INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK ON THE ECONOMICS OF MIGRATION Acclaim for the International Handbook on the Economics of Migration ‘Constant and Zimmermann have assembled a collection of essays that is remarkable in one extremely important way: it integrates many novel research topics into the mainstream immigration literature, including ethnic hiring patterns, obesity, the economic consequences of interethnic marriages, the link between natural disasters and migration, immigrant time use, and the relationship between migration and happiness These survey papers are destined to become beacons for future researchers as each of these topics will inevitably receive much more attention in future research.’ – George Borjas, Harvard University, USA ‘This is an extremely impressive volume which guides readers into thinking about migration in new ways. In its various chapters, international experts examine contemporary migration issues through a multitude of lenses ranging from child labor, human trafficking and jobs to the political economy of migration and refugees. The result is a fascinating assessment of the role of migration in driving population change in the modern age This will surely serve as a reference volume for those interested in migration for years to come.’ – Deborah Cobb-Clark, Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, Australia ‘A comprehensive, truly encyclopedic collection of original surveys and essays discussing migration and topics related to the movement of people among countries and areas The studies both present and review the literature critically and in many cases offer new results The basic theory is laid out right from the start, providing a nice introduction and framework for the other 27 chapters While most are interesting and worth reading, as a novice in the field of migration I found the essays on human smuggling and natural disasters to be particularly enlightening and important I can recommend this Handbook to any labor economist or sociologist with a scholarly interest, either for research or for instruction, in this general area The volume is definitive.’ – Daniel S Hamermesh, University of Texas at Austin, USA and Royal Holloway, University of London, UK ‘As immigration has spread from traditional receiving nations to developed countries throughout the world, the economics of migration has become a burgeoning field of research Amelie Constant and Klaus Zimmermann’s International Handbook offers an excellent, state-of-the-art guide to the rapidly changing intellectual terrain, providing comprehensive coverage of the topics necessary to comprehend patterns and processes of migration in the world today It will be an indispensable guide to scholars and policy-makers for years to come.’ – Douglas S Massey, Princeton University, USA ‘The International Handbook on the Economics of Migration is an excellent book that broadens our understanding of the economics of migration It covers classic issues related to immigration such as labor market integration and wages as well as much newer and less explored aspects of it, such as happiness, religiosity and crime I commend Constant and Zimmermann for gathering an excellent team of young and more experienced scholars, and for producing a book that will become an important reference in teaching and learning about immigration.’ – Giovanni Peri, University of California, Davis, USA International Handbook on the Economics of Migration Edited by Amelie F Constant George Washington University and Temple University, USA and IZA, Bonn, Germany Klaus F Zimmermann IZA and Bonn University, Bonn, Germany Edward Elgar Cheltenham, UK Northampton, MA, USA â Amelie F Constant and Klaus F Zimmermann 2013 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher Published by Edward Elgar Publishing Limited The Lypiatts 15 Lansdown Road Cheltenham Glos GL50 2JA UK Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc William Pratt House Dewey Court Northampton Massachusetts 01060 USA A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2012955223 This book is available electronically in the ElgarOnline.com Economics Subject Collection, E-ISBN 978 78254 607 ISBN 978 84542 629 01 Typeset by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire Printed and bound in Great Britain by T.J International Ltd, Padstow Contents vii List of contributors Frontier issues in migration research Amelie F Constant and Klaus F Zimmermann PART I INTRODUCTION Migration and ethnicity: an introduction Amelie F Constant and Klaus F Zimmermann 13 PART II THE MOVE Modeling individual migration decisions John Kennan and James R Walker The economics of circular migration Amelie F Constant, Olga Nottmeyer and Klaus F Zimmermann The international migration of health professionals Michel Grignon, Yaw Owusu and Arthur Sweetman Independent child labor migrants Eric V Edmonds and Maheshwor Shrestha Human smuggling Guido Friebel and Sergei Guriev 39 55 75 98 121 PART III PERFORMANCE AND THE LABOR MARKET 10 11 12 13 Labor mobility in an enlarged European Union Martin Kahanec Minority and immigrant entrepreneurs: access to financial capital Robert W Fairlie Migrant educational mismatch and the labor market Matloob Piracha and Florin Vadean Ethnic hiring David Neumark Immigrants in risky occupations Pia M Orrenius and Madeline Zavodny Occupational sorting of ethnic groups Krishna Patel, Yevgeniya Savchenko and Francis Vella Immigrants, wages and obesity: the weight of the evidence Susan L Averett, Laura M Argys and Jennifer L Kohn v 137 153 176 193 214 227 242 vi Contents PART IV NEW LINES OF RESEARCH 14 Immigrants, ethnic identities and the nation-state Amelie F Constant and Klaus F Zimmermann 15 Interethnic marriages and their economic effects Delia Furtado and Stephen J Trejo 16 The impact of migration on family left behind Francisca M Antman 17 Natural disasters and migration Ariel R Belasen and Solomon W Polachek 18 Immigration–religiosity intersections at the two sides of the Atlantic: Europe and the United States Teresa García-Moz and Shoshana Neuman 19 Immigration and crime Brian Bell and Stephen Machin 20 Immigrants’ time use: a survey of methods and evidence David C Ribar 21 Happiness and migration Nicole B Simpson 259 276 293 309 331 353 373 393 PART V POLICY ISSUES 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Frontier issues of the political economy of migration Gil S Epstein Skill-based immigrant selection and labor market outcomes by visa category Abdurrahman Aydemir Refugee and asylum migration Timothy J Hatton The economics of immigrant citizenship ascension Don J DeVoretz Welfare migration Corrado Giulietti and Jackline Wahba Diaspora resources and policies Sonia Plaza The evaluation of immigration policies Ulf Rinne Name index Subject index 411 432 453 470 489 505 530 553 561 Contributors Francisca M Antman University of Colorado at Boulder, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Laura M Argys University of Colorado Denver, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Susan L Averett Lafayette College, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Abdurrahman Aydemir Sabanci University, Turkey and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Ariel R Belasen Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, USA Brian Bell Department of Economics, University of Oxford and Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics, UK Amelie F Constant George Washington University and Temple University, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Don J DeVoretz Simon Fraser University, Canada and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Eric V Edmonds Dartmouth College, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Gil S Epstein Department of Economics, Bar-Ilan University, Israel and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Robert W Fairlie University of California, Santa Cruz, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Guido Friebel Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany, Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR), UK and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Delia Furtado University of Connecticut, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Teresa García-Moz University of Granada, Spain Corrado Giulietti Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Michel Grignon McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Sergei Guriev New Economic School Moscow, Russia and Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR), UK Timothy J Hatton University of Essex, UK and Australian National University, Australia and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany vii viii Contributors Martin Kahanec Central European University, Hungary, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany and Central European Labour Studies Institute (CELSI), Slovakia John Kennan University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, NBER, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Jennifer L Kohn Drew University, USA Stephen Machin Department of Economics, University College London and Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics, UK and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Shoshana Neuman Bar-Ilan University, Israel, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany and Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR), UK David Neumark UCI Department of Economics and Center for Economics and Public Policy, NBER, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Olga Nottmeyer Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Pia M Orrenius Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Yaw Owusu McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Krishna Patel Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Division of Insurance and Research, USA Matloob Piracha University of Kent, UK and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Sonia Plaza World Bank and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Solomon W Polachek State University of New York at Binghamton, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany David C Ribar University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Ulf Rinne Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Yevgeniya Savchenko Georgetown University, USA Maheshwor Shrestha Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA Nicole B Simpson Colgate University, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Arthur Sweetman McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Stephen J Trejo The University of Texas at Austin, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Florin Vadean University of Kent, UK Contributors ix Francis Vella Georgetown University, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Jackline Wahba University of Southampton, UK and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany James R Walker University of Wisconsin-Madison, NBER, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Madeline Zavodny Agnes Scott College, USA and Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn, Germany Klaus F Zimmermann Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) and Bonn University, Bonn, Germany Name index 559 Schiff, M 424, 514 Schmalzbauer, L 374, 376, 383 Schmidt, C.M 416 Schober, E 244, 252 Schoeni, R.F 16, 32, 381, 387 Schöni, D 61, 62 Schuetze, H.J 153–4, 159 Schumacher, E.J 82, 85–6, 93 Schultz, T.P 39, 44 Schultz, T.W 247 Schwartz, C.R 280, 318 Sears, D.O 267–9 Sen, A 17, 259, 263 Senik, C 396, 401 Serra, R 115, 218, 220 Sharieff, W 86, 87 Shaw, K 50 Shellman, S.M 460, 467 Shrestha, M 3, 72, 98–102, 109, 117 Sicherman, N 177–8 Siegelman, P 194–9, 211, 537 Simonov, A 154, 170 Simpson, N.B 6, 393, 395–7, 400 Sjaastad, L.A 14, 39, 138 Sjoquist, D 199, 201 Skans, O.N 208, 542, 547 Skeldon, R 61, 71 Skuterud, M 436, 449 Sloane, P.J 178, 180–81, 185, 189–90 Smith, J.P 176, 287, 435 Smith, P.M 218, 221 Smith, T 340, 343 Solé, M 218–19 Soper, J.C 331, 349 Sparber, C 231–2, 397 Spenkuch, J.L 358, 361–2 Spletzer, J.R 311, 314, 318 Stanat, P 541, 545 Stanley, D.L 313, 318 Stark, O 91, 110, 138, 189, 300, 306, 508 Start, D 61, 65 Steinhardt, M.F 483–4 Stevenson, B 394, 397 Stewart, J.B 265, 274 Stillman, S 180–81, 184, 298 Storesletten, K 417, 435 Stutzer, A 394, 397 Svantesson, E 541, 544 Swatos, W.H 343, 349 Sweetman, A 2, 75, 85, 93, 443, 541, 543 Switek, M 395–6, 403 Tabellini, G 415 Tadesse, B 512, 514–15, 524 Tamura, Y 124–7, 131 Tatsiramos, K 283 Taylor, J.E 154, 170, 189 Teitelbaum, M.S 455 Tekin, E 247 Theodoropoulos, N 277–80, 282–4, 289 Thielemann, E.R 463–4 Thom, K 51, 53, 71 Tijdens, K.G 142, 181 Tirole, J 17, 32, 123 Todaro, M.P 130, 138 Topel, R.H 46, 48, 236 Townsend, R 154, 170 Trebesch, C 127, 129 Trejo, S.J 5, 276, 286–7, 374, 376, 384–5, 437, 497, 499 Tremblay, M.S 244, 252 Trindade, V 512–13, 524 Tullock, G 413, 414, 426, 428 Ureta, M 295, 509 Vadean, F 4, 65, 67, 72, 176 Valfort, M.-A 315, 330 Van Klaveren, C 376, 382 Van Klaveren, M 142, 181 Van Ours, J.C 284–5 Van Praag, B.M.S 396, 398 Van Praag, M 170 Van Tubergen, F 277–81, 289, 340 Vargas, A.J 384–5 Veenman, J 284 Vella, F 4, 227, 235–8 Verdier, T 286, 289, 331, 429 Verdugo, N 177–8 Verdugo, R 177–8 Vinogradova, A 126–7 Viscusi, W.K 216–17, 222–3 Wadensjö, E 142, 144 Wadhwa, V 153, 435 Wagner, D 511–12, 524 Wahba, J 7, 489, 496–7, 501 Walker, J.R 2, 39, 42, 44–6, 49, 71 Ward-Batts, J 375–82 Waters, M.C 285–7 Weber, A 538 Weber, M 349 Weinberg, B 201 Weiss, A 417–18 Welch, F 176 White, R 512–15, 524 Williams, R.B 338–9, 343 Willis, R 113 Winters, A.L 429 Wismar, M 75, 80 560 Name index Wolfers, J 394, 397 Wolken, J 155, 157, 164, 170 Wolpin, K.I 50 Wooden, M 446 Woodruff, C.M 156, 294, 297, 508–9 Wooldridge, J.M 538 Worswick, C 16, 84, 381, 436–7 Wozniak, A 46, 280 Wu, T.-N 219–20 Xie, J 374, 383 Yang, D 110, 294–5, 314–15, 508 Yaqub, S 98, 117 Yaw, O 2, 75 Yu, C 154, 170 Yu, Z 510, 524 Yuksel, M 312–14, 318 Zaiceva, A 58, 71, 148, 375–6, 378, 384 Zakus, D 86–7 Zapata-Barrero, R 57, 72 Zavodny, M 4, 214, 217, 220–21, 224, 375, 382 Zenou, Y 19, 201, 209, 230 Zenteno, R 508 Zhang, L 58, 245 Zimmermann, K.F 2, 5, 16, 20, 22–5, 27, 31–2, 56–8, 60, 64–6, 68–72, 137, 139, 141, 143, 148–9, 273–4, 375–6, 378, 384, 398, 423, 425, 428, 434, 444, 447, 449, 461, 480, 502, 530 Zimmermann, L 24–5, 32 Zissimopoulos, J 154, 170 Zorlu, A 465 Zottarelli, L.K 312, 314, 318 Zurn, P 83, 90 Subject index acculturation 13, 15, 265, 270, 374, 383 Africa 68, 70, 188, 218, 222, 250, 333, 344, 383, 446, 454–6, 493, 507, 509, 518; see also individual countries’ names age at entry/of arrival 15, 442–6 aging 59, 75, 84, 147, 299, 304–5, 417, 432, 435, 447, 478, 502 Albania 67, 100, 296, 299 American Time Use Survey (ATUS) 6, 373, 378–9, 384–8, 390 Americanization 264 amnesty, see immigrant legalization ancestry 20–21, 23, 262, 277, 280, 383, 511 Armenia 68, 298, 453, 521 Asia 29, 65, 68, 217, 252, 332–3, 444, 446, 455–6, 492–3; see also individual countries’ names assimilation 5, 7, 14–16, 21–7, 30, 32, 170, 185, 190, 193, 209, 219, 223, 239, 243–4, 253, 259, 261–4, 270, 276, 282–3, 286–7, 289, 325, 339–41, 345, 347–8, 365, 374, 384–5, 399–400, 404, 411–12, 417–18, 422–5, 427–9, 464–6, 476, 499, 530, 535, 544 cultural 29, 476 see also ethnosizer economic 2, 13–14, 26, 30–32, 209, 259, 288, 374, 389, 424, 505, 536 social 13, 285 of refugees 7, 464–6 asylum seekers, see refugees attitudes 2, 7, 13, 26, 28–30, 39, 61, 210, 223, 260, 264, 270, 274, 331, 340–42, 346–7, 353, 401, 411–12, 417–19, 424, 428–9, 462–3, 480, 508; see also perceptions; public attitudes Australia 56, 67, 76–7, 80–84, 153, 159, 180–89, 200, 219–20, 228–30, 236, 244, 252–3, 315, 375, 377, 382, 436–40, 442, 444, 446–7, 449, 457, 463, 465, 470–71, 490–93, 506, 509, 521, 532, 534, 541, 543 Australian Time Use Survey 379, 384 Austria 64, 77–9, 80, 137, 141, 145, 148–9, 183, 244, 252, 334, 336–7, 344, 365, 436, 439–40, 449, 457, 463, 465, 471, 490–93, 503, 532, 534 Bangladesh 62, 100–101, 104–6, 108, 111, 114, 250, 263, 315, 318, 506 Belgium 77–9, 141, 148–9, 181, 183, 194, 334, 336, 365, 436, 439, 449, 457, 465, 471, 491, 493, 503, 506 bilateral and multilateral agreements/treaties 59, 89–90, 91, 93 bilateral trade flows 509, 512 Bolivia 105, 111–12 border controls 3, 51, 63, 112, 121–7, 130, 264, 416, 417, 419–22, 439, 453, 461 bracero program 57–8, 71; see also temporary migration brain circulation 3, 57, 144, 147 drain 60–61, 92, 137, 142, 144, 189, 306, 312, 426, 507, 521 gain 3, 144, 147, 296, 306 British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) 250–51, 394, 396 Burkina Faso 98, 105–6, 108–11, 114–15, 315, 318 business performance, see entrepreneurship/ entrepreneurs Canada 16, 67–8, 76–87, 153, 159, 189, 218, 220–21, 228, 230, 244, 246, 249, 252–3, 259, 272, 313, 318, 353–4, 374, 381, 388, 419, 434, 436–40, 442–4, 446–7, 449, 457, 465, 470–71, 475, 477–9, 482–3, 485, 487, 490–91, 493, 506, 509, 515, 522, 532, 534, 541, 543 Cape Verde 69, 297 caregiving 380, 383–9 child labor migration 1, 3, 98–9, 100–101, 106–8, 111, 115–16 demand for 103–7 agriculture 105–6, 111 domestic work 103–4 handcrafts 106 mining 104–5 petty street jobs 106–7 entry decisions 104, 107–14 adult agency versus autonomy 107, 114 crisis insurance failures 110 ease of transport 112 lack of employment in sending-area 110–11 poverty 104, 108–9 schooling 111 561 562 Subject index seasonal patterns 111 sibling information 113–14 social networks 113 traineeships 112 wage opportunities 112 measurement (survey data) 99–103 economic activity 101–2 sexual exploitation and other abuses 98, 104, 112 see also human smuggling welfare impact (fostering) 114–16 children within the family 61, 380, 383, 507 China 1, 68, 70, 112, 127, 249–50, 288, 296–7, 299, 304, 315, 318, 332, 388, 396, 403–4, 441, 457, 474–5, 487, 506, 519, 523, 531 church attendance 339–40, 342, 345–6, 349 circular migration 1–2, 31, 55–63, 65–72, 147, 306, 488 benefits of 57, 61 as policy concept 58–9 sending countries’ view, and remittances 59–60 costs of 57 sending countries labor shortage 61 settlement problems and resistance to return 60–61 xenophobia, exploitation and health issues 61–2 empirical findings 64 data collection and datasets 56 subject characteristics (country-bycountry) 64–8 nomenclature 57–8 citizenship ascension 1, 7, 262–3, 470–74, 476–83, 485–7, 471–2, 475–6, 477–80, 481–2, 485 benefits of ‘citizenship premium’ on earnings 475–6, 480–85 immigration policy selectivity and 481–5 Canada’s triple 481–2 Germany and Switzerland’s single 483–4 Norway’s adverse 484–5 US’s double 482–3 costs: loss of home country citizenship 477 demographic and socioeconomic forces 476–7 dual 70, 471, 473, 477–80, 484, 487, 521–3 economic contribution to host country 485 ethnic identity and 25–6 see also ethnic identity; ethnosizer host country rate differences and policy effects on 470–71 empirical evidence 477–80 Citizenship Survey of England and Wales 270 climate change 1, 5, 312 cohort effects 16 confounded 14 Commission of the European Communities 68 commuting times and transportation 112, 121, 201, 374, 382 compensating differential 214–17, 219, 222–3 complementarity 138, 418, 434, 514–16 conflicts/wars 17, 31, 89, 130, 270, 272, 403, 422, 428, 453, 455, 457, 459–60, 467 correspondence/audit studies 4, 193–8, 209–10 country of origin/sending country 3, 6, 8, 16, 20–22, 24, 30, 55–6, 59, 61–2, 65, 70–71, 75, 91, 138–40, 143–4, 147, 179, 188–9, 228, 233, 239, 242–4, 250, 252, 260, 270, 273, 278–9, 284, 289, 293, 332, 338–40, 348, 366, 381, 384, 387, 389, 400, 402, 404, 412, 426–7, 442–4, 449, 455–6, 460–61, 464, 466, 471, 477, 480, 487, 495–6, 505, 507–9, 513, 515–16, 518, 520, 522–3, 525, 540, 543 crime 1, 6, 16–17, 26, 63, 107, 122, 306, 353–64, 366–70, 419, 507 cross-area panel studies 356–62 exogeneity problem 357 literature using instrumental variable strategy 357–8, 361–2 location choice 361 economic model 353, 361–2, 369 immigrant legalization impacts 366–7 immigrant victims of crime 367–8 imprisonment rates, native/immigrant comparisons 364–6 individual-level crime models 358, 362–4 labor market attachment 366–9 immigrant legalization impact 366–7 neighborhood effects 368–9 public attitudes (opinion poll evidence) 353–4 cultural transmission 429 culture, effects of 20, 424–5 Current Population Surveys (CPS) 85, 159, 174, 232, 287, 311, 377 Cyprus 137, 148, 259, 334, 336, 349 Denmark 58, 65, 67, 72, 77–80, 141, 148, 180–81, 183, 185–8, 282, 334–6, 344, 356, 365, 436–7, 439–40, 444, 447, 449, 457, 461, 463, 465, 470–71, 491, 493–4, 503, 532, 534–5, 542, 546, 548 deportation policies 3, 61, 121, 123–4, 126, 128, 130 diaspora 1, 8, 71–2, 240, 260, 505–8, 515–16, 518–24 capital market investment 518 Subject index 563 definition and size estimates of international diaspora 505–7 diaspora bonds 8, 505, 518–19 direct investment 515–18 expatriate role in foreign direct investment flow 515–16, 518 patenting activity 516 studies on 517 investment funds 519 literature review 509–15 member 8, 508, 515 policy agenda to maximize bilateral benefits 521–2 future research areas 523–4 policies 1, 71, 507 remittances 508–9 resources 8, 507 skill levels 507 skills and technology transfer 518–21 sending countries tapping of expatriates 520–21 south–south migration 507 trade 509–14 bilateral trade flows 509–13 destination differentials 513–14 differentiated products 513 language differences and 513 market information transfers 509 nostalgic trade 509 pro-export emigrant effect findings 514 trade policies, interaction with migration 514–15 discrimination 4, 7, 30, 61–2, 139, 149, 153, 157, 176, 178–9, 189, 193–9, 201, 205, 208–10, 270, 331, 347, 349, 396, 401, 422, 425, 472–3, 481, 483, 500, 537–8, 547, 549 displacement 64, 130, 143, 435, 453–4, 456–8, 460, 505 diversity 13, 25, 31, 272, 274, 335, 342–3, 374, 376, 380, 387, 389 cultural 20, 29, 263 ethnic 1–2, 19, 139, 267, 271, 325, 331 domestic servant relationship 116 downskilling 139, 142–3, 147 drought 312, 314–15, 317–19 dual citizenship, see citizenship earthquake 234, 310–11, 313–15, 317–18 East–West mobility 137, 148 Easterlin paradox 393, 397, 402; see also happiness economic integration, see migration, ethnicity and economic integration economic migrant 13, 91, 193, 393, 419 education 5, 13, 24, 29–31, 39, 44–7, 56, 66–7, 72, 76, 80, 83–5, 89–94, 115, 141–2, 149, 157, 166, 168, 170, 174, 176–80, 182–90, 202, 210, 214, 219, 224, 228–30, 233, 239–40, 244, 248–9, 251, 269–70, 276, 280, 282–3, 288–9, 293–7, 301, 305, 346–8, 353–6, 362, 370, 384–8, 419, 421, 435–46, 449, 462, 464–6, 472, 475, 477, 487, 493–5, 503, 506–10, 514, 516, 519, 523–4, 537, 543 education–occupation mismatch 178, 182–6 causes of 184–6 sending country determinants 184, 185–6 strategies to overcome 185 theories on 178–9 definition and measurement issues 177–8 dynamics of 180–83 effect on wages 186–8 native/immigrant comparisons 181–2, 187 task selection and 231–2 over- and under-education 179–80, 228–30 research extensions 188–9 research history 176 employer 3, 56–7, 59, 62, 69–70, 82, 87, 98, 103–7, 113, 116, 121–2, 124–8, 143, 159–61, 178–9, 182, 184–6, 188–9, 194–5, 197, 199, 205–7, 210, 214–16, 220–23, 228, 230, 245, 323, 367, 411, 415, 419, 421, 439, 446, 473, 476, 480–83, 487, 537–8 anti-discrimination policies 537–8 sanctions 3, 121, 124–7, 130 see also ethnic hiring employment, see labor market endogeneity 5, 31, 168, 232–3, 245, 248–9, 252–3, 260, 268, 272–3, 282, 285–6, 288, 293–4, 304, 306, 326, 362, 395, 401, 404, 473, 486, 501–2, 509, 515 as determinant of intermarriage 272–3, 277–81 entrepreneurship/entrepreneurs 1, 4, 20, 57, 68, 123, 127, 130, 153–6, 158–9, 164–6, 168, 170, 175, 272, 441, 448, 510, 537 access to finance 153 contribution of immigrants 153–4 immigrants 158–62 business formation 159–60 business ownership 159, 161 business performance 160–61 data on 158–9 minorities, extant data on 154–8 asset level and entry 154–5 lending discrimination 157–8 start-up capital and performance 155–6 types of financing 156–7 564 Subject index minority and immigrant comparisons home-ownership impacts 164–6 startup capital 161–2, 547 types of financing 162–4 probability regressions 167–8 environmental degradation 325 Ethiopia 104, 249, 295, 314–15, 318, 400 ethnic capital 31 ethnic enclaves 201, 209, 237, 244, 263, 279, 280, 283, 424, 465 ethnic endogamy 5, 276, 277, 280, 289 ethnic group 4, 17–18, 20–21, 31, 170, 189, 196, 199, 208–9, 227, 235, 237, 239, 244, 263, 266–9, 271–2, 278–80, 285–6, 289, 340, 361, 381, 422, 505, 511, 546 ethnic hiring 1, 208–9 field experiments in discrimination 193–9 audit studies 193–4 correspondence studies 194–9 networks, role of 205–8 racial or ethnic stratification 208 residence-based 205–6 underlying racial mismatch evidence 206–8 spatial mismatch and minorities 199–205 employment probability predictions 204–5 pure spatial mismatch theory and 201 spatial distribution/racial composition hypotheses 201–4 ethnosizing migrants and economic integration 24–6 applied to economic behavior 25 empirical examination 26–7 applied to labor force participation 25 home ownership 25 naturalization 25–6 self-identification 24 empirical examinations 26, 27 racial and cultural identity (situational demands) 18–20 role of (theory of utility-maximization) 16–18 beliefs 17–18 commitment 17 ideal self 17 ethnic identity 2, 5, 13, 18–32, 139, 260–62, 264–73, 276, 285–6, 288–9 assimilation issues 260 economics and labor markets 271–2 endogeneity and causality 272–3 formation 259–73 methodology and data 267–8 research background, rise of interest in 259–60 theory of ethnic identity 20–24 complete multidimensional ethnic identity 22–3 two-dimensional ethnosizer 21–2 ethnic network, see networks ethnic persistence 26 ethnicity 1–2, 5, 16, 18, 20–21, 24, 28, 84, 127, 161, 166, 174, 194–6, 205, 208, 259–60, 264, 267–71, 273–4, 277–8, 280–82, 286, 288–9, 358, 363, 382, 422, 507, 516, 549; see also migration, ethnicity and economic integration ethnography 376, 379, 380, 383 ethnosizer 21–8; see also assimilation; integration; marginalization; separation ethnosizing migrants and economic integration 24–6 applied to economic behavior 25 applied to labor force participation 25 home ownership 25 naturalization 25–6 self-identification 24 empirical examinations 26, 27 Eurobarometer survey 417, 489 European Commission 55, 68, 72, 449 European Social Survey 338–9, 363, 394–5, 400–401 Eurostat 334–5 European Union circular migration 58–9, 65–6 diaspora economics resources (and policies) 514, 522 EU10 countries 137, 140–43 fertility rates 335–6 happiness and immigration 394–5, 400–401 health variables 245 illegal migration 130 immigration flows and patterns 332–4, 492, 506 immigration policy innovations 440, 534 national/ethnic identities 268, 271 occupational risk 219 refugees 461–2 religiosity of migrants, see religiosity skill-based immigrant selection 435, 447, 531 wealth and entrepreneurship data sources 154 welfare migration 498–9, 500–501 see also individual countries’ names EU enlargement and labor mobility 58, 71, 137–8, 141, 144, 148, 499 aggregate GDP increase 144 effects, positive and negative 138–9 on migrants 143 on receiving countries 143–4 on sending countries 144 Subject index 565 potential future migration 145–7 scale and composition of flows 139–43 evolutionary game theory 18, 265 factor mobility 13, 418 family attitudes 30 family investment hypothesis 381 family reunification/reunion 60, 64, 229, 239, 382, 438, 445, 447, 449, 457, 467, 506, 510 female immigrants 15–16, 34, 180, 232, 244, 251, 546, 550 fertility rates 64, 335, 337, 435 effects on religious make–up 337 Finland 28, 77–80, 141, 148, 180–81, 219, 334, 336, 339, 365, 396, 436, 439, 449, 471, 491, 493–4, 503, 542, 545 fiscal impacts of immigration 434–5 fixed-effects models 248, 294, 312 floating populations 58 flood 311–12, 314–15, 317–19 forced labor, see human smuggling foreign direct investment (FDI) 515–16, 518 fostering of children 114–15 free border mobility 57 free labor mobility 3, 56, 63–4, 71, 137, 141–3, 147–8 free-migration regime 496, 501 freedom of movement of workers 3, 137, 147 France 16, 58, 72, 76–80, 82, 141, 148, 149, 182–3, 200, 219, 261–2, 282, 332, 334, 336–7, 344, 348, 353, 365, 401, 436, 439–40, 449, 457, 463, 471, 487, 490–94, 503, 506, 521, 522, 531–3, 538, 548 gender 15, 18, 25, 66, 89, 111, 142, 166, 174, 180, 232, 271, 279, 285, 296–7, 304–5, 340, 358, 363, 370, 375, 379–80, 382–3, 385–9, 419, 445, 478, 487, 494–5, 503, 508, 538, 547 assimilation and ethnic identity 15–16, 25, 30 child labor migration 100, 111 obesity and employment 249–51 time use 373, 379–80, 385–8 welfare and women (USA) 50, 498 generalized difference-in-difference (GDD) 321–5 Germany 15–16, 20, 21, 24–6, 29, 32, 56, 58–61, 63–7, 70–72, 76–9, 83, 93, 130, 140–42, 145, 148–9, 170, 194, 201, 219–20, 223, 244, 246, 252–3, 261–4, 273, 284–5, 333–4, 336–40, 344, 348–9, 353–4, 356, 359, 365, 367–8, 370, 380, 387–8, 395–6, 402–3, 434–6, 438–40, 444, 447, 449, 453–4, 456–7, 461, 463, 465, 467, 470, 480, 482–4, 488, 491–3, 503, 506, 517, 531–6, 538, 542, 546–8 active labor market programs 547 assimilation 15 circular migration 60–61, 63, 65–7 citizenship ascension 480, 483–4 crime and immigration 367–8 ethnic Germans 262, 454, 483 happiness and immigration 402–3 migration and ethnicity 15, 29 migration flows and patterns 333–4 national/ethnic identities 261, 262–3, 271 refugees 461 time use (gendered) 380 Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) 55 green card 440 guest-worker 332, 348; see also temporary migration happiness 1, 6, 306, 393–5, 397–405 data and measurement 394–7 endogeneity problem 395, 397 European datasets 394–5 World Values Survey 394 income–happiness relationship 393, 397–8 see also Easterlin paradox international migration, literature review 399–402 immigration policy 401–2 native/immigrant comparisons 400–401 rural-to-urban 403 and migration 393–405 theoretical framework 398–9 see also subjective well-being health effects of family members left behind 297–8, 304–5 health professionals, international migration 75–93 developed country migration 80–81 economic integration 85–8, 89–90 background variables 85–6 language ability 86 licensure impacts 87 quality control (points system) 87–8 licensing/registration, regulation and unionization 87, 88–90 motivations to import 83–5 cost cutting 83 less desirable work shifts 84 shortages 83–4 developing country migration 90–92 foreign-born physicians in OECD countries 76–9 566 Subject index health product and factor markets 81–3 overview 75, 92–3 social networks and 235 healthy immigrant hypothesis 242–4 Hecksher–Ohlin (H–O) model 514–15 hiring 59, 160, 179, 193–7, 199, 202, 206, 208–10, 221, 234, 256, 476, 515, 537–8, 549 home ownership 4, 25, 154–5, 157, 164, 166, 168–9, 174, 476 Honduras 313, 318, 384 host country/receiving country 2, 4, 7, 13, 16, 20–25, 31–2, 55–7, 59, 60–62, 66–7, 69–71, 76, 83, 86, 90, 121–6, 127–9, 131, 138, 153, 170, 178–80, 182–6, 188, 190, 214, 216, 220–22, 227–30, 233–4, 236–7, 239, 243, 259, 260–65, 277, 279–82, 284, 289, 332, 338–41, 346–7, 354, 370, 400, 412, 416–17, 419–20, 422, 424–7, 432–3, 435, 441, 447, 448, 449, 457, 470–76, 479–81, 485–7, 492, 513–14, 516, 520, 530–31, 534–6, 544, 548 household bargaining 296–7 household migration decisions 50–51, 427–8 household work, housework 6, 110, 296, 377, 380, 382–7, 390 housing 16, 53, 61, 70, 76, 103, 122, 194, 199, 320, 340, 346, 353, 368, 464, 490–91, 506, 519, 521, 537 Hukou system 58 human capital 4, 7, 14–15, 17–19, 24, 31, 39, 50, 58, 60, 86, 90–91, 115–16, 128, 138–9, 143, 147–8, 176, 178–9, 184–5, 188–9, 216, 219, 220, 243, 245, 271, 282, 284, 291, 325, 370, 373, 376, 421, 435–6, 441, 443, 445–9, 472–5, 477, 480–88, 536, 543 ethnicity and 19–20 return to 481 theory 14, 17, 91, 143, 435, 446, 475, 481 transferability 178, 186, 230 human smuggling 1, 3, 121–31, 98, 121, 125, 127–31 intermediaries, reason for existence of 121–2 microstructure models of 123–6 integrated and non-integrated intermediaries 123–5 moral hazard variables 124 wealth-constrained migration 126 theories for policy advice 127–31 data relevant to activity 128 distinctions of smuggling/trafficking 129–30 illegal migration, specificities of home and host countries 127–8 welfare issues/policy coordination 130–31 see also child labor migration Human Rights Watch 105 hurricane 5, 45, 234, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326 identity, see ethnic identity; national identity identity economics 271 identity formation 5, 19, 259–60, 264–5, 273 illegal and irregular migration 3, 57, 68–9, 112, 121, 123–4, 127–8, 131, 417, 426–7, 521 border patrols and controls 51, 439 crime and 366–7 see also human smuggling immigrant–citizenship decision, and consequences 474–5 immigrant distributions 437, 532–3 immigrant legalization 121, 123–4, 127–8, 130, 356, 366–7, 428, 439 immigrant selection 1, 7–8, 88, 432, 441, 471–2, 481, 483, 486, 534, 540, 541, 543, 548 immigration 4–6, 8, 14, 28–9, 51–2, 56, 63–4, 68, 70, 72, 81, 83–9, 91–4, 125, 127, 129–30, 142–3, 149, 153, 178–9, 182, 189, 207, 217, 223, 227–33, 236–7, 239, 242, 249–53, 260, 262, 269–70, 273, 283, 311, 313, 331–2, 335, 337–8, 340, 342–4, 346–9, 353–64, 367–70, 375, 393–5, 400–402, 404, 416–20, 427–9, 432–5, 437–46, 448–9, 453, 461, 463, 467, 470, 472, 474, 476, 478–9, 481–2, 484–5, 487, 489–97, 499–503, 509, 513–14, 516, 530–31, 534–5, 537, 539–40, 543–4, 546, 548 immigration policy, see migration policy imprisonment 356, 359, 364–7, 370 income, see wages India 1, 61, 65, 70, 72, 80, 105–6, 108, 110, 113–14, 180–81, 194, 237, 249–50, 261, 263, 267, 277, 288, 315, 318, 332, 387–8, 454, 457, 487, 505–7, 518, 520, 523–4 injuries and fatalities 218–19 instrumental variables (IVs) 248, 282, 294, 313, 357–8 investment in human capital 14, 31, 39, 482 integration 1–3, 5–6, 8, 13, 17–18, 20–22, 25–30, 60–61, 67, 71, 81, 84–5, 92–3, 137, 147, 170, 180, 182, 184, 189–90, 262, 267, 271, 276, 287–8, 332, 338–41, 346–7, 349, 400, 448, 464–5, 470–71, 473, 476, 480, 484, 486, 522, 531, 535–6, 543–5, 548; see also assimilation interest groups 7, 59, 89, 131, 413–18, 420, 424, 427–8 interethnic marriages 5, 276, 284–5 determinants of intermarriage 276–81 education and language 280–81 Subject index 567 ethnic endogamy and variations 277–8 non-ethnic endogamy 277 religious preferences 278–9 opportunity and endogamy patterns 279–80 labor market effects of 281–5 network and opportunities native sourced 281–3 validity 283–4 intergenerational 15–16, 40, 271, 276, 287–8, 337, 349, 374, 384–5, 417, 422 intermarriage, see interethnic marriage intermediaries 3, 105–6, 113, 121–7, 128–30, 380 internal migration 51–2, 64, 84, 297, 304, 393, 396, 399, 402–4, 406, 498, 518 International Labor Office 98 International Labor Organization (ILO) 68, 104–6 International Medical Graduate (IMG) 76, 84, 86–7, 93 international migration 2, 13, 32, 55, 75, 81–4, 89, 112–13, 121, 189, 293–9, 304, 313, 316, 319–20, 393, 396, 399, 401–2, 426, 463, 497–8, 515, 524, 532–3 International Organization for Migration (IOM) 55, 68, 70, 128, 148, 318, 467 International Social Survey Program 268, 270, 342, 343, 348, 349 international trade 7, 70–71, 262, 411–12, 418, 424–5 intra-country ascension variations 471–2 Ireland 64, 76–80, 141–3, 148–9, 250, 334–6, 338–9, 435–6, 440, 490–92, 499, 503, 521, 532 irregular migration, see illegal and irregular migration Israel 28, 32, 65, 87, 273, 278, 348, 396, 400, 467, 505, 518, 521, 524, 542, 546 Italy 58, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 72, 128, 130, 140, 141, 145, 148, 180, 182, 183, 221, 259, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 339, 345, 353, 354, 359, 366, 436, 457, 490, 491, 493, 499, 503, 506, 516, 521 Jordan 456, 457 labor demand 58, 111, 115, 227 labor/humanitarian migration 1–3, 30–32, 55–9, 62, 64–8, 70, 98–9, 108, 111, 116, 296, 438–9, 441, 444 Labor Force Survey 142, 233, 247, 270, 377 labor market 1–8, 14–19, 24–6, 28–9, 31–2, 39, 42–3, 47, 50, 52, 56, 58–9, 61–2, 64, 66–70, 72, 83, 85–7, 89, 92–3, 110, 115, 121, 127–8, 130, 137–41, 144, 147–8, 176–80, 182, 184–6, 188–90, 193–4, 199–201, 204–9, 214, 216, 222, 227, 230, 232–6, 242, 244–6, 248–53, 260, 262–3, 271–3, 280–86, 288, 298–9, 311, 322, 340–41, 347–8, 353–9, 361–3, 365–7, 369, 374–5, 377, 385, 389, 403, 417–19, 421–2, 432, 435–8, 441, 444–9, 463, 465, 467, 472–7, 480, 485, 487, 489–91, 496, 498–9, 500, 502, 505, 513, 530–31, 534–7, 540–49 attachment and crime relationship 361, 366–7 efficiency-wage view of unemployment 419 ethnic identity and 271–2 as filter for circular migration 69 healthcare product markets 81–3 interethnic marriage effects 281–5 network effects 234–7, 235–7, 239 occupational sorting 232 outcomes 5, 7, 19, 32, 39, 85, 87, 139, 148, 227, 230, 233–6, 242, 244–6, 248–53, 271, 281, 286, 348, 354, 362, 365, 367, 432, 436, 441, 444, 446–9, 473, 487, 541, 543 remittances effects 298–9 skill levels 138–9, 143–4, 433, 444–7 labor mobility 3, 51, 56, 63–4, 71–2, 137–8, 143; see also EU enlargement and labor mobility labor supply 30, 103, 107, 293, 298–9, 306, 311, 313, 374–6, 381–2, 433–4 elasticities 48–9 language ability 86, 184–5, 280–81, 440, 444, 466, 513, 540 Latin American studies 313, 401, 456 Latinobarometro 401 left behind 1, 5, 72, 293–308, 401, 404 children 295–8 children’s education, age/gender variables 295–7 empirical problems and proposed solutions 293–5 instrumental variables estimators 294–5 education of 295–7 family members 293–305 future research areas 305 happiness of 401 health of 297–98, 304–5 migrant transfers exploration 301–5, 302 estimating best response functions 301–2 results 302–4 simulation 302 parents 299–305 568 Subject index time and money contributions 299–300 levels of 300–301 spouses 298–9 welfare of families 401 leisure 6, 18, 51, 373, 377, 381–8 legalization, see immigrant legalization life-cycle models, see migration decision modeling Los Angeles County Social Surveys 268 lobbying 7, 415, 420, 421, 423 longitudinal data 2, 32, 65, 174, 249, 294, 296, 403 Mali 69, 105, 118, 312, 314 managed migration 91, 497 bilateral agreements 89, 91 multilateral agreements/treaties 91 marginalization 21–2, 26, 27, 371; see also ethnosizer melting pot 264, 270 meta-analysis 6, 313, 325, 466 Mexican Health and Aging Study 301 Mexican Migration Project 51, 56 Mexico 51, 52, 53, 58, 63, 68, 77, 78, 79, 113, 128, 218, 222, 232, 236, 249, 250, 283, 287, 293, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 302, 304, 305, 306, 313, 314, 315, 318, 332, 381, 387, 388, 437, 506, 509, 514, 521, 522, 543 circular migration 56, 58, 63, 65, 67, 68 crime and immigration 362 occupational sorting 232 networks 233, 236–7 time use studies 387 migrant labor market outcomes 5, 7, 19, 32, 39, 139, 148, 227, 230, 233–6, 242–6, 249–53, 271, 281, 286, 432, 436, 444–9, 541–3 migrant transfers 301 of child labor migrants 104, 107–14 household migration 50–51, 427–8 longitudinal modeling, see migration decision modeling political economy of 425–6 seeking happiness and achievement 393, 401 welfare magnet hypothesis 496–7, 500–502 migration background 31 migration benefits 3, 7, 25, 29, 55–62, 68, 70–72, 91–2, 139, 143, 185, 262, 271, 331, 434–5 migration costs 3, 51, 108, 110, 126, 138, 207, 227, 233, 496 migration decisions 2, 49, 113–14, 129, 138, 141, 227, 233, 239, 301, 393, 395, 398–9, 404, 425, 427, 432, 466, 497–8, 500, 546 of child labor migrants 104, 107–14 household migration 50–51, 427–8 longitudinal modeling, see migration decision modeling political economy of 425–6 seeking happiness and achievement 393, 401 welfare magnet hypothesis 496–7, 500–502 European studies 498–500 US studies 497–8 migration decision modeling (longitudinal) 39–52 dynamic programming model components 40–42 empirical model 42–8 costs of moving 44, 45–7 wages 43–4, 52 household migration decisions 50–51 immigration and 51–2 pay-offs and costs 39–40 welfare migration 48–50 see also circular migration; return migration migration, ethnicity and economic integration 13–31 attitudes from and about migrants 28–30 employment disparities 30 economics of assimilation 14–16 selection biases 15 self-employment 16 ethnic identity, role of 16–28 theory of ethnic identity 20–24 complete multidimensional ethnic identity 22–3 two-dimensional ethnosizer 21–2 see also ethnic identity; ethnicity migration flows 2–3, 49–50, 63, 91, 124–5, 138, 140–41, 145, 148–50, 326, 329, 334, 426, 500, 515, 521 migration networks 58, 141, 235–6, 516–18, 524, 535 migration policy 1–3, 16, 28–9, 57, 64, 69–71, 125, 130, 228–30, 262, 400–404, 411–21, 426–8, 434–5, 440–43, 448–9, 467, 496, 531, 543–4 diaspora resources and 514–15, 521–2 effect on citizenship ascension 471, 481–5 licensing/registration 87, 88–90 political economy of 412–16, 419–22 refugee and asylum migration 461–4 skill-based 437–40 effect on migrant characteristics 441–4 effect on performance outcomes 444–7, 521–2 points system 87–8, 185, 439–41, 534 migration policy evaluation 530–48 active labor market programs 537, 545–6 anti-discrimination policies 537–8, 547–8 Subject index 569 econometrics of policy evaluation 538–46 empirical evaluation studies 540–42 introduction programs 535–6, 544 language training 545, 546–7 settlement policies 535, 544, 548 migration potential 145, 148, 502 migration stocks 494, 516 Mincerian human capital framework 14 mining 104, 105, 107, 219, 310 minorities 1, 3–5, 19, 28–30, 32–3, 127, 147, 153–7, 159, 160, 169, 170, 171, 174, 176, 178, 193–5, 199, 201, 205, 208–9, 211, 259, 263–4, 269, 270–73, 286, 340, 341, 346–7, 349, 354, 369, 377, 384, 422–3, 482 entrepreneurs 154–8, 161–6 ethnic hiring 199–205 ethnic identity and 19 integration process 29–30, 422–4 mismatch educational 1, 4, 176–80, 182–5, 189 effect 189–90 immigrant 179, 189–90, 230 labor market 58, 137, 176, 189 occupational 229 racial 201–6, 208–9 skill 138, 142, 147, 230, 374 spatial 4, 193, 199, 201–4, 208–9, 374, 549 structural 147 mobility, see labor mobility movers 40, 50, 52, 57, 60, 66 moving costs 40, 44, 46–8, 421 multiculturalism 19, 28, 259, 270 National Asian American Political Survey 269 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) 42, 46–7, 246–7, 358, 363, 498 national identity 5, 28–9, 260–68, 270–71, 273–4, 340; see also ethnic identity nationality, see citizenship natural disasters and migration 1, 5, 110, 309, 313, 317, 320, 325, 460 historical events 309–11 impact on populations 322–4 data 323–4 empirical results 234 methodology 322–3 literature/studies on impacts of 311–13 meta-analysis of previous studies 313–17 event (disaster) study 317–20 lack of legitimate control set 321 methodological problems 320 treatment set and control set, mean difference 321–2 see also refugees nature 15, 39, 57–8, 65, 82, 93, 128, 131, 177, 193, 206, 229, 260, 295, 332, 345–6, 359, 368, 403, 421, 475, 502, 513 naturalization, see citizenship negative immigrant selection, see selection negotiating identity 261 neighborhood 356, 360, 367–8 neoclassical economic theory 55, 259 Nepal Living Standards Survey 101–2 net migration 207, 312, 323–4, 517 Netherlands 28, 58, 65–7, 72, 77–80, 112, 141, 148–9, 182–3, 194, 219, 244, 252, 282, 284–5, 332, 334–6, 344, 349, 353–4, 365, 439–40, 449, 457, 463, 465, 470–71, 477–8, 487, 491, 493–4, 503, 506, 521–2, 532–3, 535, 538 networks 4, 19, 59–60, 65, 71, 86, 104, 106, 110, 113, 115–16, 122, 125, 127, 130, 141, 172, 193, 201, 205–10, 223, 227, 230–31, 233–9, 272, 283–4, 340, 375, 380, 389, 403, 418, 424–5, 427, 429, 461, 466, 489, 496, 498, 501–2, 506, 508–9, 512–16, 518–19, 520–21, 523–4, 535, 549 child labor migrants 113 diaspora resources (and policies) 506, 509, 513, 516, 518–21 ethnic hiring 205–8 racial or ethnic stratification 208 residence-based 205–6 underlying racial mismatch evidence 206–8 illegal migrants 122 migrants/natives and migrants/home country 424–5 occupational sorting 230, 233–9 affecting outcomes and choice 235–7, 239 geographic roots 237 immigrant skills affecting choice 233–4 theories suggesting mismatch 234–5 settlement policies and 535 New Immigrant Survey (NIS) 56, 104, 119, 128, 131, 249, 340 New Zealand 56, 65–7, 71, 76–80, 83, 180–82, 184, 295, 297, 419, 437–40, 471, 491, 493, 511, 534 Nicaragua 298, 455 Nordic countries 67, 403, 536, 548 nurse migration 86 obesity 1, 5, 26, 242–53, 374, 383 effect on labor market outcomes 244–9 econometric strategies and findings (endogeneity) 245, 248–9 literature on 246–7 theories addressing causality 244–5 570 Subject index healthy immigrant hypothesis 242–4 time variable 243–4 wages/employment probability 249–52 immigrant/native comparison 251 occupation 4, 17, 85, 88–9, 94, 102, 177–9, 182, 190, 214, 218, 220, 223–4, 227–30, 232, 233, 235–9, 246, 439–40, 443–4, 476, 478–9 occupational choice 227, 232–7, 240 occupational mismatch, see mismatch occupational risk 4, 214–23 compensating wage differentials 214–16 implications for immigrants 216–17, 222 native–immigrant differences 217–18 injuries and fatalities 218–19 reasons for 219–20 underreporting phenomenon 220–21 occupational sorting 1, 4–5, 227–8, 231, 233, 235–6, 238 network effects 230–31, 233–9 econometric issues 238–9 attenuation bias 239 reflection problem 238–9 self-selection and migration costs 230–31 studies on immigrant occupational choice 235–7 clusters 235 ethnic fractionalization 237 wage premium 236 theories on labor market outcomes 234–5 skill-based 228–31 demand side (immigration policies) 228, 239 education (native–immigrant comparisons) 228–9 skill transferability 230 supply side 228 oppositional identities 19 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries 29–30, 55, 418, 436, 507, 514 welfare and immigration 490–95 out-migration 39, 57, 61, 65, 70, 72, 84, 113, 116, 142–5, 312–13, 316–17, 319–20, 326, 514 over-education, see education overstay 56, 60, 65, 439 Pacific region 65, 524 perceptions 13, 28–30, 53, 82–4, 86, 93, 137, 148, 216, 223, 260, 264, 341, 348, 355, 369, 378, 419, 422, 462, 476, 489; see also attitudes; public attitudes permanent migration 80, 311, 417, 438–9 Philippines 85, 98, 249–50, 288, 296, 298, 332, 381, 387–8, 506 point system 87–8, 94, 185, 439, 440, 442–6, 449, 481–2 political economy of migration 1, 7, 130, 427 illegal immigrants 130, 426–7 importance of subject 411–12 interest group contest model 412–16 receiving country (politics and welfare) assimilation processes 422–4 migration quotas and 419–22 networks 424–5 voters’ attitudes 417, 418–19 sending country (politics and welfare) 425–7 refugees 462–3 prayer 339, 342–3, 345–6 propensity score matching 248, 294, 304, 366, 539, 542, 546, 549 psychology 17, 21, 24, 272–3 public attitudes 353–4, 462; see also attitudes; perceptions public goods 138, 276–8, 417 push and pull factors 70, 91, 489 qualitative data 376 qualitative research 378–80 quota 295, 411–16, 420–22, 428, 438, 442, 449, 534 racial identity 18–19, 265, 273; see also ethnic identity reference group 189, 395, 398–9, 403 refugees 1, 7, 34, 87, 98, 131, 237, 239, 263, 325, 332, 382, 418, 444–7, 449, 453–67, 470, 478, 481, 483–5, 488, 510, 513, 544–5 refugee and asylum migration 453–67 20th-century history of 453–5 assimilation 464–6 drivers of 458–61 1980s surge 460–61 conflicts and their degrees 458–9 cross-country analyses 459–60 human rights abuses and fragile political institutions 459 numbers 453 asylum applications (1980–2009) 457–8 by region (1970–2009) 455–6 returnees 457 share of burden (2008) 456–7 occupation choice and networks 237 policy backlash 461–3 effects of, studies on 463–4 procedural hurdles and restrictive conditions 461 Subject index 571 tougher border controls 461 underlying political processes 462 UN Convention nonrefoulement clause 454 see also natural disasters and migration regulated (health) professions 81, 86, 88; see also health professionals religiosity 1, 6, 278, 331–2, 337–47, 349 church attendance and prayer habits 342–3 current and projected landscape 332–7 changing patterns (Europe and US) 332–5 native and first-generation immigrant comparisons 335–7 integration, ‘bridging’ and buffer roles 339–41 differences between Europe and USA 341–2 estimates based on attendance and prayer 345–6 migration flow and 344–5 intensity, native/immigrant population comparisons 338–9 interethnic marriages and 278–9 otherness and native prejudice 331, 341 transmission of norms and attitudes 331 remittances 3, 8, 59, 61, 65–6, 69, 90–91, 108, 110, 144, 147, 189–90, 295–300, 305–6, 373, 401, 426, 505, 508–9, 523 rent seeking 425–6 repatriation 453, 455 reputational cascades 18 residence-based labor market networks 206 risk preferences 65, 128, 220, 272 risk premium 4, 214, 222–3, 523 risk proclivity 26 restricted-migration regime 497, 501 return migration 15, 32, 40, 45, 51–3, 56–7, 60, 64, 65, 69, 91, 144, 146–7, 189, 190, 243, 325, 382, 470, 475, 519; see also circular migration; migration roster method 99–103, 116 Saudi Arabia 62, 457, 506 schooling 15, 17, 102, 104, 108, 111, 115–16, 177–80, 184, 186, 188, 229–30, 280, 282, 288–9, 295–7, 340, 376, 380, 443, 445, 478–9, 509 seasonal workers 68–9 second generation immigrants 32, 271, 278–81, 347–8, 360, 368, 384–5, 400–401, 499 self-employment 4, 27, 142, 170, 189, 190, 221, 239–40, 263, 283, 537, 547, 549; see also entrepreneurship/entrepreneurs selection negative 87, 144, 227–8, 233, 239, 282, 395 positive 14, 227, 395, 443, 481–4 self-identification 17, 20–24, 26–7, 32, 267 self-selection 14, 116, 228–9, 233, 243, 365, 432, 475, 481, 483–6 sex ratios 279–80, 282, 289 sexual exploitation/abuse 3, 61, 68, 71, 98–9, 104, 114, 116–17, 122–3, 124–6, 131 shortages of health professionals 75, 82, 86, 92 skilled migration 2, 8, 139, 149, 228, 417, 440, 505, 516, 518 skill-based selection processes 436–7, 442–4, 446, 543 deteriorating labor market outcomes, migrant/native comparisons 436–7, 497–8 economic rationale for (surplus distribution) 433–5 fiscal impacts 434–5 human capital 435 immigration policies/visa rules 228–9, 239, 437–39, 521–2 impact on immigrant characteristics 441–4 impact on performance outcomes 444–7 earnings differentials 445–6 points system 439–41, 534 overview 447–9 refugees 465 skills transferability between countries 5, 14, 179, 230, 447, 465, 536 and occupation 29, 88, 231, 438, 443–4 and technology transfer 518–21 sleep 6, 106, 374–5, 377, 383–8 social benefits 137, 477, 489–90, 496, 521, 546 social capital 58, 65, 341, 376 social exclusion 28, 262 social expenditure 490–91, 495, 501 social network, see networks social welfare 7, 235, 411–13, 415–16, 419, 421, 427–8, 440 sovereignty 260–66 Spain 57–8, 63–4, 66, 68, 72, 77–9, 140–42, 145, 148–9, 181, 183–5, 187–8, 218–20, 232–3, 253, 313, 332–7, 344, 348, 353, 362, 365, 401, 436, 471, 491–4, 503, 506, 509, 511, 513, 521, 532–3, 549 crime and immigration 362 diaspora resources (and policies) 513 migration flows and patterns 334 national/ethnic identities 270–71 occupational risk 218, 219 occupational sorting 232 spatial mismatch 4, 193, 199, 201–4, 208–9, 374, 549 startup capital 154–8, 161, 161–4, 169, 174 572 Subject index stayers 15, 44–5, 47, 50, 60, 142 street children 106–8, 114 students 1, 76, 80, 84, 93, 103, 385–6, 388, 440–41, 448, 519, 524, 541, 545 subjective well-being 394, 399–401, 404–5; see also happiness Survey of Business Owners (SBO) 158–69 survey methods roster and fertility method 99–103, 116 time diary 378–9 recall questions 377–8 Swaziland 296 Sweden 65, 67, 72, 77–80, 82, 141–2, 148, 182–3, 201, 208, 219, 247, 285, 334–6, 339, 344, 365, 368, 396, 435–7, 439, 449, 456–7, 465, 470–71, 487, 491, 493–4, 498–9, 503, 532–3, 535, 541–2, 544–5, 548–9 Swedish Young Adult Panel Study 395–6 Switzerland 58, 77, 79–80, 219, 334–5, 339, 344, 364, 368, 429, 439, 449, 457, 463, 484, 491, 493–4, 532 synthetic cohorts 14 Syria 100, 456–7 task specialization 231–2 technology transfer 519–20, 522–3 temporary migration 306, 311, 438 terrorist attacks 259–60, 375, 382 Thailand 62, 65, 104, 113, 296, 318, 396, 403 time 1, 5–6, 15, 17, 20, 23–4, 29, 31–2, 39–40, 43, 45–6, 51–3, 55–8, 60, 65–7, 69–70, 82, 85, 87, 99–100, 105, 109–11, 115, 117, 121, 126, 130, 146–7, 158–60, 174, 177, 179, 182, 184, 184, 188, 194, 201, 209, 220–21, 227, 234–5, 237, 239, 242–4, 248–50, 252–3, 259–61, 265, 268–9, 271–2, 289, 293–4, 296–7, 299–306, 309, 312, 319, 321–6, 345, 347–9, 356–7, 363, 365, 370, 373–87, 389–90, 394–5, 397–403, 411, 421–6, 429, 432, 435–6, 442–9, 454–5, 457–8, 462–3, 465, 478, 489–92, 499, 501–2, 506–7, 512, 522, 536, 539–40, 544–6 spent in the host country, see years since migration time diary 6, 373, 378–9, 383, 385, 389 time diary surveys 378–9 evidence from 383–7 time use 373–89 diversity of results 389 extant studies and their extensions 373–5 conceptual approaches to 375–6 qualitative data 376–9 findings from 379–80 recall questions and findings 377–8 children’s physical activity 383 commuting time 382–3 housework and leisure 382 volunteering 383 working hours 381–2 variables 16, 185, 243–4, 347, 403 trade and migration 510, 513–15, 524 trade liberalization 515 trade unions 89, 142–3, 272 trafficking in persons 122, 127–9, 131 transitional arrangements 124, 137, 141, 144, 148 transportation and commuting times 112, 121, 201, 374 under-education, see education undocumented migration, see illegal and irregular migration unemployment benefits 26, 500–501, 503, 537 unemployment factors 26–7, 434, 446 UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 100 unionization 82, 88–9 United Kingdom 19, 29, 64, 74, 77–83, 89, 130, 140–49, 153, 159, 164, 180–85, 228, 244, 247, 249–53, 261, 263, 268, 270, 313, 333–9, 344–5, 349, 353–4, 357, 359, 361, 364–5, 369, 377–84, 387–8, 396, 399, 434–40, 444, 449, 456–7, 461, 465–6, 491–3, 499, 503, 506, 509–10, 514, 521, 531–5, 549 crime and immigration 358, 363 happiness and internal migration 403 health professionals 80–81 health variables 250–51 migration flows and patterns 333–4 national/ethnic identities 29, 261, 263, 270 occupational risk 222 refugees 461–2, 466 skill-based selection 440, 534 time use studies 379 welfare migration 499 United Kingdom Time Use Survey 378 United Nations 20, 112, 128, 270, 332–3, 335, 454, 467, 522 Convention on transnational organized crime 122 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 454–5 Development Program 522 Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) 20 United States of America 4, 6, 14, 16, 19–20, 42, 48, 51–3, 56–8, 60, 63–4, 67, 72, 76, 78, 80–88, 92–3, 128, 153, 155–9, 160–61, 164, 166, 168, 170, 174, 176, 180, 185–9, 193, Subject index 573 204, 207, 217–18, 222, 229–32, 235–6, 238, 240, 242–6, 248–50, 252–3, 259, 261, 263, 267, 272–3, 275, 277–88, 293, 295, 300–302, 304, 306, 310, 312–14, 316, 318, 323, 326, 333, 342, 349, 353, 358–9, 360, 362–5, 367–9, 373–5, 377, 381, 383–6, 388, 397, 401, 417, 423, 428–9, 433–9, 442–6, 449, 455–7, 470–71, 473–5, 478–80, 482–3, 485, 487, 491–2, 496–7, 500, 506–7, 509, 511, 513, 515–17, 521–2, 524 assimilation 14, 15–16, 19 circular migration 56, 57–8 citizenship ascension rules 474–5, 477–80, 482–3, 485 crime and immigration 358, 361–2, 364–5, 367, 368 diaspora resources (and policies) 507, 513–14, 516 ethnicity 19 fertility rates 335 happiness and immigration 401 health professionals 76, 80–81, 85, 87 health variables 242–3, 245, 249–50 illegal immigrants 439 interethnic marriages 282–3 migration decision modeling 42–5 migration flows (2001–10) 332–3, 506 national/ethnic identities 261, 267–9, 272 natural disasters and migration 311–12, 320, 322 occupational risk 217–18, 222 occupational sorting 228, 229–30, 232, 235–6 attenuation bias problem 237 religiosity of migrants, see religiosity skill-based immigrant selection 435, 436, 439, 442–3, 444–5, 534 spatial mismatch and minorities 199–205 time use 380, 384–8 wealth inequalities and entrepreneurship 154, 155–7 Survey of Business Owners (SBO) 158–69 welfare migration 496, 497–8, 500 unskilled migration US Census Bureau 506 victimization 356, 359–60, 363–4, 367–8 visa category/status 1, 7, 190, 443–4, 465 voting 20, 70, 429, 473, 480, 486, 518, 523; see also citizenship volunteering 374, 383, 389 wage 14–15, 17, 26–8, 32, 42–53, 58–9, 67, 71, 82, 85–6, 91–3, 102, 111–12, 121–3, 126–8, 142–7, 176, 180, 185–90, 193–5, 199, 214–17, 220–23, 227, 229–31, 233–6, 245–6, 248–53, 259, 271, 282–5, 289, 296, 299, 311, 313, 320–24, 348, 354–5, 359, 367–70, 373–6, 382, 411–12, 417, 419, 421–5, 428, 433–6, 465, 476, 481–5, 496–7, 500, 515, 531, 537, 542, 544, 546–8 differential 4, 17–18, 31, 45, 47–8, 53, 210, 233, 482–3, 489, 502 equation 186, 249, 253 natural disaster (hurricane) effects 324 network effects 234, 236 occupational risk 220 and remittances 59–60, 144, 295–6, 298, 300, 508–9 reservation wage 26–8, 199, 298 skill levels and 433 supply responses to geographical differentials 48, 49 task specialization and 231 wealth constraints 124, 128 wealth inequalities 153, 155 welfare dependency 435, 465, 497–500, 502 welfare magnet hypothesis 7, 144, 489, 496–8, 500–502, 535 welfare magnets 1, 48, 53, 72, 490, 495, 500 welfare migration 48–50, 489–503 immigration patterns 492–5 education levels 493–5 policy implications 502, 535 public perceptions 489 social expenditure patterns 490–92 in percentage of GDP 491–2 welfare systems as pull factor 497–500 European evidence 498–500 US evidence 497–8 welfare state 28, 138, 148, 417, 419, 428, 489–90, 496–7, 500 welfare systems, effects of out-migration 8, 137, 144, 489, 497, 499–500, 502 work hours 374, 377, 381–2 work-related fatalities 219 work-related injuries 214, 218–19, 221, 224 working conditions 117, 129, 220, 523 working permit 149, 440, 444, 513 World Bank 55, 90, 506, 508 World Health Organization (WHO) 75–6, 90, 109, 205, 242 World Values Survey 268, 271, 274, 394–6, 401 xenophobia 28, 59, 61, 264, 417, 462 years since migration 85, 220, 223, 282, 347; see also age at entry/of arrival .. .INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK ON THE ECONOMICS OF MIGRATION Acclaim for the International Handbook on the Economics of Migration ‘Constant and Zimmermann have assembled a collection of essays... 13 14 International handbook on the economics of migration 2 THE ECONOMICS OF ASSIMILATION Starting with the pioneering work of Chiswick (1978) on the assimilation of immigrant men in the United... evidence on the impact of migration on elderly parents After discussing the identification issues involved in the estimation, the chapter reviews the literature on the effects of migration on the