Polanyi’s The Great Transformation (1944), and E P Thompson’s The Making of the English Working Class (1963).5 These are landmarks of modern intellectual history and recurrent reference points for writers on the contemporary left Each is complemented now by extensive historiographical commentary But the closeness and intensity of their interaction has not yet been fully appreciated Thompson emerges here as a successful innovator within a critical tradition pioneered by Tawney More surprisingly, Karl Polanyi stands revealed as an intermediary between Tawney and Thompson Some of the synergies between these books will be obvious to readers familiar with their arguments Each attempts to understand the relationship between ethics and economics in the form of society that emerged in Europe at the end of the Middle Ages—a form sometimes called “commercial society,” sometimes “market society,” mainly “capitalism.” Each focuses on a crucial moment in the emergence of that form of society, a moment when tensions between old ethical injunctions and new economic imperatives became acute Each book—taking the form of history—underlines the novelty and dynamism of the new form of society, reminding readers that arrangements some contemporary writers made to seem natural and inevitable were in fact mutable and contingent, making social forms and economic norms malleable, facilitating debate about reform Each—first Tawney, then Polanyi and Thompson after him—approached “capitalism” as a legitimate object of scholarly analysis (Earlier it had been overlooked as a by-product of socialist polemic; lately it has been set aside by many historians as too heavily freighted with polemical significance to function as an instrument of analysis).6 Each book was able—with varying degrees of success—to speak to specialist and popular readerships in tandem Other synergies between these three books are less obvious They all belonged to a tradition of social criticism with roots in Victorian moralism—in the writings of Thomas Carlyle and more particularly John Ruskin and William Morris What lent this older tradition coherence was its antipathy toward utilitarianism—the “pig philosophy” of laissez-faire, in Carlyle’s memorable rebuke—understood as the tendency of Victorian political economy to privilege the pursuit of pecuniary gain over all other human motivations in envisaging social order, reducing society to a 274 Thompson, “Moral Economy Reviewed,” 302 275 Hont and Ignatieff, “Needs and Justice,” 405–406 For Thompson’s own response to this charge, see Thompson, “The Moral Economy Reviewed,” 274–275 Conclusion Hobson, “Economics for a People’s Front.” Tawney, “History of Capitalism,” 316 Ibid On the commitment to “socialising demand” as the center of gravity in debate about “planning” in the 1930s, see Ritschel, Politics of Planning Crosland, “Transition,” 62–63 On sociology’s “moment” in postwar Britain, see Savage, Identities and Social Change For a critical contemporary perspective, see Peter Winch, The Idea of a Social Science and Its Relation to Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1958) This was the moment when the British discourse on “decline” took its familiar shape For bearings in the large literature on this topic, see J Tomlinson, “Inventing ‘Decline’”: The Falling Behind of the British Economy in the Post-war Years,” Economic History Review 49 (1996): 731–757; Ortolano, Two Cultures , ch For an influential critical perspective on “declinism,” see David Edgerton, England and the Aeroplane: Militarism, Modernity and the Machines (London: Penguin Books, 2013); David Edgerton, “The Decline of Declinism,” Business History Review 71 (1997): 201–207 For starting points in the literature on British economic performance during the twentieth century, see C K Harley, “The Legacy of the Early Start,” in Floud, Humphries, and Johnson, eds., Cambridge Economic History, II: 1–25; M J Daunton, Wealth and Welfare: An Economic and Social History of Britain 1851– 1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 11–24 On the salience of heightened expectations, particularly among the generation that came of age in the late 1950s, see Barry Supple, “Fear of Failing: Economic History and the Decline of Britain,” Economic History Review 47 (1994): 441–458; Green, Ideologies of Conservatism, ch An association between modernity and heightened expectations for the future has been drawn by Reinhart Koselleck: Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time , trans Keith Tribe (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), ch The most acute analyst of the significance of these heightened expectations in postwar Britain probably remains Enoch Powell; the best available account of his thought is Camilla Schofield, Enoch Powell and the Making of Postcolonial Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) On the crises of the 1970s, currently subject of an ongoing historiographical revision, see Lawrence Black, Hugh Pemberton, and Pat Thane, eds., Reassessing 1970s Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013); Jackson and Saunders, eds., Making Thatcher’s Britain; Ortolano, Two Cultures Controversy , ch For an earlier account—limited for lack of evidence, but more sensitive to the possible gravity of this crisis because more aware of the fragility and importance of the jeopardized settlement—see Middlemas, Politics in Industrial Society, chs 14 and 15 In addition to the sources cited above, Richard Vinen’s Thatcher’s Britain is illuminating on these dynamics; see in particular Vinen’s distinction between a “postwar consensus” which Thatcher could support and a “progressive consensus” which she abhorred: Richard Vinen, Thatcher’s Britain: The Politics and Social Upheaval of the 1980s (London: Simon & Schuster, 2009), On the salience of “anti-waste” sentiment, see Ross McKibbin, Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 50–59; Maurice Cowling, The Impact of Labour, 1920–1924 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), ch 2; Green, Ideologies of Conservatism, ch 7; Jim Tomlinson, “Thatcherism, Monetarism and the Politics of Inflation,” in Jackson and Saunders, eds., Making Thatcher’s Britain, 62–77 The historiographical literature on Enoch Powell and (more so) Margaret Thatcher was thin until recently but is now maturing fast For provocative entry points on Powell and Thatcher respectively, see Schofield, Enoch Powell; and Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, “Neo-liberalism and Morality in the Making of Thatcherite Social Policy,” Historical Journal (2012):497–520 10 And again attention to this question crossed conventional political lines Consider, for instance, remarks which Keith Joseph made when angling for the leadership of the Conservative party in 1974 to the effect that the “economics first approach” he deemed characteristic of postwar politics had “aggravated unhappiness and social conflict”: quoted in Matthew Grimley, “Thatcherism, Morality and Religion,” in Jackson and Saunders, eds., Making Thatcher’s Britain, 78–94, 82 11 Amartya Sen, “The Possibility of Social Choice,” American Economic Review 89 (1999):349–378, 364 12 E F Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (London: Blond and Briggs, 1973) 13 See Harris, Beveridge, 434 14 Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful, 49 15 Ibid., 8, 201 16 Veldman, Fantasy, 286 17 Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful, 201 18 Ibid., ch 19 Ibid., 73, 86 20 Ibid., 23, ch 16 21 Ibid., 184 22 Ibid., 37, ch 23 Ibid., 86 24 Ibid., 209 25 See, e.g., Abram Bergson, “A Reformulation of Certain Aspects of Welfare Economics,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 52(2) (1938): 310–334; Paul Samuelson, Foundations of Economic Analysis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947) 26 For relevant starting points in the expansive literature on the Cold War human sciences, see Sonja Amadae, Rationalising Capitalist Democracy: The Cold War Origins of Rational Choice Liberalism (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2003); David Ciepley, Liberalism in the Shadow of Totalitarianism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006); Joel Isaac, Working Knowledge: Making the Human Sciences from Parsons to Kuhn (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012) 27 Kenneth Arrow, “A Difficulty in the Concept of Social Welfare,” Journal of Political Economy 58 (1950): 328–346, 331 28 Arjo Klamar, “A Conversation with Amartya Sen,” Journal of Economic Perspectives (1989): 135–150, 139 29 It is significant that Arrow and Tawney shared a forum in the Chicago-based Journal of Political Economy, where the first chapter of Individual Values and Social Choice appeared in 1950 and which had published Tawney’s 1922 Scott Holland Memorial lectures (the lectures which became Religion and the Rise of Capitalism) verbatim: Tawney, “Religious Thought”; Arrow, “A Difficulty.” That this journal published both authors was indicative both of the affinity between their respective preoccupations and of changes in the discipline of economics across the intervening period 30 See, e.g., Bergson, “A Reformulation.” 31 Ibid.; Arrow, “A Difficulty.” 32 Arrow, “A Difficulty.” 33 Bergson, “A Reformulation”; Samuelson, Foundations; Abram Bergson, “Socialist Economics,” in H S Ellis, ed., A Survey of Contemporary Economics (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1948)I: 412–448 34 Nicholas Kaldor, “Welfare Propositions in Economics and Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility,” Economic Journal 49 (1939): 549–552 35 Kenneth Arrow, “Kenneth Arrow on Social Choice Theory,” in Kenneth Arrow, Amartya Sen, and Kotaro Suzumura, eds., Handbook of Social Choice and Welfare (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2011) 2: 3–27, 25 See also Amartya Sen, “The Possibility of Social Choice,” American Economic Review 89 (1999): 349–378, 350–351, suggesting that “social choice theory as a systematic discipline first came into its own around the time of the French Revolution … pioneered by French mathematicians in the late eighteenth century, such as J C Borda and Marquis de Condorcet,” before being “revived in the twentieth century by Arrow.” For more recent and illuminating exposition of the connections between Condorcet’s milieu and Arrow’s, see Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, ch 36 Arrow, “A Difficulty,’” 329 37 Ibid., 330 38 Arrow’s conditions were (i) that the same procedure should work for all possible orderings of preferences; (ii) that Pareto optimality be realized in its weak form, i.e., that if everyone prefers x to y, x must prevail; (iii) that between two alternatives extraneous or irrelevant preferences should not matter (so that in a ballot between candidate A and candidate B, how voters rank Abraham Lincoln vis-à-vis Vladimir Lenin makes no difference); and (iv) that no one individual enjoys dictatorial powers, so that her own preference for x over y dictates that society must prefer x to y irrespective of everyone else’s preference: Arrow, Individual Values and Social Choice, ch 39 Arrow, “A Difficulty,” 331 40 Ibid., 336 41 Ibid., 343–344 42 Ibid., 343 43 Ibid 44 Ibid., 328; Arrow, Individual Values and Social Choice, 45 Arrow, Individual Values and Social Choice, n1, citing Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism 46 For impressions of this interpretation of Arrow’s work, see Rodgers, Age of Fracture, 86, citing (among others) William H Riker, Liberalism against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice (San Francisco: W H Freeman, 1982); James M Buchanan, “Politics Without Romance: A Sketch of Positive Public Choice Theory and Its Normative Implications” (1979), reprinted in Philip Pettit, ed., Contemporary Political Theory (New York: Macmillan, 1991) 47 For an introduction to Sen’s applications of social choice theory, see Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice (London: Penguin, 2009), ch 48 Amartya Sen, “Biographical,” in Tore Frängsmyr, The Nobel Prizes 1998 (Stockholm: Nobel Foundation, 1999) 49 Amartya Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare (San Francisco: Holden-Day, 1970), 199 50 Klamar, “A Conversation with Amartya Sen.” 51 Sen, “Possibility of Social Choice.” 52 Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare, 199 53 Ibid., 54 For references to this seminar and for Sen’s critique of John Rawls, see Sen, Idea of Justice 55 Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare, 56 Ibid 57 Ibid., 188 58 Ibid., 59 Ibid 60 Ibid., n5, citing Eric Hobsbawm, “Where Are British Historians Going?,” Marxist Quarterly (1) (1955): 14–26 61 Amartya Sen, “Inequality, Unemployment and Contemporary Europe,” International Labour Review 136 (1997): 155–171, 161– 162 62 Amartya Sen, “Tagore and His India,” in Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian (London: Penguin, 2006) ch 5; E P Thompson, “Introduction” in Rabindranath Tagore, Nationalism (London: Macmillan, 1991) 63 Sen, On Economic Inequality, 81–82, citing Bernard Williams, “The Idea of Equality,” in Williams, In the Beginning was the Deed, 97–114, 99 See further Williams and Sen, “Introduction” in Williams and Sen, Utilitarianism and Beyond 64 Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare, 200 65 Ibid., 192 66 Sen, “Possibility of Social Choice,” 353 67 Sen borrows the concept of “bounded rationality” from the economist Herbert Simon to elucidate the significance of social choice theory: see Sen, Idea of Justice, 108 68 Tawney, “Study of Economic History,” INDEX Acland, Richard, 98, 107–8, 151 acquisitiveness, 133 Acquisitive Society, The, 17, 38, 42, 49, 187–88 adult education, 144–46 affluence, 133 Affluent Society, The, 133 Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, The, 49 alienation, 58, 74, 175 See also self-estrangement Althusser, Louis, 168, 176–77 American Historical Review, 81 “American Threat to British Culture, The,” 146 Anderson, Perry, 53, 85, 167–72, 181 Anglo-Saxon liberties, 141–42, 153–54, 169, 170 anti-Catholicism, 99, 184 anti-nuclear movement, 98, 151–52 anti-Semitism, 70 Aquinas, Thomas, 188 Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 63 Arrow, Kenneth, 14–15, 98, 186, 189–94; Sen and, 195–96 atheism, Bolshevik, 72 Atkinson, Anthony, authoritarianism, 5, 97, 154, 194 Barker, Ernest, 5, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34–35, 48 Bécsi Magyar Ujság, 52, 63, 64 Békássy, Ferenc, 62 Bell, George, 114 Bentham, Jeremy, 20, 134 Berle, Adolf, 107 Bernal, J D., 137 Bevan, Aneurin, 151 Beveridge, William, 18, 19, 35 Blackett, P M S., 137 Anglo-Boer War, 21, 23 Bolshevism, 52, 59–60, 72 Book of Common Prayer, 73 Booth, Charles, 21 Bosanquet, Bernard, 5, 22–25, 28, 33; Tawney on, 37 bourgeoisie, capitalist, 120–21 Brick, Howard, 94 Britain: adult education in, 144–46; anti-nuclear movement in, 98, 151–52; Communist Party of Great, 135–36; concept of Anglo-Saxon liberties in, 141–42, 153–54, 169, 170; economic growth after 1950, 133; ecumenicism in, 70; Education Act of 1944, 96, 110, 117–27; Edwardian crisis and social problem in, 20–21, 99–100, 108–9, 125, 184; imperialism, 170–71; interwar period, 93–94, 113; Marxism in, 136–38; 1960s culture in, 171–72; plurality and growth of the state in, 25–29; socialist tradition in, 16–17; sociology in, 110, 120, 184; Stalinism and, 138–43; in the Third World, 170–71, 181; transition from individualism to collectivism in, 5–7, 24, 25, 77; unemployment in, 113–16, 124–26, 128, 132, 133, 171; welfare state instituted in, 23; working class (see Making of the English Working Class, The; working class, British) British Marxism, 133–35; romantics and revolutionaries in, 135–38; Scrutiny movement and, 143–47; socialist humanism and, 147–57; Stalinism and, 138–43 See also Marx (Karl) and Marxism British Union of Fascists, 66 Brotherhood of Man, doctrine of the, 69 bureaucratic collectivism, 107 See also managerialism Burke, Edmund, 122, 141, 156 Burnham, James, 107 Burns, Emile, 140 See also “Emilism” Butler, R A., 96, 117–19, 126–27 Butterfield, Herbert, 93 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, 98, 151 Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 2, 153 capitalism: adaptability of, 101–3; Anglo-Saxon liberties in, 141–42, 153–54, 169, 170; collectivism and, 5–7; dissolution of customary practices in, 159–63; historiography of, 92–93; inequality in, 1; laissez-faire, 3, 25, 89, 96, 102, 104, 112; medieval expansion of, 44–46; monopoly, 107; moral critique of, 1–15, 198–200; planning for freedom in, 112–17, 118, 120, 127, 134; post-capitalism, 94–95, 96, 111; problem of unemployment in, 114–17, 124–26, 128; separation of ownership and control in, 107–8; socialization of, 108–9; survival of crisis of interwar period, 107; technical vocabulary in, 104–5; terminology, 1, 92 See also transcending capitalism “Capitalism in Transition,” 107 Carlyle, Thomas, 3, 133 Catholic social thought, 51, 187–88 Caudwell, Christopher, 138, 140, 143 Chartism, 141–42, 158, 179 Chase, Stuart, 144 Christendom Group, 120 Christian Action, 98 Christianity, 8–9, 152; doctrine of salvation, 45–46, 69, 124; doctrine of the Brotherhood of Man, 69; doctrine of the Incarnation, 41–42; idea of personality in, 70; and Marx going beyond Jesus, 74–75; metaphysics in, 22–23; moral and social meaning in, 41; morality and, 42–43; perceived incompatibility between socialism and, 51–52; Polanyi and, 8, 54, 70–78; the Reformation and, 45–47, 69; social ethics, 86–87 Christianity and the Social Revolution, 51–52, 65, 66, 70, 73, 74, 153 Christian Left, 71–76, 83–85, 98 Christian socialism, 40–43 Christian Social Union, 40–41 Churchill, Winston, 19–20, 117 Church of England, 41 Clapham, J H., 159 Clarke, Fred, 124, 126 Cobbett, William, 178 Cold War, the, 138, 140, 142 Cole, G D H., 29–40, 60–61, 66, 73, 76, 113; on classical political theory, 30–31, 37, 39, 48; criticism of The Great Transformation, 80; on relationship between guild socialism and pluralism, 30–32; Tawney and, 35–36, 48–49, 100; on wills, 32–33 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 133 Collective Choice and Social Welfare, 195 collectivism, 73; British transition to, 5–7, 24, 25, 77; bureaucratic, 107; middle way between individualism and, 113; Tawney’s views of, 48, 49, 50 Collini, Stefan, 16, 42, 128, 144 Collins, John, 151–52 Common Wealth Party, 98, 107–8 Communism, 51–52, 135–36 Communist Party of Great Britain, 135–36, 138, 141, 146, 147, 158 Condition of the Working Class in England, 160 Congdon, Lee, 61 Crosland, Anthony, 14, 97, 119, 154; on future of socialism, 106–7, 155; neo-Freudian psychology and, 109–10; on separation of ownership and control, 108; on unhealed social divisions, 109–10; view of post-capitalism, 111 Crossman, R H S., 108; on “socio-psychological plane,” 184 cultural criticism, 143–46 culture: anti-capitalism in British, 140; definitions of, 127–32; determining social being, 156 Culture and Environment, 145, 146 Culture and Society, 156 Cunningham, William, 86, 164 customary practices, loss of, 159–63 Customs in Common, 173 Daily Worker, 150 Dalton, Hugh, 107 Dangerfield, George, 23, 24, 184 Darwin, Charles, 12, 89, 180 Dawson, Christopher, 116 de Borda, J C., 192 de Condorcet, Marquis, 15, 192 democracy, 68, 69–70; representative, 101 Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties, 33 Diagnosis of Our Time, 130 Dicey, A V., 3–4, 24 Dissertation on the Poor Laws, 88 dissociation of sensibility, 144 Dobb, Maurice, 93, 94, 138–41, 159 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 58, 64, 68 Duczynska, Ilona, 61–63, 65 Durbin, Evan, 13–14, 84, 95–96, 104, 119, 134, 186; on adaptability of capitalism, 101–3; death of, 107; formal education of, 99; future of socialism and efforts of, 106–12, 155; neo-Freudian psychology and, 109–10; on planning for freedom, 112–17; politics of democratic socialism and, 98–103; on sociability, 101; on the state as indispensable, 100–101; Tawney and, 99, 103, 105–6, 111–12; Thompson and, 154; Ulster crisis and, 99–100; on welfare economics, 96, 103–6 Durkheim, Emile, 38, 120 Economics of Democratic Socialism, The, 96 Economist, The, 52–53 ecumenicism, 70 Eden, Anthony, 151 education, adult, 144–46 Education Act of 1944, 96, 110, 117–27 Edwardian crisis, 20–21, 99–100, 108–9, 125, 184 Edward VII, King, 20 Eliot, T S., 14, 96, 120; dissociation of sensibility thesis, 144; Leavis and, 144, 147; Mannheim and, 128–32 Elton, G R., 93 “Emilism,” 140, 141 Engels, Friedrich, 153, 160, 177 Equality, 17 Essay on the Principle of Population, 88, 188 “Essence of Fascism, The,” 66, 71, 72, 77 ethics and economics, relationship between, European Student Relief, 61 Fabianism, 7, 19–20, 40, 61 Fanon, Franz, 169 fascism, 6–7, 52, 53, 64, 107, 113; defeat of, 146–47; individualism versus, 67–68; Polanyi on, 65–70 fellowship, 67; defining, 28; fellowship-based critique of capitalism, 99; German principle of, 28, 29; Gierke on, 28; as life, 50, 73, 77; Marx and, 74 Fielden, John, 178 Figgis, J N., 28, 32, 39 Flanders, Allan, 99 Foucault, Michel, 176 Freud, Sigmund, 37, 95, 103, 175 From Gerson to Grotius, 39 Future of Socialism, The, 110 Gaitskell, Hugh, 65, 104, 107 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 133 Galileo Circle, 58, 59, 61, 62 Ganzheitslehre, 67 Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, 6, 90 General Possibility Theorem, 189 General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 104 Genossenschaft, 66 George III, King, 44 Germany, 7, 52, 64, 66, 121–22 Geroulanos, Stefanos, 176 Gierke, Otto von, 28–29, 34–35, 66 God: human personality as nearest to knowing, 40, 68–69; humans in direct relationship with, 45; Tawney on morality and faith in, 43 God that Failed, The, 107, 108 Godwin, William, 141–42 Goldman, Lawrence, 35, 36 Gollancz, Victor, 51 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 148 Gore, Charles, 40–41, 42, 44, 72 Gotha raids, 24–25 Grant, Donald, 61, 63, 65, 71, 72, 85 Grant, Irene, 61, 63, 65, 71, 72, 85 Great Society, The, 23, 38 Great Transformation, The, 2, 11, 53, 76, 86, 179; compared to Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, 78–83; reception of, 166; as source for Making of the English Working Class, 54–56, 163–64 See also Polanyi, Karl Green, S J D., 126 Green, T H., 5, 22, 23, 33, 56 Grosland, Anthony, 95 guild socialism: Macmillan on, 113; Polanyi and, 61–65; relationship between pluralism and, 30–32, 34; social action and, 32–33; social theory and, 30–31; Tawney and, 29–40 Hadow, William Henry, 126 Halévy, Elie, 4, 178 Hall, Stuart, 167 Hammond, Barbara, 44, 65, 81, 159 Hammond, J Lawrence, 44, 65, 81, 159 Handbook of Freedom, A, 138 Hayek, F A., 54, 124, 125 Hegel, G W F., 176 Heidegger, Martin, 96, 116 Hexter, J H., 81 Hilferding, Rodolf, 107 Hill, Christopher, 136, 139, 142 Hilliard, Christopher 144, 146 Hilton, Rodney, 139, 141 Hirschman, Albert O., 12 History and Class Consciousness, 76 Hitler, Adolf, 7, 66, 113, 125 Hobbes, Thomas, 25, 26, 27–28, 31, 34 Hobhouse, L T., 24–25 Hobsbawm, Eric, 141, 159, 224 n 162 Hobson, J A., 94, 170 Hoggart, Richard, 144 Hont, Istvan, 182 humanism, socialist, 147–57 humanistic foundations of political economy, 11–12, 194–200 human nature, 38–39; and being “fully human” in Marxism, 175, 176–77, 179, 180, 185; man’s animal nature in, 42; moral authority and, 150; Schumacher on, 188 Human Nature in Politics, 33 human personality, 7–9, 12, 91; Christians and socialists sharing idea of, 70; Cole on, 32–33; Durbin on, 111–12; full development of, 12–13; guild socialism and, 31–32; Mannheim on, 96–97, 119–20; as nearest we come to knowing God, 40; Polanyi on, 54, 70–71; Sen on, 197; sociability in, 101, 115, 117; social science view of, 96–97; Stalinism and, 149; supreme value of every, 43–44, 49, 77–78, 86–87, 96–97; Tawney on, 40, 43–44, 49; Thompson on, 168–69; variety in, 111; wills and, 32–33 human rights and personalism, 97–98 Hungary, 57–61; under Communism, 148, 150, 151, 152, 170; Mannheim in, 116–17 Hyndman, H M., 158, 170 Idealism, 5, 22–25 Ignatieff, Michael, 182 Illusion and Reality, 138 imperialism, British, 170–71 impossibility theorem, 186 See also Arrow, Kenneth Incarnation, doctrine of the, 41–42, 87, India, 170, 181 individualism, 49; Arrow on, 193–94; atheist, 68; British transition to collectivism from, 5–7, 24, 25, 77; Christian, 68–69; fascism versus, 67–68; liberal, 16, 17, 37–38, 73; methodological, 21; middle way between collectivism and, 113; Spann on, 67 Individual Values and Social Choice, 14, 189–94, 195 Industrial Charter, The, 118 Industrial Revolution, 159–60 inequality, 1, 96, 109; Education Act of 1944 and, 110 Inequality, inherited liberalism, 38 Institute for Education, 124 Iredale, Eleanora, 114, 115 Italy, 64, 66 Jackson, Ben, 97 Jaszi, Oscar, 58–60, 63, 64, 96 Jesus Christ, 74, 79 Jews, 70–71 Jones, Gareth Stedman, 85, 175 Jones, Thomas, 35, 114 Jowett, Benjamin, 22 jurisprudence, 48, 67; German historical school of, 120, 122–23; pluralism in, 5, 25–30, 34–35 Kaldor, Nicholas, 191 Kant, Immanuel, 105 Karl I, King, 59 Károlyi, Mihaly, 59, 62 Keynes, John Maynard, 65, 96, 104, 106, 112, 113, 114, 133 Khrushchev, Nikita, 147–48 Kierkegaard, S., 58 Kindleberger, Charles P., 53 Knights, L C., 143 Kojèves, Alexandre, 176 Kolakowski, Leszek, 171, 172, 174–75 Kun, Bela, 62 Labourer series, 159, 160 Lacan, Jacques, 175 laissez-faire, 3, 25, 89, 96, 102, 104, 112 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 39 Lane, Allen, 145 Laski, Harold, 49, 78–79 Laslett, Peter, 34 Leavis, F R., 143–47, 178 Leavis, Q D., 143 left Leavisism, 143–47, 167 Lenin, Vladimir, 64 Leninism, 58–59, 63, 116, 137 Leviathan, 27 liberalism: inherited, 38; Victorian, 23 liberties, Anglo-Saxon, 141–42, 153–54, 169, 170 Lindsay, A D., 82, 114 Lindsay, Jack, 138 literary criticism, 143–44 Locke, John, 39 London Corresponding Society, 158–59 London Radicalism, 158–59 London School of Economics, 35, 104 Long Revolution, The, 156 Löwe, Adolph, 116 Lukacs, Georg, 58–60, 96, 138, 143 Luther, Martin, 45 Lux Mundi, 40 Lynd, Helen, 144 Lynd, Robert, 144 MacDonald, Ramsay, 170 Mach, Ernst, 58 MacIntyre, Alasdair, 42 Macmillan, Harold, 112 Macmurray, Betty, 63, 65, 71, 85 Macmurray, John, 51, 63, 65, 71, 72, 73–74, 83, 84, 85, 98 Maguire, Tom, 158 Maine, Henry, 122, 140 Maitland, F W., 5, 25–29; Cole and, 30, 31 Making of the English Working Class, The, 2–3, 157–67, 173–74, 178, 179; on artisans and craftsmen, 160–61; dissolution of customary practices and, 159–63; on effects of the Industrial Revolution, 159–60; London Corresponding Society and, 158–59; social solidarity and, 162–63; Thompson chosen as writer of, 157–58 See also Thompson, E P Malthus, T R., 11, 12, 88–89, 134, 179, 180, 188 managerialism, 94, 107 See also bureaucratic collectivism Managerial Revolution, The, 107 Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction, 96, 118 Manchester Guardian, 35 Mannheim, Karl, 13–14, 134, 156; Butler and, 117–19; definitions of culture, 127–32; Eliot and, 128–29; on conservative thought, 121–22; on human personality, 96–97, 119–20; on the intellectual elite, 123–24; on relationism, 129; on rising capitalist bourgeoisie, 120–21; on role of the state, 126–27; on social order, 116–17; sociology of knowledge, 129–30, 156; on totality, 129–30 Marshall, Alfred, 104, 139 Marx (Karl) and Marxism, 8, 9, 37, 51, 86, 120; on alienation, 74–75; Althusser and, 176–77; on being “fully human,” 175, 176–77, 179, 180, 185; Christian Left and, 73, 74; on class struggle as all history, 99, 102; conception of the human compared to Stalin’s, 152–53; Durbin on ruin of, 107; early writings by Marx and Friedrich in, 153–54; going beyond Jesus, 74–75; Leninism and, 58–59, 63, 116, 137; Polanyi on, 10, 54–56, 75–76, 79; Sen and, 197; Stalinism and, 138–43; theory of social development, 51; Thompson’s theories post,174–83 See also British Marxism Marxian Industrial Unions, 30 Maurice, F D., 40 Means, Gardiner, 107 Men Without Work, 114–17, 124–26, 128, 132, 134, 171, 197 “Metaphysical Poets, The,” 128 metaphysics, 22–23, 96 methodological individualism, 21 Michels, Robert, 33, 34, 61 Militant Socialist International, 99 Mill, J S., 4, 20, 79, 144 Mill, James, 11 Mills, C Wright, 156–57 Moberly, Walter, 114, 115, 116 Money, Leo Chiozza, 35 Mont Pelerin Society, 124 moral economy: Christian theology and, 8–9; critique of capitalism based on, 1–15, 198–200; human personality and, 7–9, 12–13; New Left movement and, 104, 155, 156, 167–74; political economy and, 11–12; success of, 10; Thompson’s narrower meaning of, 181–82 moralism, Victorian, 3–5 morality: Christian, 42–43, 52; Communist, 52 moral relationships, 20, 106, 108–9, 185 moral unity, 49 More, Thomas, 56 Morris, William, 3, 49, 74, 75, 158, 179; Scientific Utopia, 142–43, 154, 164 Morton, A L., 138, 139, 141, 143 Mosley, Oswald, 66 Müller, Jan-Werner, 97 Murdoch, Iris, 135 Mussolini, Benito, 64, 66, 113 Namier, Lewis, 65 National Anti-Sweating League, 20 National Guilds League, 30, 37, 113 National Socialism (Germany), 7, 52, 64, 66 Natural Law and the Theory of Society 1500–1800, 29 Nazis See National Socialism (Germany) Needham, Joseph, 137 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 135 neo-Freudian psychology, 109–10 Neumann, Franz, 107 New Age, The, 30 New Fabian Essays, 107, 108 New Left, the, 104, 155, 156, 167–74 New Left Review, 144, 154, 167 New Liberalism, 120 New Poor Law of 1834, 79, 80–81 New Reasoner, 167 News from Nowhere, 142 News Sheet, 72 New Statesman, 51, 52, 63, 65, 66, 153 Newton, Isaac, 137, 144 nihilism, 194 1984, 107 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 32, 98–99 “Norman Yoke, The,” 141 Notes Towards a Definition of Culture, 130 nuclear disarmament movement, 98, 151–52 Oakeshott, Walter, 114, 115, 124, 131 Observer, 111, 148 Oldham, J H., 73, 114, 115 On Economic Inequality, 197 On Marxism Today, 139 Orwell, George, 107, 156 Osterreichische Volkswirt, Der, 52, 64–66 Our Neighbours, 40 Our Time, 136 Paine, Thomas, 121–22, 141–42 Pankhurst, Emmeline, 21 Pankhurst, Sylvia, 21 Pareto, Vilfredo, 38, 120, 190 Pareto optimality, 190–91 parochialism, 170–71 See also Anderson, Perry Partisan Review, 143 People’s Front, 113 People’s History of England, A, 138, 139 Personal Aggressiveness and War, 103 personalism, 97–98 Philosophical Theory of the State, The, 22, 25 Pigou, A C., 96, 104, 105, 106, 112 Piketty, Thomas, Pilgrim Trust, 114 Pius XI, Pope, 51 “Planned Society and the Problem of Human Personality,” 119 planning for freedom, 112–17, 118, 120, 127, 134 “Planning for Freedom,” 118 pluralism, 5, 25–29, 48, 66; guild socialism and, 30–32, 34 Poland, 148 Polanyi, Karl, 2, 3, 4, 6, 50, 116, 153, 157, 163, 173–74, 182, 183, 185; on Adam Smith, 57, 86, 87–88, 188; Christian Left and, 71–76; concerns over collectivism, 6; conversion from Judaism to Christianity, 8, 54, 70–78; criticism of Marx, 10, 54–56; failure in England, 53–55, 161; on fascism, 65–70; formal education of, 57–58; history of capitalism, 134; in Hungary, 57–61, 171; Leavis and, 144–45; on Marxism, 10, 54–56, 75–76, 79; on orthodoxy, 56–57; on political economy, 11–12; secularization and, 9; Sen and, 198; socialism and Red Vienna, 61–65, 77; on Speenhamland system of wage subsidies, 80–81; Tawney and, 53–57, 78–79, 82–83, 95, 165–66; Thompson and, 13; work as a journalist, 52–53 See also Great Transformation, The Polanyi, Michael, 53, 57, 60, 64–65, 157; conversion to Christianity, 70–71, 73; on Eliot and Mannheim, 131 political economy: Adam Smith and origins of, 10–11, 83–91; Dobb on, 139; history of, 83–91; on the history of political economy, 83–91; Malthus on, 88; Marx on, 87, 160; naturalism in, 88–89; Pigou and, 104; Polanyi on, 11, 13, 53, 57, 83–91, 134, 178, 179, 182; as regulating doctrine of public life, 47; Ricardo on, 44, 88; social choice theory and, 186–87; Tawney on, 12, 161; Thompson on, 164, 166–68, 178, 180; Victorian, 3–4, 15, 21, 56 political theory, classical, 30–31, 37, 39, 48, 85 Politics of Democratic Socialism, The, 99–103, 109 poor laws, 79, 80–81, 89, 109, 179 Popular Front, 137, 140, 142–43 Possessed, The, 68 post-capitalism, 94–95, 96, 111 “Poverty of Theory, The,” 177, 180 Priestley, J B., 98, 151–52 Quadragesimo Anno, 51, 188 Ratan Tata Foundation, 35 Rawls, John, 196 Reading Capital, 168 Redford, Arthur, 81 Red Vienna, 61–65, 77, 166 Reformation, the, 45–47, 69 Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, 2, 6, 15, 17, 43–48, 92–93, 128, 157, 187; on dissolution of moral scruples, 161; John Locke quoted in, 39; new preface in paperback edition of, 92; Polanyi and, 68–69, 78, 83; Thompson and, 167 See also Tawney, R H representative democracy, 101 Rhondda Valley, 115, 127, 132, 134, 171 Ricardo, David, 11, 44, 80, 87, 88, 134, 139, 179 Rickword, Edgell, 138 Rizzi, Bruno, 107 Road to Serfdom, The, 125 Robbins, Lionel, 106, 113, 190 Robertson, Dennis, 138 Rochdale, 19, 127, 134, 165, 166 romanticism, 121–22, 147 romantics and revolutionaries, 135–38, 156 Rothschild, Emma, 10, 11 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 33–34, 61, 88 Rowbotham, Sheila, 159 Rowntree, Seebohm, 21 Runciman, David, 34 Ruskin, John, 3, 49 salvation, 45–46, 69, 124 Sankey Commission, 36 Savigny, Friedrich Carl von, 120, 122 Saville, John, 148, 157, 167 Schumacher, E F., 186, 187, 197; Small Is Beautiful, 187–89 scientific utopia, 142–43, 154, 164 Scott Holland, Henry, 40–41 Scrutiny movement, 143–47 Secondary Education for All, 126 secularization, 8–9, 18 self-estrangement, 74–75 See also alienation self-realization, 39–40; through work, 115 Sen, Amartya, 14–15, 98, 106, 194–98 separation of ownership and control, 107–8 Shklar, Judith, 176 Shostakovich, Dmitri, 140 Sidgwick, Henry, 18 Simmel, Georg, 122 Singer, H W., 114 slavery, 44 Small Is Beautiful, 187–89 Smart, William, 19 Smith, Adam, 10–11, 15, 61, 95, 139, 178; history of political economy and, 86–91; humanistic foundations in theory of, 182; Polanyi on, 57, 86, 87–88, 188; Thompson and, 182–83; Wealth of Nations, The, 11, 57, 188 sociability, 101, 115, 117 social action, 32–33; anti-nuclear movement, 98, 151–52 social atomization, 58 Social Choice and Individual Values, 98 social choice theory, 186–87, 192–94, 199–200 social ethics, Christian, 86–87 socialism: Christian, 40–43; democracy and, 68, 69–70; Durbin on future of, 106–12; Durbin on politics of democratic, 98–103; guild, 29–40, 61–65, 113; idea of personality in, 70; perceived incompatibility between Christianity and, 51–52; Polanyi on English, 60; in Red Vienna, 61–65; Tawney as icon of British, 16–17 socialist humanism, 147–57 Socialist Union, 111 social order, 14–15, 47–48; Tawney on traditional, 49–50 social services, 101, 109 social solidarity, 171–73, 197, 198–99 Social Theory, 30 sociology, 110, 120, 129, 184; of knowledge, 129–30, 156 solidarity, social, 171–73, 197, 198–99 Soviet Union, the, 6–7, 39, 62, 64, 72, 99, 112, 137; Cold War and, 140; Hungary and, 148, 150, 151, 152, 170; Leninism in, 58–59, 63, 116, 137; Poland and, 148; Stalinism in, 138–43, 147 Spann, Othmar, 66, 67–68 Speenhamland system of wage subsidies, 80–81 Spender, J A., 19 Spender, Stephen, 137 spiritual blindness, 44, 47, 79, 83 Stalin, Joseph, 7, 10, 39, 136, 147–48, 171, 174 Stalinism: differences from Marxism, 152–53; Thompson’s embrace of, 138–43; Thompson’s repudiation of, 147–57 state, the: as indispensible, 100–101; Mannheim on role of, 126–27; nature of, 36–37, 48–49; ties between Church of England and, 41 See also political theory, classical Stone, Lawrence, 82 Strachey, John, 49 Student Christian Movement, 61, 71, 83, 90 Studies in a Dying Culture, 138, 142 Studies in the Development of Capitalism, 93, 94, 139 Sturt, George, 163 suffrage movement, 20–21 Sunday Circle, 58–59, 116 Szabadgondolat, 58, 59 Tawney, R H., 2–5, 58, 65, 66, 72, 77, 126, 131–32, 171, 173–74, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186; on Acquisitive Society, 187–88; ambivalence toward prosperity, 133–34; British socialism ties to, 16–17; characterized as nostalgist, 17–18; on Christianity and Social Revolution, 51; Christian Left and, 84–85; Christian moral imperative, 8; on Christian socialism, 40–43; Cole and, 35–36, 48–49, 100; on criticisms of the omnipotent state, 34; description of self as “unorthodox guildsman,” 37; on doctrine of the Incarnation, 41–42; Durbin and, 99, 103, 105–6, 111–12; on the Edwardian crisis, 20–21, 99–100, 125; Eliot and, 128; fear of social disintegration, 5, 6; formal education and early experience of, 18–22; guild socialism and, 29–40; historiography and, 82, 92–93; history of capitalism, 134; on human personality, 7–9, 91, 95–96, 96–97, 197; on idealism, 22–25; on Karl Marx, 51; Leavis and, 144–45, 147; legacy of, 16–18; Mannheim and, 96–97; Men Without Work report and, 114; on moral relationships, 20, 106; on nature of the state, 36–37, 48–49; new preface to Religion and Rise of Capitalism by, 92–93; Polanyi and, 53–57, 73–74, 78–79, 82–83, 95, 165–66; politics of democratic socialism and, 98–99; on relationship between the individual and Christian God, 68–69; review of Christianity and the Social Revolution, 70, 74; rise to public prominence, 35–36; Schumacher and, 187; on self-realization, 39–40; Sen and, 198; on the social problem in Britain, 21; social psychology and, 39; on spiritual blindness, 44, 47; Thompson and, 157; on tradition, 49–50; Wallas and, 38, 49, 100 See also Religion and the Rise of Capitalism Taylor, A J P., 151–52 Taylor, Charles, 154 Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 160 Temple, William, 18, 40, 42, 114–15, 126–27, 134 Theses on Feuerbach, 153 Third World, 170–71, 181 Thompson, Denys, 143 Thompson, Dorothy, 158, 159 Thompson, E P., 2, 3, 4, 6–7, 50, 86, 104, 134, 185; on Althusserianism, 176; on British imperialism, 170; on British intellectual culture, 171–73; as a communist, 136–38; cultural criticism, 145–46; Durbin and, 154; embrace of Stalinism, 138–43, 147; family of, 135–36; narrower meaning of moral economy, 181–82; New Lefts and, 167–74; Polanyi and, 13, 54–55, 57; post-Marxian ideas, 174–83; Religion and the Rise of Capitalism and, 167; repudiation of Stalinism, 148–57, 171, 174–75; on roles of romantics and revolutionaries, 135–38, 154–56; Scrutiny movement and, 143–47; secularization and, 9; Sen and, 197, 198; Smith and, 182–83; on socialist humanism, 147–57 See also Making of the English Working Class, The Thompson, Edward J., 135, 143 Thompson, Frank, 135–36, 138, 147, 148 Tisza, Istvàn, 61, 62 Tomlinson, Jim, 105 Tonnies, Ferdinand, 90 See also Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Torr, Dona, 158 totalitarianism, 67–68, 125 Town Labourer, The, 44 Townsend, Joseph, 88–90 transcending capitalism, 13–14, 92–98, 95, 96, 120; counter-Enlighment ideology and, 121–23; definitions of culture and, 127–32; Education Act of 1944 and, 96, 110, 117–27; future of socialism and, 106–12; planning for freedom in, 112–17; politics of democratic socialism and, 98–103; welfare economics and, 103–6 “Transition from Capitalism, The,” 107 Trevelyan, C P., 170 Troeltsch, Ernst, 117 Trotsky, Leon, 143 unemployment, 113–16, 124–26, 128, 132, 133, 171 unity-in-plurality, 27–28, 47 Universities and Left Review, 144, 154, 155, 167 Unwin, George, 81 Ure, Andrew, 160 Uses of Literacy, The, 144 utilitarianism, 3–5, 8, 56–57, 91, 106, 178–79; criticisms of, 96–97, 147, 156, 185–86 utopia, scientific, 142–43, 154, 164 Victorian liberalism, 23 Victorian moralism, 3–5 Village Labourer, The, 160 von Mises, Ludwig, 63 voters paradox, 192 Wallas, Graham, 24, 61; Cole and, 33, 34; on particularism of trades and professions in Britain, 23; Tawney and, 38, 49, 100 Wealth of Nations, The, 11, 57, 188 Webb, Beatrice, 7, 19–20, 35, 96, 116, 170 Webb, Sidney, 7, 19–20, 35, 96, 170 Weber, Alfred, 116–17 Weber, Marianne, 116 Weber, Max, 38, 96, 120 welfare economics, 96, 103–6, 112; Education Act of 1944 and, 96, 110, 117–27; Pareto optimality and, 190–91 Wells, H G., 58, 61 Westcott, Brooke, 40 Westminster Gazette, 19 Wheelwright’s Shop, The, 163 Whigs and Hunters, 173 Williams, Bernard, 197–98 Williams, Raymond, 144, 156–57 wills, 32–33 Wilson, Edmund, 143 Wilson, Woodrow, 59 Wilsonians, 58–59, 63 Winch, Donald, xx, 178 women’s suffrage movement, 20–21 Woolf, Leonard, 170 Workers’ Educational Association, 19 working class, British: solidarity, 171–73; Thompson on need for political economy theory of, 168 See also Making of the English Working Class, The Yale Review, 62 Yugoslavia, 171 Zhdanov, Andre, 140 Zimmern, Alfred, 35 A NOTE ON THE TYPE This book has been composed in Arno, an Old-style serif typeface in the classic Venetian tradition, designed by Robert Slimbach at Adobe ... outcome” of the theory of the “god-state” (i .e. , the theory that made the state arbiter of the distinction between the “real” will and the merely “apparent”) and the concept of freedom (“harmony... bore sensitive and astute witness to the collapse of the Habsburg Empire Then he saw the aspirations of Wilsonian peace—liberalism redeemed in the wreckage of empire by the principle of self-determination—devolve... Christian moral precepts could be upheld irrespective of biblical criticism, and regardless of the diminishing authority of the church The episode Dangerfield remembered as the “strange death