I NSU FFICI EN T FU NDS I NSU FFICI EN T FU NDS The Culture of Money in Low-Wage Transnational Families Hung Cam Thai Stanford University Press Stanford, California Stanford University Press Stanford, California © 2014 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thai, Hung Cam, author Insufficient funds : the culture of money in low-wage transnational families / Hung Cam Thai pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index isbn 978-0-8047-7731-5 (cloth : alk paper) -isbn 978-0-8047-7732-2 (pbk : alk paper) Vietnamese United States Economic conditions Vietnamese United States Social conditions Immigrants Family relationships United States Immigrants Family relationships Vietnam Money Social aspects United States Money Social aspects Vietnam Families Economic aspects United States Families Economic aspects Vietnam Transnationalism Social aspects United States 10 Transnationalism Social aspects Vietnam I Title e184.v53.t45 2014 305.8959'22073 dc23 2013042134 isbn 978-0-8047-9056-7 (electronic) Typeset by Bruce Lundquist in 10.5 /15 Adobe Garamond To my students and teachers TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S Acknowledgments ix xv Note on Translations Six Tales of Migrant Money The Making of a Transnational Expenditure Cascade 21 Money as a Currency of Care 32 The Migrant Provider Role 53 The American Dream in Vietnam 72 Compensatory Consumption 92 Emulative Consumption 111 The Cyclical Entrenchment of Monetary Habits 132 The High Price of Esteem Consumption 152 10 Tall Promises 172 Conclusion: Special Money in Low-Wage Transnational Families 191 viii c o n t e n t s Appendix: Methodology and Interviewees 205 Notes 215 Bibliography 249 Index 275 A C K N OW L E D G M E N T S My first gratitude is reserved for the more than 120 men and women who spent time sharing with me stories about their lives Some of them may disagree with my analysis, but I hope they recognize the importance of their stories in helping the world understand dilemmas associated with the culture of money among transnational families My second thanks go to the institutions that provided financial support: the Pacific Rim Fellowship, the Hewlett Foundation, the Freeman Foundation, the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation, the Senior Research Fellowship in the Asia Research Institute at the National University of Singapore, and the Faculty Residential Fellowship at the Institute of East Asian Studies at Berkeley Many thanks to former dean Cecilia Conrad at Pomona College for providing generous research funds for fieldwork and for time off to write, and to Associate Dean Jonathan Wright for approving the earmarking of such funding, even when the earmarking seemed unconventional A team of research assistants from the United States and Vietnam was involved in different phases of the project: from the United States, my students Dani Carillo, Christopher Fiorello, Kyla Johnson, and Nicole Runge came to Vietnam to help me collect data; and from Vietnam, Loc Mai Do, Nhat Minh, bibliogr aphy 271 Children Only? 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56–58, 63, 135, 196–97, 243n23 American Dream: attitudes of migrants regarding, 7, 72–91, 116, 136, 158, 184, 194, 197, 204, 207, 226nn6,12, 227n26, 228nn27,28; attitudes of non-migrants regarding, 116, 184, 207; and children of migrants, 82–86; and compensatory consumption, 93; and global capitalism, 90, 91; and immigrant bargain, 82–83, 158, 160, 227n26, 228n27; and migrant spending on non-migrant relatives, 86–90 An (migrant interviewee), 59–60, 212 Anh, Dang Nguyen, 218nn47,57, 230n21 Anh, Hoang Lan, 228n36 An-Phi (non-migrant interviewee), 123–24, 126, 131, 213 Appadurai, Arjun, 234n66 asymmetries between migrants and nonmigrants: Carling on, 174, 195–96, 235n15, 241nn1,3, 242n14; information asymmetry, 163–70, 173, 183, 184, 191, 196, 235n15, 240n59, 241n3, 242n14, 243n23 Atlanta: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 5–7, 12–13, 47, 48, 54, 78, 85, 181, 210 Australia: education in, 13–14, 39–40, 181–82, 183, 189; Indian migrants in, 66; Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, 39–40; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 206, 209, 218n57, 222n68 Baldassar, Loretta: on return visits, 244n33 Bangladesh: remittances sent to, 221n47 Bankston, Carl L., 84, 228n32 Bao (non-migrant interviewee), 119, 214 Bataille, Georges, 246n65; on gift giving, 199– 200; on logic of excess, 199–202; on nonproductive expenditure, 200, 246n60; on obligation of wealth, 246n64; on scarcity and abundance, 200–201; on surplus, 200– 201; on symbolic domination, 246n67 Bay-Huong (migrant interviewee), 212 Belk, Russell, 233n50; on consumptionscape, 234n66; on leaping luxuries, 122–23; on local-level consumption, 234n70; on materialism, 121–22; on return visits, 130; on social comparison, 234n67 Bich (migrant interviewee), 111–12, 140, 212 Blau, Peter, 243n32 Bloch, Maurice: on money, 35 276 index boat refugees, 3, 6, 19, 218n58 Boris, Eileen, 248n102 Boston: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 60, 96, 147, 210 Bourdieu, Pierre: on consumption as communication, 114, 232n24; on cultural capital, 113, 114–15, 118, 131, 232n26, 233nn34,36; Distinctions, 114; on the habitus, 115, 118, 131, 233n36; on morality, 233n37; on the poor’s taste for necessity, 114, 115, 118, 131, 198; on social status, 114– 15, 131, 198, 232n26, 233nn34,36 Brettell, Caroline, 194 Bryceson, Deborah, 241n6 Cabraal, Anuja, 225n41 Caldeira, Teresa, 99–100, 230n30 California: Orange County, 32–33, 34, 153, 154, 164–70, 210; San Diego, 245n38; San Francisco, 210; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 4, 32–33, 34, 56, 68, 69, 81–82, 85–86, 88–90, 103, 108–9, 132, 136–37, 140– 41, 145, 148–49, 152–53, 156–63, 164–70, 185, 210; Westminster, 164 See also Los Angeles; San Jose Cam (migrant interviewee), 2–4, 6, 7, 8–10, 55, 61, 67–68, 175–80, 189, 212 Cambodia: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 209 Camic, Charles: on habit, 134 Canada: intergenerational mobility in, 226n11; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 209, 218n57 Canh (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Cao, Lan, 220n26 Cape Verde, 192–93, 241n1 Caplovitz, David: on compensatory consumption, 92–93, 198, 229nn10,17; on non-whites vs whites, 229n17 Carling, Jorgen, 243n22; on asymmetries between migrants and non-migrants, 174, 195–96, 235n15, 241nn1,3, 242n14 Carruthers, Ashley, 17–18, 217n43 Cauten, Nancy K., 247n91, 248n96 Chakravartty, Paula, 201, 241n66 Chanh (migrant interviewee), 88, 89, 212 Chanh, Phan Van, 230n21 Chao, Angela: on social visibility in consumption practices, 96, 99 Cheal, David, 51 Chen, Victor Tan: on American Dream, 226n3; on credit card usage in U.S., 238nn24,26,31, 240n51; on intergenerational mobility, 226n11; on middle-class families, 160; on missing class/near poor, 8, 239n34, 241n66; on use of credit cards for return visits, 237n9 Chi (migrant interviewee), 55–56, 212 children of migrants, 82–86, 90 China: attitudes regarding money in, 36; economic conditions in, 30, 36; remittances sent to, 221n47 Chinh (migrant interviewee), 68, 148–49, 212 Chinoy, Eli, 93, 229n10 Chung (non-migrant interviewee), 214 classical economics, 200 Clinton, Bill, 23 Coe, Cati: on money, 38 co-ethnic employers, 2, 72–73, 206, 207, 216n12, 227n24 Cohen, Jeffrey: on remittances, 57–58 Coleman, Richard P., 126, 231n45 comparative spending, 25–31, 153–54, 193, 234n71 compensatory consumption, 92–110, 113, 125, 183–84, 185, 190, 193, 197, 202, 229nn6,13; Caplovitz on, 92–93, 198, 229nn10,17; relationship to gender, 92, 93, 96, 97–99, 100–110; segmented compensatory consumption, 93, 109–10, 229n13 competence, sense of, 17, 28, 157, 194, 204, 244n25; role of esteem consumption in, 154, 155, 170, 197 Cong (migrant interviewee), 135, 138–39, 146, 212 consumerism, 26, 27, 76, 112, 119 consumption practices: compensatory consumption, 92–110, 113, 125, 183–84, 185, 190, 193, 197, 198, 202, 229nn6,10,13; conspicuous consumption, 92, 93, 110, 112– 13, 198, 199, 201, 228n2, 229nn4,6,11, 231n4; Diderot effect, 142; emulative consumption, 111–14, 123–24, 125–31, 150, 190, 198, 231n2, 232n16; esteem consumption, 153–54, 155, 163, 170–71, 197– 98; purchase of air conditioners, 26, 27, 29, 104, 106, 111, 123–24, 126, 127, 131, 135, 141, 167, 176; purchase of cell phones, 69, 105, 108–9, 112, 117, 122, 127, 141, 152, 161; purchase of durable goods, 26–27, 29, 49– 50, 67, 69, 92, 93, 104–5, 106–7, 108, 109, 110, 111, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 140, 141, 184, 193, 217n32, 230n34; purchase of furniture, 104, 105, 106–7, 230n34; purchase of motorbikes, 9–10, 28, 29, 34, 44, 47, 54, 67, 68, 105, 108, 112, 116, 117, 119–20, 121, index 277 122, 123, 124, 127, 129, 131, 132, 138, 152–53, 161, 162, 163, 167, 175, 176, 184, 230n35, 233n54, 236n4; purchase of refrigerators, 29, 50, 105, 106, 107, 111, 123, 126, 127, 140; purchase of stoves, 50, 106, 111, 127, 140; purchase of TVs, 26–27, 49–50, 67, 69, 111, 124, 125, 126, 127, 141; purchase of washer and dryer, 27, 50; relationship to gender, 92, 93, 103, 104–5, 106, 108, 109–10, 209; social visibility in, 93, 96–103, 104, 116, 191–92, 193, 198, 199, 229n14, 242n8; standard packages of goods and commodities, 126–27, 231n45; in transitional economies, 30, 36, 47–48, 121– 23 See also credit cards consumptionscape, 125, 130, 131, 234n66 convergence hubs, 102 credit associations, 238n19 credit cards, 161–64, 166, 167–68, 169–71, 176, 237nn7,9,11,13, 238nn24–27,32, 239nn45,46, 240nn50,51,57,60,61; and credit scores, 154–55, 238n21; interest rates on, 153, 162, 163, 168, 171, 236n5, 237n17, 239n47, 240nn52,58; and poverty, 154, 155; role in esteem consumption, 153–54, 155, 163, 170–71 Cuc (migrant interviewee), 212 cultural capital, 130, 233n50; Bourdieu on, 113, 114–15, 118, 131, 232n26, 233nn34,36 Dai (migrant interviewee), 145, 212 Dallas: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 67, 148 Dao (migrant interviewee), 72–75, 81, 83, 107, 141, 146–47, 212 Delaney, Kevin J.: on money, 35–36 Derrida, Jacques: on the gift, 194 developing countries: crisis in political economy of care in, 198, 245n50; culture of migration in, 245n50; foreign aid to, 21; foreign direct investment in, 21; gross domestic profit (GDP) in, 21, 24; international demonstration effect in, 113; significance of migrant money to, 1, 16, 21, 24–25, 57, 208, 221n47, 232n21; social class in, 139–44; spatial segregation in cities, 230n30 Diderot effect, 142 Diep (non-migrant interviewee), 132–33, 142– 44, 213 Dieu (non-migrant interviewee), 213 dignity, 153, 170, 171, 178, 186 DiMaggio, Paul, 197 Dinh (migrant interviewee), 4–5, 6, 8, 10–12, 15, 97, 98, 99, 184–90, 212 Doan (migrant interviewee), 137–38, 144–45, 147, 212 Dominican Republic, 189 Dreby, Joanne, 46, 139–40 Drummond, Lisa, 230n24 Duc (migrant interviewee), 85–86, 212 Duesenberry, James: on demonstration effect, 113 Duoc (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Duong (non-migrant interviewee), 124–25, 214 Dwyer, Rachel E., 150, 235n5 economic liberalism, 200 economy of dignity, 153, 170, 171 Egypt: remittances sent to, 221n47 Ehrenreich, Barbara, 159 Engels, Friedrich: on money, 35 envy, 26, 105, 131 Espiritu, Yen Le, 62, 225n30, 245n38 esteem consumption, 153–54, 155, 163, 170–71, 197–98 See also self-esteem/self-worth family reunification sponsorships, 19, 69, 225n43 fashion, 231n2,7 Fass, Sarah, 247n91, 248n96 feminism, 22, 230n24 fiscal disobedience, 204 foreign aid vs remittances, 21, 24 foreign direct investment: vs migrant money, 21, 24, 44; in Vietnam, 18, 44 foreign expatriates, 40, 95, 98, 99, 100, 102, 216n10 14 Days, 99, 230n33 France: intergenerational mobility in, 226n11; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 206, 209, 218n57 Frank, Robert H., 26, 221n51, 232n16 Freire, Alexandre Dormeier: on motorbikes as consumption icons, 119, 230n35, 233n54 Gamburd, Michele Ruth, 241n2 Gautie, Jerome, 248n97 Geertz, Clifford: on social science data, 154 gender, 20, 192, 230n24, 247n79; of interviewees, 205–6; women vs men regarding consumption practices, 68, 92, 93, 103, 104–5, 106, 108, 109–10, 209; women vs men regarding occupation and age, 212–14 Ger, Guliz, 233n50; on consumptionscape, 278 index 234n66; on local-level consumption, 234n70; on materialism, 121–22; on return visits, 130 Germany: intergenerational mobility in, 226n11; poverty level in, 248n97 Ghana, 38 Giang (migrant interviewee), 139, 212 Giddens, Anthony, 197 global capitalism, 2, 17, 22, 30, 56, 194–95, 217n31, 223n36; and American Dream, 90, 91 Gloria (migrant), 32–34, 125, 210 Goffman, Erving, 113 Goldring, Luin, 62, 242n8 gossip about money, 46–48, 146–47 Graham, Julie, 16 Guarnizo, Luis E., 224n7; on the economics of transnational living, 134; on translocal relations, 99 Ha (non-migrant interviewee), 45–46, 213 Hai (non-migrant interviewee), 49–50, 214 Han (migrant interviewee), 39–41, 66–67, 138, 212, 235n17 Hanh (restaurant server in Saigon), 102–3 Hanoi, 30, 41, 222n68 Harvey, David: on money, 196 Hawaii: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 135, 146 Hien (migrant interviewee), 69–70, 149, 212 Hiep (migrant interviewee), 78, 79, 85, 212 Hirschman, Elizabeth C., 240n50 Hoa (migrant interviewee), 212 Hoang (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Ho Chi Minh City See Saigon Hochschild, Arlie Russell: on commodity frontier, 223n36; on magnified moments, 244n21 Hochschild, Jennifer, 73 Hoi, Trinh: 14 Days, 99, 230n33 Hollands, Robert, 229n13 Holt, Douglas, 117–18, 233n50 Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierrette: on housecleaners in Los Angeles, 245n53 Honduran transmigrants, 76, 226nn10,12 Hong (migrant interviewee), 77–78, 84, 212 Hong Kong, 218n58; rural mainland Chinese migrants to, 142 hourglass economies, 202, 246nn73,76 household analysis, 63–64 housing: of migrants, 8, 61–62, 159, 237n15, 241nn64,65; of non-migrants, 61–62, 75, 175, 225n24 Houston: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 53, 80, 87, 103–4, 107–8, 126 Hue (migrant interviewee), 88–90, 108–9, 156– 63, 164, 170, 171, 212, 236n4, 237n6, 239n44 Huu (non-migrant interviewee), 128–30 Hyman, Louis, 240n50 immigrant bargain, 82–83, 158, 160, 227n26, 228n27 India: labor migrants from, 229n6; middle-class migrants from, 243n9 Itzigsohn, Jose, 184 James, William: on habit, 134 Johnson, Heather Beth: on American Dream, 228n28 Katrak, Ketu, 157 Khang (migrant interviewee), 76–77, 79, 83–84, 101–3, 212 Khoi (non-migrant interviewee), 42, 214 Kibria, Nazli: on patchworking, 63–64 Kiet (migrant interviewee), 82, 132–33, 142–44, 147, 212, 235n3 Kieu (non-migrant interviewee), 36–37, 213 Kim-Le (non-migrant interviewee), 213 kinship, 16, 41, 51, 63–64; extended family members, 22–23, 24, 38, 53, 64, 70, 155, 243n9; tacit codes of familial conduct, 97, 135 See also monetary circulation; social obligation Klineberg, Eric, 239n40 Kurien, Prema, 192, 193, 229n6 Ky (non-migrant interviewee), 213 labor migrants, 22, 23, 153, 192, 218n47, 219n11, 220nn18,34, 229n6 Lam (non-migrant interviewee), 43–44, 214 Lam, Andrew, 230n23 Lamont, Michele: on American Dream, 73–74; on Bourdieu, 115, 233nn34,36,37; on competence, 244n25; on morality, 233nn37,39; on self-esteem, 245n48; on working class, 216n12, 233n39, 245n48 Lan (non-migrant interviewee), 8–10, 12, 14–15, 175–80, 189, 213, 242n18 Laos: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 209 Lascu, Dana-Nicoleta, 30 leap of luxuries, 122–23, 131 Lee, Jennifer, 229n12 Levitt, Peggy, 80, 242n13; on social status, 221n65, 227n23, 232n18, 242n9 Leyshon, Andrew, 238n21 index 279 Lien (non-migrant interviewee), 42–43, 117, 213 Linh (non-migrant interviewee), 32–34, 125, 210, 213 Littwin, Angela K., 237n13 Loan (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Loc (migrant interviewee), 148, 212 logic of excess, 199–201 Loi (migrant interviewee), 58, 212 Long (migrant interviewee), 69–70, 212 Los Angeles: housecleaners in, 245n53; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 56, 81– 82, 88, 119, 210 Louis Vuitton, 30 Lowe, Lisa, 20 low-wage workers: defined, 7, 207–8; vs highwage workers, 199, 201, 208, 216n12, 217n31; migrants vs non-migrants as, 37; social subjugation of, 199, 203, 204; in United States, 7–8, 17, 18–19, 76–77, 90, 155, 198, 199–204, 206–8, 216n12, 224n18, 227n19, 246n78 See also migrants; migrants’ return visits; monetary circulation; non-migrants Luc (migrant interviewee), 212 Luu (migrant interviewee), 58–59, 87, 212 Lynd, Robert and Helen, 229n10 Mach (migrant interviewee), 60, 147, 212 Ma, Eric Kit-wai: on rural mainland Chinese migrants to Hong Kong, 142; on sensory contact to modernity, 123 Mahler, Sarah: on heterogeneity, 219n67; on migrants’ economizing, 140; on Salvadoran immigrants, 174; on unequal power relations, 242n21 Mai (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Mai, Nguyen Thi Tuyet, 118, 221n58, 233n51 Mai-Van (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Malaysia: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 218n57; Vietnamese labor migrants in, 220n34 Manh (non-migrant interviewee), 117, 214 Manrai, Ajay K., 30 Manrai, Lalita A., 30 marriage migration, 19 Marxism, 29 Marx, Karl: on money, 35 material capital: and leap of luxury, 122–23, 131; as status signal, 105, 106–8, 113, 114–23, 130 materialism, 115–17, 121–22, 124–25, 138, 169, 185, 235n17 Mauss, Marcel: on gift giving, 186, 199–200 McCracken, Grant: on Diderot effect, 142 McKenzie, Sean, 241n5 Menjivar, Cecilia, 241n5 Merton, Robert K., 229n10 methodology and interviewees, 15–20, 205–11, 218n50; age and occupation of interviewees, 205–6, 212–14; gender of interviewees, 205–6; grounded theory approach, 211; in-depth interview method, 248n13; methodological nationalism, 17, 232n18, 245n35 Mexican transnational families, 46, 139, 189, 221n47, 227n26 migrants: attitudes regarding American Dream, 7, 72–91, 116, 136, 158, 184, 194, 197, 204, 207, 226nn6,12, 227n26, 228nn27,28; attitudes regarding children’s future, 82–86, 90, 228n29; attitudes regarding education, 83, 228n29; attitudes regarding households, 63–64; attitudes regarding money, 36, 39, 40, 50, 53–54, 55–57, 58, 59–61, 62–63, 64– 71, 74–75, 87–91, 92–110, 132–51, 155, 172– 90, 191, 193–94, 196–97, 198, 210, 211, 225nn23,41, 235n16, 241nn7,11, 243nn22,23; attitudes regarding social obligations, 59– 60, 70–71, 146–47, 210; attitudes regarding United States, 2–3, 6–7, 8, 64, 65, 70–71, 73, 74, 75–76, 79–91, 88, 96, 135, 138, 156– 57, 168, 197, 227n20, 228n33; attitudes regarding Vietnam, 2–3, 4, 6–7, 54–56, 58, 64–65, 70–71, 73, 75–76, 79–82, 88–90, 96, 103–4, 120, 138, 148–49, 156–57, 160–61, 162, 168, 195, 227n20, 236n2; compensatory consumption among, 92–110, 113, 125, 183– 84, 185, 190, 197, 202; economizing by, 4, 8, 16, 39, 42, 50, 56–57, 65, 71, 73, 75, 87–88, 89, 91, 140, 163, 170, 175, 203; educational level of, 4, 7, 18, 20, 83–84, 207, 208, 216n12, 248n9; housing of, 8, 61–62, 159, 237n15, 241nn64,65; monetary habits among, 132–51, 198–99, 235n5; motivation among, 56–62, 196–97, 243n23; as nonproviding spenders, 63, 68–70, 71, 88, 91; as non-spending providers, 63, 66–67, 68, 71, 91; occupations of, 4, 6, 7–8, 18–19, 29, 48, 53, 55, 56–57, 58–59, 63, 68, 69, 72–73, 76–79, 81, 83–84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 96, 97, 101, 104, 106, 107, 108, 111, 132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 154, 156, 157, 164, 175, 178, 181, 185, 199, 206, 207–8, 212, 216n12, 224n19, 227n17, 247n79; as permanent residents/citizens of destination countries, 23–24; promises to non-migrants made by, 172–90, 199; as 280 index total providers, 62, 63, 64–66, 71, 87–88, 91, 161; transnational economic strategies among, 62–70; transnational optic among, 54, 56, 61–62, 70–71, 79–80, 90, 197; wages of, 3, 4, 6, 7–8, 10, 11, 16, 18–19, 20, 28, 29, 48, 49, 53, 55–57, 58, 59, 61–62, 72–73, 75, 77–78, 82, 83, 90, 91, 98–99, 109, 159, 176– 77, 201–4, 205, 207–8, 216nn12,14, 217n26, 218n55, 224nn19,22, 225n23, 227nn20,24, 230n18, 242n11, 243n9, 247n85; working conditions of, 6, 17, 18–19, 58–59, 60, 73, 76, 77–78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 89, 90, 91, 99, 164 See also asymmetries between migrants and non-migrants; labor migrants; monetary circulation migrants’ return visits, 20, 22, 23, 49–50, 53–57, 73, 80, 87, 139, 141, 143, 156–63, 206, 207, 209, 222n68, 226n8, 228n35, 239n48, 243n22, 244nn9,21,33; financing of, 8, 50, 56–57, 65–66, 73, 89, 90–91, 140, 162–63, 166, 175–76, 203, 208, 237n9; frequency of, 2, 3, 6, 18, 49, 80, 160, 205, 208; money spent in Vietnam by migrants, 1, 4–5, 8, 9, 10–11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 25, 26–29, 31, 32–34, 37, 39, 40–41, 43, 44, 49–50, 62–63, 65–70, 71, 74, 81–82, 86, 88–89, 91, 93, 94–110, 124–26, 130–31, 134, 135, 136, 140, 144–45, 147, 148, 152–53, 155, 160–63, 168, 174, 175, 183–84, 185–89, 191, 193–94, 197, 198, 202, 207, 208, 210, 221n49, 230nn18,21,33, 232n19, 238n19, 239n49; promises made during, 172–73, 177–78, 181, 182–84; and relations between Vietnam and United States, 23, 206, 220nn23,24; role in transnational expenditure cascade, 26–29 migration studies, 194–96 Miller, Daniel, 134; on consumption, 197 Missouri: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 137–38, 144–45 monetary circulation: between adult children and elderly parents, 22, 38, 51, 59, 219n17, 220n18; between adult cousins, 4–5, 22, 23, 32–34, 50, 58, 70, 81–82, 88–89, 98, 102, 125, 137–38, 144–45, 147, 160–63, 171, 210; between adult siblings, 22, 38, 43–44, 45, 47, 50, 51, 53–54, 59–60, 61, 64–66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 88–89, 108–9, 111–12, 123, 126, 132– 33, 135, 136–37, 139, 140–44, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152–53, 161, 162–63, 164–70, 171, 175– 84, 210; competitive spending, 110; defined, 15, 216n23; discontinuance of, 147–50, 151, 165–67, 169, 173, 175, 181–90, 242n17; as expression of affection, 33–34, 37–39, 40– 43, 49, 50–52, 104, 110, 134, 196, 198, 243n23; as expression of care, 33–34, 36, 37–39, 40–43, 46, 49, 50–52, 70, 104, 110, 125, 134, 145, 146, 184, 193, 196, 198, 235n17; habits regarding, 132–51, 198–99; information asymmetry in, 163–70, 173, 183, 184, 191, 196, 240n59, 241n1, 243n23; motivation for, 56–62, 196–97, 243n23; relationship to self-esteem/self-worth, 15, 17, 28, 76, 110, 113, 114, 119, 133, 144, 147, 153–54, 155, 163, 170–71, 194, 197–98, 204, 228n35; relationship to social inequality, 46, 57, 100, 114, 150, 232n19; relationship to social status, 5, 16, 17, 25–29, 33–34, 36, 43– 52, 76, 80–81, 92–110, 98, 134, 144, 153–54, 155, 163, 191, 197, 204, 210, 232n19; significance to developing countries, 1, 16, 21, 24–25, 57, 208, 221n47, 232n21; social friction/conflict regarding, 67, 68–70, 133, 134–51, 164–70, 171, 173–74, 181–90, 192, 193, 198, 241n2, 242n17; and transnational expenditure cascade, 25–31, 58, 70–71, 110, 125–26, 130–31, 134, 153, 173, 193, 194, 198; unfulfilled promises regarding, 172–90, 199; in Western vs Vietnamese society, 51 See also compensatory consumption; consumption practices; esteem consumption; migrants’ return visits; money; remittances monetary habits, 132–51, 198–99, 235n5 money: attitudes of migrants regarding, 36, 39, 40, 50, 53–54, 55–57, 58, 59–61, 62–63, 64– 71, 74–75, 87–91, 92–110, 132–51, 155, 172– 90, 191, 193–94, 196–97, 198, 210, 211, 225nn23,41, 235n16, 241nn7,11, 243nn22,23; attitudes of non-migrants regarding, 11, 12– 15, 25, 30, 31, 33–34, 36–39, 40–52, 58, 60, 66–70, 91, 96, 107–8, 112, 113, 114, 115–19, 132–33, 136–39, 140–45, 147, 148–49, 160– 61, 164–68, 169–70, 172–90, 191, 192, 193, 196, 198, 210, 211, 217n32, 225n41, 235n17, 243n27; gossip about, 46–48, 146–47; for luxury/frivolous goods, 14, 26, 29, 60–61, 66, 68, 69–70, 71, 87–88, 89, 93, 106, 108– 9, 110, 119–23, 125, 127, 131, 132, 133, 140, 141, 143, 147, 152–53, 167, 221n58; for necessities, 26, 28, 29, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59–61, 62, 67–69, 71, 122, 123, 127, 133, 140, 141, 165–66, 167, 176, 196–97, 203; vs nonmonetary gifts, 41, 50–51, 67; pocket transfers vs recorded remittances, 21, 24– 25; price exaggeration, 47–48; social vs market meaning of, 34–36, 192, 196, 200; index 281 as special money, 17, 191–204, 243n9; for specific expenses, 17, 40, 43–45, 56, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 87, 104–5, 108–9, 119–20, 126, 132, 138, 140, 141, 142–44, 148, 149–50, 152–53, 161, 162, 166, 167, 169, 171, 175–76, 181–84, 193, 217n25, 240n55; Zelizer on, 17, 34–35, 192, 193, 196, 222n11 See also monetary circulation; remittances My-Chi (non-migrant interviewee), 213 national income statistics, 221n65, 232n18 Newman, Katherine S.: on American Dream, 226n3; on credit card usage in U.S., 238nn24,26,31, 240n51; on intergenerational mobility, 226n11; on middle-class families, 160; on missing class/near poor, 8, 239n34, 241n66; on use of credit cards for return visits, 237n9 New Orleans: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 84 new rich, 40, 92, 100, 102, 113 New York City, 229nn10,12; Ecuadorian migrants in, 237n9 New York State: Vietnamese immigrants in, 37, 55 Nga (migrant interviewee), 80, 81, 103–4, 107– 8, 126, 212 Ngan (migrant interviewee), 212 Ngoc (migrant interviewee), 49–50, 212 Ngon (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Nguyen, Hanh, 209 Nhan (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Nhi (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Nigeria, remittances sent to, 221n47 Ninh (non-migrant interviewee), 213 non-migrants: attitudes regarding American Dream, 116, 184, 207; attitudes regarding education, 117, 118; attitudes regarding monetary circulation, 36–39, 40–43, 58, 60, 66–70; attitudes regarding money, 11, 12– 15, 25, 30, 31, 33–34, 36–39, 40–52, 58, 60, 66–70, 91, 96, 107–8, 112, 113, 114, 115–19, 132–33, 136–39, 140–45, 147, 148–49, 160– 61, 164–68, 169–70, 172–90, 191, 192, 193, 196, 198, 210, 211, 217n32, 225n41, 235n17, 243n27; attitudes regarding social obligations, 33–34, 36, 37–38, 40–43, 47, 48, 50, 51, 58, 70, 210; attitudes regarding United States, 10, 12–13, 14–15, 25, 42–43, 46–48, 116; attitudes regarding Vietnam, 11, 42–43; comparative spending among, 26– 31; emulative consumption among, 111–14, 123–24, 125–31, 150, 190, 198; expectations among, 14, 15, 25, 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 51, 58, 59–60, 66–67, 110, 125–27, 131, 133, 134, 136–37, 150–51, 172–73, 183, 190, 193; hierarchical ranking of migrants by, 207, 230n33; housing of, 9, 61–62, 75, 175, 225n24; occupations of, 8–10, 11, 12, 37, 49, 58–59, 116, 119, 124, 128, 129, 132, 161, 175, 177, 181, 185, 206, 213, 214, 215n6, 224n19; price exaggeration among, 47–48; pride in receiving money among, 48–51, 52; promises made by migrants to, 172–90, 199; wages of, 8, 9, 12, 19, 28, 44–45, 55–56, 58, 59, 60, 66, 75, 80, 82, 90, 98–99, 108, 109, 111, 121, 128, 129, 132–33, 142, 144, 146, 156, 161, 175, 181, 185, 224n19, 235n2; without migrant relatives, 128–30; working conditions of, 37, 58–59, 80, 129 See also asymmetries between migrants and nonmigrants; labor migrants; monetary circulation North Carolina: Charlotte, 72–75, 141; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 69–70, 72–75, 141, 149–50 Nu (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Nurkse, Robert: on international demonstration effect, 113 Ogbu, John, 227n20 Orlando, Florida: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 39–41, 55, 66–67, 138 Osella, Filippo and Caroline, 98 Packard, Le Anh Tu, 184 Pakistan: remittances sent to, 221n47 Parrenas, Rhacel Salazar, 194, 198, 224n4, 241n2, 244n28, 248n102 Parry, Jonathan: on money, 35 payday loans, 154, 237n17 Pellerin, Lisa A.: on social status, 229n14,15 Peter, Kankonde Bukasa, 241n7 Philadelphia: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 2–4, 7, 55, 61, 67, 175 Philippines, 189, 218n58, 221n47, 225n30, 241n2 Phoenix: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 65, 139 Phong (migrant interviewee), 119–21, 212 Phuc (migrant interviewee), 64–66, 212 Phung (migrant interviewee), 81–82, 148, 212 Phuoc (non-migrant), 108–9, 152–53, 160, 161, 162, 163, 236n3 Phuong (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Portes, Alejandro, 79 postcolonial power dynamics, 25 282 index poverty: Bourdieu on, 114, 115, 118, 131; in classical economics, 200; and compensatory consumption, 92; and credit cards, 154, 155; U.S poverty level, 203–4, 216n14, 247nn87,89,91,94, 248nn96,97 Preparata, Guido Giacomo, 200 Pribilsky, Jason, 237n9 Prince, Melvin: on gender and money, 109–10 provider roles: non-providing spenders, 63, 68– 70, 71, 88, 91; non-spending providers, 63, 66–67, 68, 71, 91; total providers, 62, 63, 64–66, 71, 87–88, 91, 161 Pugh, Allison J.: on economy of dignity, 153, 237n10 Quach (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Quang (migrant interviewee), 5–7, 8, 12–14, 54, 181–84, 189, 212 Quoc (migrant interviewee), 94–96, 97, 98, 99, 212 Quy (migrant interviewee), 53–54, 212 Quyen (non-migrant interviewee), 213 racism, 78, 79, 90 Radhakrishnan, Smitha, 29 Rainwater, Lee, 126, 231n45 Ramstad, Yngve, 231n2 reciprocity, 2, 11, 12, 15, 51, 186–87, 188 regional capitalists, 64, 100, 102 remittances: amount of, 3, 13, 14, 16, 19, 21, 24– 25, 28, 37, 43–45, 47, 54, 55–56, 59, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, 87, 132, 141, 143, 144, 146– 47, 149–50, 152, 161, 162, 165–66, 167, 175, 176, 177, 179, 217nn25,26, 220n34, 221n47, 224n21, 236n1; dependency model regarding, 57; development model regarding, 57; earmarking of, 9, 13–14, 17, 40, 43–45, 56, 64, 67, 69, 70, 75, 87, 132, 140–41, 142–44, 164–70, 169, 171, 193, 217n25, 240n55; as expression of love and affection, 37–39, 40–43, 49; vs foreign aid, 21, 24; vs foreign direct investment, 21, 24; importance to developing countries, 21, 24–25, 27; monetary vs non-monetary, 57, 224n7; pocket transfers vs recorded remittances, 21, 24–25; and remittance bourgeoisie, 139–44; sent to Vietnam from United States, 20, 218n47; transnational approach to, 57–58 See also monetary circulation; money revolution of rising expectations, 125–27, 131, 150 Rivlin, Gary: on payday loans, 237n17, 237n18; on the poverty industry, 154, 155, 237n18 Robertson, Shanthi, 225n41 Rouse, Roger: on migrant circuits, 22 Rudmin, Floyd Webster: on gender and money, 109–10 Russia: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 218n57 Safri, Maliha, 16 Said, Edward, 194 Saigon: Apocalypse Now, 95; Ba Thang Hai Street, 101; Bin Thanh District, 128; Central Café, 209; consumption practices in, 94–103, 105–10; District 2, 64, 100; District 3, 10; District 4, 43, 100, 107; District 5, 95, 101; District 7, 64, 100; District 10, 49, 100, 101; District 11, 32; District 12, 8; Dong Khoi Street, 30, 53; economic conditions in, 4–5, 6–7, 8–12, 17–18, 18, 25, 26–27, 50, 54, 56, 60, 64, 69– 70, 80, 105–6, 112, 115–16, 123, 138, 190, 198, 223n2, 230n27; Go Vap district, 74; Le Duan Street, 120; Le Loi Boulevard, 30, 53, 156; Mac Dinh Chi, 32; merchants in, 100– 101, 102–3, 117, 209; Monaco Club, 4–5, 10, 215n8; Nguyen Chi Thanh Street, 101; Nguyen Kim, 108; Nguyen Tri Phuong Street, 101; Pham Ngoc Thach Street, 95; population of, 217n44, 234n76; Queen Bar, 95; Quy Thanh, 101–2; shopping malls in, 104, 105, 234n75; Tan Bin district, 64, 111; Terrace Café, 156, 162; 333 Bar, 186–89; Windows Café, 120, 209 Salvadoran immigrants, 174 Sana, Mariano, 105, 183, 243n23 San Diego: Filipino/a community in, 245n38 San Francisco: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 210 Sang (migrant interviewee), 67, 212 San Jose: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 4–5, 7, Sassen-Koob, Saskia, 202, 246nn73,76, 247nn85,86 Sassen, Saskia, 202, 224n18, 246n73 Schiller, Nina Glick, 80, 242n13; on Bourdieu, 115; on social status, 221n65, 227n23, 232n18 Schmalzbauer, Leah: on American Dream, 76, 226n12, 227n14; on Honduran transmigrants, 76, 226nn10,12; on migrant money, 139, 140 Schmitt, John, 248n97 Schor, Juliet: on comparative spending, 234n71; on reference groups, 234n69; on social visibility in consumption practices, 96, 99 Seattle: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 111, 140 index 283 self-employment, 207–8, 228n29 self-esteem/self-worth, 122, 168, 245n48; esteem consumption, 153–54, 155, 163, 170–71, 197– 98; relationship to monetary circulation, 15, 17, 28, 76, 110, 113, 114, 119, 133, 144, 147, 153–54, 155, 163, 170–71, 194, 197–98, 204, 228n35 Shipler, David K.: on poverty, 204 Shove, Elizabeth: on social construction of routinized needs and wants, 150; on social organization of normality, 150 Shultz, Clifford, 30 Silva, Denise Ferreira da, 201, 241n66 Simmel, Georg: on emulative consumption, 112–13, 231n7; on money and the market, 35; on quantifying money, 222n6 Singh, Supriya: on Indian migrants in Australia, 66; on the money tree syndrome, 66; on transnational family money, 66, 192, 193, 196, 225n41, 243n9 Siu (migrant interviewee), 106–7, 212 Smith, Kirk, 221n58 Smith, Michael Peter: on remittance bourgeoisie, 139, 140; on translocal relations, 99 Smith, Robert Courtney, 62; on American Dream, 227n26; on immigrant bargain, 82 social class, 2, 20, 22, 40, 62, 192, 207, 224n4, 239n35; and compensatory consumption, 92–93, 100–103, 106, 107; and conspicuous consumption, 92, 93; in developing countries, 139–44; and emulative consumption, 111–14, 126–27, 231n2; and fashion, 231n2,7; middle class, 30, 126–27, 160, 239n40, 243n9; remittance bourgeoisie, 139–44; and standard package of goods and commodities, 126–27; as transnational, 194; and transnational expenditure cascades, 25–26, 27–29; in United States, 216n12 See also low-wage workers; poverty social comparison, 16, 34, 36, 43, 44–47, 110, 125, 234nn67,69 social inequality, 46, 57, 100, 114, 150, 232n19 social obligation, 2, 16, 191; attitudes of migrants regarding, 59–60, 70–71, 146–47, 210; attitudes of non-migrants regarding, 33–34, 36, 37–38, 40–43, 47, 48, 50, 51, 58, 70, 210; and gift exchanges, 186, 243n32; tacit codes of, 97, 135 social status: Bourdieu on, 114–15, 131, 198, 232n26, 233nn34,36; and compensatory consumption, 92–110, 113, 125, 183–84, 185, 190, 193, 197, 198, 202, 229nn6,10,13; and emulative consumption, 111–14, 123–24, 125–31, 198; material status symbols, 45– 46, 97, 105–8, 110, 111–26, 130–31, 176, 184, 221n53, 226n2; and national income statistics, 221n65, 232n18; and reference groups, 234n69, 242n9; relationship to economic status, 12–13, 30, 56–57, 98, 113, 115–16, 198, 229n15, 230n23; relationship to education, 117, 118; relationship to excess gift giving, 200; relationship to monetary circulation, 5, 16, 17, 25–29, 33–34, 36, 43– 52, 76, 80–81, 92–110, 98, 134, 144, 153–54, 155, 163, 191, 193–94, 197, 204, 210, 232n19, 244n9; relationship to morality, 115–16, 117, 119, 233nn37,39,51; relationship to occupation, 32; relationship to social visibility in consumption practices, 93, 96–103, 104, 116, 193, 198, 229n14, 242n8; of transnational families, 10, 32, 36, 43–52, 108, 124–25, 146–47 Son (non-migrant interviewee), 10–12, 15, 184– 90, 214 South Korea: expatriates from, 95, 100; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 209, 218n57; Vietnamese labor migrants in, 220n34 Spivak, Gayatri: on migrants as diasporic underclass, 140 Sri Lanka, 241n2 Stearns, Elizabeth: on social status, 229nn14,15 structuralism, 194–95 subprime mortgage crisis, 241nn64–66 Ta (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Taiwan: expatriates from, 95, 100; Vietnamese immigrants living in, 209, 218n57; Vietnamese labor migrants in, 220n34 Tambyah, Siok Kuan, 118, 221n58, 233n51 Tampa, Florida: Vietnamese immigrants living in, 58 Tan (non-migrant interviewee), 124, 214 Thailand, 218n58 Thang (non-migrant interviewee), 44–45, 47, 214 Thanh (non-migrant interviewee), 116–17, 213 Thao (migrant interviewee), 77, 212 Thinh (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Thomas, Mandy, 41, 222n68 Thong (non-migrant interviewee), 119–21, 122, 123, 131 Thrift, Nigel, 238n21 Thu (non-migrant interviewee), 213 284 index Thuc Duc, 2, 3, 8, 175, 177, 215n6 Tien (non-migrant interviewee), 49–50, 213 Tin (non-migrant interviewee), 116, 214 Tong (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Trai (migrant interviewee), 69, 136–37, 212 transitional economies, 30, 36, 47–48, 121–23 transnational expenditure cascade: defined, 25– 26; and monetary circulation, 25–31, 58, 70–71, 110, 125–26, 130–31, 134, 153, 173, 193, 194, 198; role of comparative spending in, 25–31; role of migrants’ return visits in, 26–29 transnational families: defined, 22, 219n12; growth of, 22–24; social status of, 10, 32, 36, 43–52, 108, 124–25, 146–47 See also migrants; non-migrants transnational optic among migrants, 54, 56, 70– 71, 79–80, 90, 197 Trieu (non-migrant), 164–70, 210, 240n55 Trieu (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Trinh (migrant interviewee), 104, 135, 146, 212 Trong (non-migrant interviewee), 39–41, 214 Truc (non-migrant interviewee), 12–14, 15, 181– 84, 189, 213 Truitt, Allison, 41, 51, 116, 119, 230n35 Tung (non-migrant interviewee), 111–12, 127, 140, 214 Tuong (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Turkey, 117–18, 233n50 Tuyet (migrant interviewee), 39–41, 55, 138, 212, 235n17 Tyagi, Amelia Warren: on credit cards, 239n47 United States: class structure in, 216n12; consumer debt in, 170; credit system in, 48; economic conditions in, 7, 12–13, 20, 56, 60–61, 77, 90, 201–4, 223n2, 224n3, 227n19, 246nn73,76; economic disparities between Vietnam and, 19, 28–29, 42, 56, 59, 60–61, 80, 81–82, 91, 94, 98–99, 173, 224n3, 230n18; economic success of Asian Americans in, 20, 218n70; family sponsorship to, 19, 69, 225n43; health care/ social benefits in, 206–7; housing in, 221n51; intergenerational mobility in, 226n11; low-wage workers in, 7–8, 17, 18– 19, 76–77, 90, 155, 198, 199–204, 206–8, 216n12, 224n18, 227n19, 246n78; middle class in, 126–27; minimum wage in, 7, 19, 29, 203, 204, 207, 216n12, 247n95, 248n99; per capita income, 56; poverty level in, 203–4, 216n14, 247nn87,89,91,94, 248nn96,97; relations with Vietnam, 1, 23, 206, 220nn23,24; Vietnamese immigrant population in, 19–20, 23–24, 29, 164, 206– 7, 216n22, 218n57, 222n74, 230n33 upward mobility, 123, 180, 226n3, 228n29, 232n19; in developing countries, 114; migrants vs non-migrants regarding, 15– 16 See also American Dream Ustuner, Tuba, 117–18, 233n50 Veblen, Thorstein: on conspicuous consumption, 92, 110, 112–13, 198, 199, 201, 228n2, 229nn4,6,11, 231n4; on conventional standard of decency in consumption, 236n34 Vien (non-migrant interviewee), 127, 214 Vietnam: consumption practices in, 4–5, 8, 10– 12, 14–15, 25, 26–29, 94–103, 105–10; Doi Moi economic reform, 17, 23, 226n8; economic conditions in, 1, 2–3, 5, 7, 8–9, 10, 11, 14–15, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24–25, 26–31, 29–30, 36, 47–48, 51, 56, 58, 60–61, 81–82, 115–17, 118–19, 138, 190, 194, 198, 220n27, 221n58, 224n3, 226n8, 233n51; economic disparities between U.S and, 19, 28–29, 42, 56, 59, 60–61, 80, 81–82, 91, 94, 98–99, 173, 224n3, 230n18; foreign direct investment in, 18, 44; gross domestic product (GDP), 24; per capita income, 24, 29, 56; relations with United States, 1, 23, 206, 220nn23,24; significance of migrant money to, 24–25, 44, 64, 69–70, 221n47 Vietnam War: end of, 1, 19, 23, 218n58, 220n21 Vinh (migrant interviewee), 212 Vu (migrant interviewee), 137, 140–42, 144, 153, 164–70, 171, 210, 212, 240nn54–57 Vuong (non-migrant interviewee), 214 Vuorela, Ulla, 241n6 Vy (non-migrant interviewee), 213 Waller, Spencer Weber, 220n27 Warren, Elizabeth: on credit cards, 239n47 Waters, Mary, 17, 62; on black immigrants, 227n21, 228n33 Weber, Max: on class divisions, 29; on ideal types, 63; on money, 35; on social action, 150; on status groups, 106 Weiss, Robert Stuart, 248n13 Wilson, William, 202 World Bank, 223n3 Wucker, Michele, 16 Xuan (non-migrant interviewee), 213 index 285 Yen (non-migrant interviewee), 126, 213 Young, Ken, 95 Zelizer, Viviana: on money, 17, 34–35, 192, 193, 196, 222n11; The Purchase of Intimacy, 34; The Social Meaning of Money, 34, 222n11 Zhou, Min, 79, 84, 228n32 Zinn, Maxine Baca, 219n16 ... and spending money there.3 The ways chapter in which different members of these low- wage transnational families interpret giving, receiving, and spending money all of which are embedded in classical... paper Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Thai, Hung Cam, author Insufficient funds : the culture of money in low- wage transnational families / Hung Cam Thai pages cm Includes bibliographical... MIGRANT MONEY T h i s b o o k tells the story of money and migration among transnational families in the Vietnamese diaspora, with a specific focus on families of low- wage immigrants living in the