Practical electronics for inventors fourth edition

Practical Electronics for Inventors ABOUT THE AUTHORS Paul Scherz is a Systems Operation Manager who received his B.S in physics from the University of Wisconsin He is an inventor/ hobbyist in electronics, an area he grew to appreciate through his experience at the University’s Department of Nuclear Engineering and Engineering Physics and Department of Plasma Physics Dr Simon Monk has a bachelor’s degree in cybernetics and computer science and a Ph.D in software engineering He spent several years as an academic before he returned to industry, co-founding the mobile software company Momote Ltd He has been an active electronics hobbyist since his early teens and is a full-time writer on hobby electronics and open-source hardware Dr Monk is author of numerous electronics books, including Programming Arduino, Hacking Electronics, and Programming the Raspberry Pi ABOUT THE TECHNICAL EDITORS Michael Margolis has more than 40 years of experience developing and delivering hardware and software solutions He has worked at senior levels with Sony, Lucent/Bell Labs, and a number of start-up companies Michael is the author of two books, Arduino Cookbook and Make an Arduino-Controlled Robot: Autonomous and Remote-Controlled Bots on Wheels.  Chris Fitzer is a solutions architect and technical manager who received his Ph.D in electrical and electronic engineering from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) in 2003 and a first-class honors degree (B.Sc.) in 1999 He currently leads a global team developing and deploying Smart Grid technologies around the world.  Previous positions have seen Chris drive the European interests of the ZigBee Smart Energy (ZSE) profile and lead the development of the world’s first certified Smart Energy In Premise Display (IPD) and prototype smart meter He has also authored or co-authored numerous technical journal papers within the field of Smarter Grids Practical Electronics for Inventors Fourth Edition Paul Scherz Simon Monk New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932853 McGraw-Hill Education books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions or for use in corporate training programs To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com Practical Electronics for Inventors, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2007, 2000 by McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher, with the exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication McGraw-Hill Education, the McGraw-Hill Education logo, TAB, and related trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of McGraw-Hill Education and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners McGraw-Hill Education is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book ROV ROV ISBN 978-1-25-958754-2 MHID 1-25-958754-1 This book is printed on acid-free paper Sponsoring Editor Michael McCabe Editorial Supervisor Stephen M Smith Production Supervisor Pamela A Pelton Acquisitions Coordinator Lauren Rogers Technical Editors Michael Margolis and Chris Fitzer Project Manager Apoorva Goel, Cenveo® Publisher Services Copy Editor Raghu Narayan Das, Cenveo Publisher Services Indexer Cenveo Publisher Services Art Director, Cover Jeff Weeks Composition Cenveo Publisher Services Illustration Cenveo Publisher Services Proofreader Cenveo Publisher Services Information has been obtained by McGraw-Hill Education from sources believed to be reliable However, because of the possibility of human or mechanical error by our sources, McGraw-Hill Education, or others, McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information and is not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results obtained from the use of such information CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments xxiii xxv CHAPTER Introduction to Electronics CHAPTER Theory 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 Theory of Electronics Electric Current 2.2.1 Currents in Perspective Voltage 2.3.1 The Mechanisms of Voltage 2.3.2 Definition of Volt and Generalized Power Law 2.3.3 Combining Batteries 2.3.4 Other Voltage Sources 2.3.5 Water Analogies A Microscopic View of Conduction (for Those Who Are Interested) 2.4.1 Applying a Voltage Resistance, Resistivity, Conductivity 2.5.1 How the Shape of a Conductor Affects Resistance 2.5.2 Resistivity and Conductivity Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors Heat and Power Thermal Heat Conduction and Thermal Resistance 2.8.1 Importance of Heat Production Wire Gauges Grounds 2.10.1 Earth Ground 2.10.2 Different Types of Ground Symbols 2.10.3 Loose Ends on Grounding 9 11 14 15 16 17 18 21 23 24 25 28 31 34 37 39 40 42 45 47 ix Index oscilloscopes (Cont.) digital applications, 593–594 horizontal mode controls, 583 initial settings, 586–587 interior circuitry of, 578–579 for laboratory use, 598–600 measuring current with, 588–589 measuring impedances, 592 measuring sinusoidal voltage signal with, 587–588 in multifunction PC instrument, 610 overview of, 575–576 trigger mode controls, 583–586 uses of, 580–581 vertical mode controls, 582–583 working of, 576–577 OTP (one-time programmable) OTP EPROM, 852 types of microcontrollers, 843–844 outlets, electric, 976–977 output See also I/O (input/output) devices, op amp and comparator drivers, 657 output impedance, 208–210, 212, 215, 217–218, 221–222 output resistance, 209 output voltage, 56 swing, 648–649 overvoltage protection op amp applications, 659 voltage regulators, 710 oxidation-reduction reactions, battery cells converting chemical energy into electrical energy, 272–274 P p-channel JFETS configuration options for JFETs, 449 light dimmer, 454 specification table for, 458 water analogy for understanding, 450–451 working of, 450 p-channel MOSFET (PMOS), 460–461, 753 p-n junction (rectifier) diodes LEDs and, 500 mode of operation, 428 working of, 407–409 p-type semiconductors, 31 how UJTs work, 469 overview of, 31 in photodiodes, 515 silicon in, 404–407 paired cable, 257, 263 parallel batteries in, 272 capacitors in, 108–109, 326 communications, 725 diodes in, 413 impedance in, 172 inductors in, 149–150, 357–359 resistors in, 52–55, 302–303 resonance, 697 transmission, 725 parallel circuits, 49 combining with series circuit, 50 current flows through, 69 LC resonant circuit, 189–191 parallel resonant circuit, 196–202 parallel RLC circuits, 196–202 power in LC parallel circuit, 180–182, 184–185 RLC resonant circuit, 201–202 parallel-encoded analog-to-digital conversion (Flash conversion), 812–813 parallel impedance, LC circuits, 180–182, 184–185 parallel notch filter, 221 parallel shift registers 8-bit parallel-to-serial interface, 797–798 16-bit serial-to-parallel converter, 796 8-bit serial-to-parallel converter with simultaneous data transfer, 796–797 serial-in/parallel-out, 790 parallel wires, characteristic impedance, 264, 266 parallel-in/serial-out shift register, 790–791 parameterized modules, 928 parasitic inductance, 147–148 parity bits, 723 parity generators/checkers, 758 part stockpile, for laboratory, 627–629 partial current, 75 passband, 665 1013 passband, filter response and, 665 passband ripple, filter design and, 670 passive crossover networks, speakers and, 957–958 passive filters bandpass filter design, 672–674 high-pass filter design, 670–671 low-pass filter design, 666–669 notch filter design, 674–675 overview of, 664 passive infrared (PIR) detectors, 540–541 passive probes, oscilloscopes, 602–605 Pauli exclusion principle, 29 PBASIC2 language address labels, 855 analog I/O in, 858 binary operators, 855 branching in, 854 BSI (BASIC Stamp I), 854–856 BSII (BASIC Stamp II), 854–859 constants, 855 DEBUG command, 856 debugging, 856 EEPROM, 854, 858 I/O (input/output) in, 854 looping in, 857 mathematical operators, 855–856 numeric values, 857 PIC16Cx microcontrollers and, 854–856 time, 854 unary operators, 855 PCBs (printed circuit boards) creating, 565 custom-etched boards, 561–562 etch-resistant pen used for creating PCB layout, 562–563 PCB kits, 622 perforated board, 559 photo-etching with OHP transparency film, 563–565 pre-etched perforated boards, 561 using PCB service, 565–567 wire-wrap board, 560–561 PCs (personal computer) See computers 1014 Index peak ac power, 88–89 peak current rating diode selection and, 411 diodes, 409 peak detectors, op amp applications, 661 peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating See PIV (peak inverse voltage) rating peak-to-peak ripple voltage, 707–708 percent error, 979–980 perforated PCB boards overview of, 559 with pads and buses, 622 period, of sinusoidal waveform, 85–86 periodic nonsinusoidal circuits See circuits, with periodic nonsinusoidal sources permanent magnets, 115–116 steppers, 939–943 permeability of materials, 135 personal computer (PCs) See computers PF (power factor), in AC circuits, 178–180, 182, 184–185 phase comparing phase relationship between two voltage signals, 589–590 of sinusoidal waveform, 86–87 transformers and, 378 phasor diagrams of circuit with sinusoidal source, 169 expressing voltage in complex form, 169 Phillips SAA1027, stepper controller chip, 944–945 phone connectors, 259, 617 phono (RCA) connectors, 259 phonons, 34 phosphorus, in n-type silicon, 404–405 photoconductivity, 515 photodarlington, 519 photodiodes, 428 overview of, 514 in solar cells, 516–517 specifications, 516 types of, 515–516 working of, 514–515 photoelectric emission, 21 photo-etching with OHP transparency film, creating PCB layout, 563–565 photoFETs, 517 photons, 495–497 photoresistors applications of, 513–514 overview of, 512 working and technicalities of, 512–513 photosensors, using in conjunction with supercapacitor, 353 photothyristors, 521 phototransistors applications of, 520 bipolar transistors, 444 overview of, 517 types of, 518 working of, 518 photovoltaics photodiodes in, 515 as voltage source, 16 PIC16Cx microcontrollers, 849–862 2048-byte EEPROM, 853 debugging, 856 IR transmitters and receivers, 860 making a robot using BSII, 856–859 PBASIC2 language and, 854–856 PIC16C56’s program memory (EPROM), 849 piezoelectric speaker, 860 power supply, 853 production, 862 programming, 850–853 programming with BASIC Stamp, 851–853 reset circuit, 853 servos, 859–860 piezoelectric effects crystal oscillators and, 696 detecting shock and vibration, 545 as voltage source, 16 PIN diodes, 426, 428 pinouts, for bipolar transistors, 445 PIR (passive infrared) detectors, 540–541 PIV (peak inverse voltage) rating diode selection and, 411 diodes and, 409 PL-259 (UHF) connectors, 260 plastic boxes, enclosing the circuit boards in, 570 plug-and-play (PnP) prototyping, 968–970 plugs, connector male ends, 256 pnp bipolar transistors in current mirror application, 447 multiple current sources and, 447 overview of, 430–431 rules governing, 433 SCRs (silicon-controlled rectifiers)and, 474 as transistor switch, 437 water analogy for understanding, 436 PnP (plug-and-play) prototyping, 968–970 point voltage, measuring voltage and, 16 polar coordinate form, of complex numbers, 160–161 pole/green box transformer, 92 poles, switch, 291 polyester film capacitors, 335, 338 polypropylene film capacitors, 335, 338 polystyrene capacitors comparing capacitor types, 337, 340 use in timing and sample-andhold circuits, 347 PolySwitches, 481, 484, 490–491 position measuring sensors, 526 positive feedback op amps, 636, 644–645 positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors, 529 positive true logic, 718 positive voltage regulator, 701 pot cores, comparing inductor types, 365 potential difference, potential energy, 9, 12–13 expression, 14 of free electrons, 13 potential/potential difference, See also voltage Index potentiometers (pots) characteristics of, 321–324 illustration of, 540 noise related to, 313 pros/cons and applications of, 543 rotation measurement with, 542 variable (potentiometers) resistors, 320–321 voltage and current offset compensation, 651–652 voltage-level indicator, 657 powdered core inductors, 137 powdered iron core inductors, 137 powdered-iron toroidal transformer, 392 power, 14, 124 defining volts in terms of, 14 distribution systems See power-distribution system doubling, 205 factor (real power/apparent power), 175 loss to heating, 32, 34 mains, 92–94 reactive, 175 resistor power ratings, 51–52, 301–302, 307–308 solar cells as power source, 517 due to total impedance, 175 transformer power ratio, 378–380 transformers, 390 power, in AC circuits apparent power, 176 in LC parallel circuit, 180–182, 184–185 in LC series circuit, 179–180, 182–184 power factor (PF), 178–180, 182, 184–185 reactive power (RF), 177 real power, 177 power booster, op amp applications, 658 power dissipation, by parallel resistors, 55 power factor (PF), 178–180, 182, 184–185 in AC circuits, 178–179 of a purely resistive circuit, 178 power law, finding power dissipated as heat by resistor, 301 power of 10, unit prefixes, 983 power resistors, 314 power supply BSII (BASIC Stamp II) and, 853 commercial packages, 714–715 construction, 716 DC power supplies for use in laboratory, 597–598 decoupling, 344–345, 756 dual polarity (± 12V), 707 dual polarity with variable output, 705–706 EMI/EMC design tips, 373 engaging/disconnecting battery power, 707 laser diodes, 509 for op amps, 649–650 overvoltage protection and, 710 PCB layout and, 567 rectifier packages, 703–704 regulated +5-V supply, 704 ripple reduction, 707–709 step-down transformer for DC power supply, 394 switch mode, 699, 713–714 switchers (switching power supplies), 709–712 power transfer of heat, 36 power transformers, 390 power transistors, 38, 443 power-distribution system, 973–978 delta connection, 975 in different countries, 977–978 home wiring, 976–977 three-phase, 974–975 in United States, 977 Y connection, 975 power-up CLEAR circuit, 778 power-up clear (reset) circuits, 777–778 power-film resistors, 318 powers of 10 unit prefixes, 983 preamplifiers, 459, 647, 954 precision current source, op amp applications, 658 precision op amps, 646 precision principal, sensors and, 525 precision resistors, 314–315 pre-etched perforated PCB boards, 561 1015 presets (trimmers) capacitors, 333–334 variable resistors in, 320–321 presettable 4-bit (MOD-16) synchronous up/down counter, 785–787 pressure sensors See movement, force, and pressure sensors pretinned solid bus wire, 255 primary batteries comparing, 278 defined, 272 discharge curves for, 279 overview of, 274 types of, 275–277 printed circuit board (PCB), 48 probes, oscilloscope active probes, 606 current probes, 606–607 differential probes, 606 passive probes, 602–604 selecting for laboratory use, 600–602 suggestions for working with, 607 probes, safety tips for, 553 product of sums (POS), 736–737 programmable logic, 898–899 programmable op amps, 646 programmable ROM (PROM), 833 programmable unijunction transistors (PUTs) See PUTs (programmable unijunction transistors) programmable-gain, op amp applications, 660 programming PIC16Cx microcontrollers, 850–853 project PCB boards, 621 PROM devices, 833 propagation delays digital applications of oscilloscopes, 593 logic families of ICs, 756 proton, charge of a, prototypes creating for circuit design, 558–559 PCBs, 622 proximity and touch sensors capacitive sensors, 539 optical distance-measuring devices, 537–538 overview of, 535 1016 Index proximity and touch sensors (Cont.) summary of, 539–540 touch screens, 535–536 types of sensors, 526 ultrasonic distance-measuring devices, 536–537 Pspice, 558 PTC (positive temperature coefficient) thermistors, 529 pullup/pulldown resistors, 779–780 pulsating dc, 82–83 pulse-code modulation (PCM), 811 pulse measurement, with oscilloscope, 591 pulse transformers, 392 pulse-triggered flip-flops, 762–763 pulse-width modulation (PWM) See PWM (pulse-width modulation) pulses, unwanted coupling due, 149–150 pump-in power, 33 pure water, as insulator or conductor, 27 push-pull follower (complementary-symmetry) amplifier, bipolar transistor as, 447 pushbutton switches, 293 PUTs (programmable unijunction transistors) relaxation oscillator and, 472 types of UJTs, 470 PWM (pulse-width modulation) amplifiers, 952–953 Arduino capabilities, 865 digital outputs and, 881 remote control of DC motors and, 937 pyrometers, 534 Pythagorean theorem, 178 Q Q (quality factor) See quality factor (Q) Q-point (quiescent point), bipolar transistors, 432 quadratic equations, 984 quadrature encoder pros/cons and applications of, 543 quadrature encoder (Cont.) rotation measurement with, 542–543 quality factor (Q), 665 capacitors, 113, 332 filter response and, 665 inductors, 154, 362 resonant circuits, 193–194, 197, 202–204 quantum mechanics, velocitydistribution laws, 20 quantum physics, Pauli exclusion principle, 29–30 quarter-wave section, for impedance matching, 271 quartz crystals, crystal oscillators and, 696–697 quiescent point (Q-point), bipolar transistors, 432 R R/2R ladder DAC, 806–807 R (resistance) See resistance (R) radiation detection, 547–548 radio circuits, inductors for, 372 radio frequency See RF (radio frequency) radio frequency interference (RFI), 44 radioisotopes, use in smoke detectors, 546 RAM (random access memory), 836–837 computer memory and, 841 DIMMs, 840–841 DRAM (dynamic RAM), 838–840 SRAM (static RAM), 837–838 RAM (rechargeable alkalinemanganese) batteries comparing secondary batteries, 284–285 selecting, 287 Rambus DRAM (RDRAM), 841 ramp generator, 471 ramp waveforms, 84 random access memory See RAM (random access memory) RC filter, 210–214 RC high-pass filter, 216–217 RC relaxation oscillators overview of, 684–686 PUTs (programmable) and, 472 RC relaxation oscillators (Cont.) UJTs (unijunction transistors) in, 470 RC (remote control) servos, 936–938 RC (resistor-capacitor) circuits RC networks in arc suppression, 350 squarewave RC circuit, 241–242 RC ripple filters, 348–350 RC time constant, capacitors and, 105–108 RCA (phono) connectors, 259 RDRAM (Rambus DRAM), 841 reactance capacitive reactance, 111–113 in circuits with sinusoidal sources, 170 inductive reactance, 151–153 quality factor (Q) and, 113 reactive circuits, 175–176 reactive factor (RF), in AC circuits, 179 reactive power, 175 in AC circuits, 176–177 reactive power, in AC circuits, 176–178 read-only memory (ROM) See ROM (read-only memory) read/write memory (RWM) See RAM (random access memory) real capacitors, 329 real inductors, 361 real-life capacitor applications, 5–6 real part, of complex numbers, 159 real power, in AC circuits, 176–178 real transformers, 377, 384–385 real voltage sources, 62–63 receiver circuit, applications of phototransistors, 520 receivers, in BSII robot, 859 rechargeable alkaline-manganese (RAM) batteries See RAM (rechargeable alkalinemanganese) batteries reciprocal equivalent inductance, 150 recirculating memory register, 798–799 Index rectifiers active rectifiers, 661 diode/rectifier applications, 412 dual rectifier, 479 half-wave and full-wave rectifiers, 415–416 p-n junction See p-n junction (rectifier) diodes packages used in power supplies, 703–704 pros/cons of rectifier circuits, 417 silicon-controlled See SCRs (silicon-controlled rectifiers) types of diodes, 409 reed relays comparing relay types, 297 illustration of, 296 reference voltage, 701 reflective pair, optoisolators, 522 rejector circuits, 196 relative error, 979–980 relaxation oscillators overview of, 684–686 PUTs (programmable) and, 472 UJTs (unijunction transistors) in, 470 relay driver, 299 relays, 881 555 timer as relay driver, 691 Arduino shields, 866–868 bipolar transistor as relay driver, 445 controlling from digital output, 881 JFET as relay driver, 458–459 light-activated, 514 light-activated relay, 520 MOSFETs as relay driver, 468 overview of, 295–296, 298 solid-state, 523 spike protection, 413 types of, 297 UJT as relay driver, 471 using logic to drive external loads, 800–801 remote control (RC) servos, 936–938 repulsive force, 11 reset circuits, BSII (BASIC Stamp II), 853 reset condition, 759 See also SR (set-reset) flip-flops resistance (R), 23 ac/dc resistance ratio as function of frequency, 263 of the black box, 32–33 chemistry impacting, 25 in circuit with sinusoidal source, 170 of a conducting wire, 24–25 conductor shape impacting, 24–25 determining for a resistor network, 58–60 input, 207 internal voltage drop in batteries due to, 289–290 in light of Ohm’s law, 112 measuring, 65–67 measuring with multimeters, 573 Ohm’s law and, 23–24, 301–302 output, 209 quality factor (Q) and, 113 substitution boxes, 614–616 thermal heat resistance, 34–37 voltage coefficient of resistance, 313 resistance taper, potentiometer characteristics, 322 resistive divider, 113 resistive temperature detectors (RTDs), 532, 534 resistive touch screens, 535–536 resistivity, 25 conductivity and, 25–27 defined, 25 of insulators, conductors, and semiconductors, 28–31 pessimistic notion of, 25 of special materials, 27–28 temperature coefficient of, 26–27 in terms of Ohm’s law, 25 thermal resistivity, 36–37 resistors, 23 in 555 timers, 687 AC (alternating current) and, 87–91 bleeder, 58 body colors, 305 characteristics of, 306 determining resistance of a resistor network, 58–60 1017 resistors (Cont.) expressing voltage in complex form, 168–169 frequency response, 310–311 frequency-sensitive, 170 labeling schemes, 304–305 noise and, 311–313 Ohm’s law and, 50–62 overview of, 50–51, 299–301 in parallel, 52–55, 302–303 potentiometers and, 321–324 power dissipated as heat by, 50 power ratings, 51–52, 307–308 resistance and Ohm’s law, 301–302 resistance and power dissipated in, 52 resistance for a complex network of, 58–60 in series, 55–58, 303–304 stability and reliability of, 313 symbols for, 23, 50, 300 TCP (temperature coefficient of resistance), 308–310 temperature ratings, 313 thermistors, 529–531 tolerance, 307 in transient circuits, 228–230 types of, 314–319 unit prefix convention, 51 variable (potentiometers) resistors, 320–321 voltage and current offset compensation, 651–652 voltage coefficient of resistance, 313 voltage-controlled, 457 voltage ratings, 306–307 resolution, potentiometer characteristics, 322–323 resolution principal, sensors, 525 resonant circuits, 188–204 bandwidth and, 194–195 capacitor losses, 195–196 LC parallel, 189–191 LC series, 188–189 in parallel RLC circuits, 196–202 quality factor (Q) and, 193–194 quality factor (Q) of loaded circuits, 202–204 in RLC circuit, 191–193 voltage drop across components in RCL resonant circuit, 195 1018 Index resonant filters, 356 resonant frequency, 153 resonant frequency, inductive reactance and, 153 return, defined, 41 reverse EMF, 124 reversed biasing in diodes, 407 in pn-junction (rectifier) diodes, 408 water analogy for understanding diodes, 409 RF (radio frequency), 123, 964–967 433- and 315-MHz modules, 966–967 bluetooth modules, 967 chokes, 355 grounds, 44 GSM/GPRS modules, 967 high frequency transistors, 443 oscillator/transmitter, 372 PIN diodes as RF switch, 426, 428 XBee modules, 967 RFI (radio frequency interference), 44 RG-11AU cable, characteristic impedance of, 265 RGB color, in LED displays, 895 RG-58/U cable, characteristic impedance of, 265 rheostats, variable resistors in, 320 ribbon and plane cable, 256 ribbon cable, 258, 260 right-hand rule, 115–117 ring counter (shift register sequencer), 791 ripple factor RC ripple filter, 348–350 reducing ripple in power supplies, 707–709 rise-time, resistor, 310 RL circuits deenergizing, 144–146 energizing, 142–143 inductors and, 359–360 in series, reactive power, 177 series impedance, 174–175 RL high-pass filter, 217–218 RL low-pass filter, 215 RLC bandpass filter, 219–220 RLC circuits bandwidth and, 194–195 capacitor energy losses in, 195–196 RLC circuits (Cont.) circulating current in parallel resonant circuit, 201–202 critically damped, 233–234 overdamped, 232–233 parallel-resonant circuit, 196–202 quality factor (Q) and, 193–194 resonance in, 191–193 series, 231–235 series-resonant circuit, 192–194, 202 underdamped, 234–235 voltage drop across components in, 195 RMS (root mean square) voltage measuring, 91–92 multimeters, 91 overview of, 87–91 test measurements, 90 values of ac voltage and current, 88 robot project with Arduino, 870–872 with BASIC stamps, 856, 859 Rohrer, Ronald, 245 ROM (read-only memory), 829–836 devices, 832–836 diode applications, 420 diodes for creating simple ROM, 830 overview of, 830 programmable, 831–832 size and organization, 830–831 types of microcontrollers, 843–844 rotary encoders illustration of, 540 rotation measurement with, 542 rotary switches, 293 rotation measurement, 542–543 RTDs (resistive temperature detectors), 532, 534 RWM (read/write memory) See RAM (random access memory) S SAA1027 (Phillips), stepper controller chip, 944–945 safety goggles, 554 safety issues electronic safety tips, 553–554 ESD (electrostatic discharge) and, 555 safety issues (Cont.) overview of, 551–553 precautions in handling components, 555–556 saltwater, as insulator or conductor, 27 sample-and-hold circuits capacitors in, 347–348 op amp applications, 660 sample voltage, in voltage regulators, 701 saturation current, inductor specification, 362 saturation region bipolar transistors, 432 JFETs, 452 sawtooth waveforms, 92, 240 RC relaxation oscillators, 684–685 schematics for circuit design, 556–557 of offboard Arduino project, 872–873 Schmitt trigger inverter, 686 Schottky diodes mode of operation, 428 motor kickback protection with, 414 overview of, 410 termination, 419 SCRs (silicon-controlled rectifiers) overview of, 473–474 overvoltage protection and, 710 specification table for, 476 speed control of DC motors, 934 types of, 475 types of thyristors, 473 working of, 474–475 SCSs (silicon-controlled switches) overview of, 476–477 types of thyristors, 473 SDRAM (synchronous DRAM), 841 secondary batteries comparing, 284 defined, 272 discharge curves for, 285 overview of, 279 types of, 279–283 secondary emission, 21 security alarm, switch applications in, 294 Seebeck effect, thermocouples and, 531 Index self-inductance, by inductors, 120–121 self-resonant frequency (SRF), 362 semiconductors, 30–31 energy-band structure for, 30 overview of, 401–402 resistivity of, 28–31 silicon See silicon technology of, 401 thyristors See thyristors transistors See transistors valance band of, 31 semiprecision resistors, 314 sensitivity, microphone specifications, 950–951 sensors accuracy principal, 525 analog, 525 calibration of, 526–528 cameras, 526 capacitive, 539–540 chemical, 546–547 chemical sensors, 546–547 digital, 525 electric current, 526 fluid flow, 544 GPS, 549–550 humidity, 546 imaging devices, 526 inertial devices, 526 interfacing with microcontrollers, 874 laser, 544 light, radiation, magnetism, and sound, 547–549 LM34/35 temperature, 800 magnetic, 544, 548–549 media device, 526 modules, 966 moisture, 546 motion, 526 observer effect, 526 optical, 537–540 optical reflective, 540 overview of, 525 photosensors, 353 position measuring, 526 precision, accuracy, and resolution, 525 pressure, 545 proximity and touch, 537–540 slotted, 540 sound, 549 types of, 526 sequential logic, 758–780 automatic power-up clear (reset) circuits, 777–778 4-bit MOD-16 synchronous counter, 772–773 digital clock generators, 774–777 D-type flip-flops, 764–769 edge-triggered flip-flops, 762 JK flip-flops, 769–774 latched temperature or light alarm, 761 level-triggered SR flip-flops, 761 master-slave flip-flops, 763 MOD-16 ripple counter (or asynchronous counter), 771–772 monostable multivibrator, 775–777 pullup and pulldown resistors, 779–780 pulse-triggered SR flip-flop, 762–763 quad and octal D flip-flops, 768–769 rules for deciphering flip-flop logic symbols, 763 single-pulse generators, 774–777 SR flip-flop ICs, 763–764 SR flip-flops, 759–763 switch debouncer, 760–761 serial, 891 interfaces, 884–892 TTL, 891 serial access memory, 835–836 serial clock line (SCL), 888 serial communications, 725 serial data line (SDA), 888–889 serial I/O, in PBASIC2 language, 854 serial interfaces, 891–892 8-bit parallel-to-serial interface, 797–798 8-bit serial-to-parallel converter with simultaneous data transfer, 796–797 I2C (TWI), 888–890 microcontrollers and, 874–895 old serial interface standard, 891–892 serial peripheral interface, 890–891 1019 serial interfaces (Cont.) USI (Universal Serial Interface), 846 1-wire serial bus, 885–888 serial peripheral interface (SPI), 890–892 serial port adapters, in microcontrollers, 844 serial shift registers 7491 A 8-bit serial-in/serial-out shift register, 792–793 74165 8-bit parallel-to-serial shift register, 797 74164 8-bit serial-in/parallel-out shift register, 793, 796 16-bit serial-to-parallel converter, 796 8-bit serial-to-parallel converter with simultaneous data transfer, 796–797 parallel-in/serial-out, 790–791 serial-in/parallel-out shift register, 790 serial-in/serial-out shift register, 789 serial transmission, 725 series batteries in, 272 capacitors in, 109–110, 327 combining batteries for greater voltage, 67 diodes in, 413 impedance in, 171 inductors in, 149–150, 357–359 resistors in, 55–58, 303–304 series circuits, 49 combining with parallel, 50 current flows through, 68–69 LC resonant circuits, 188–189 power in LC series circuit, 179–180, 182–184 RLC circuits, 231–235 series impedance in LC series circuit, 179–180, 182–184 in RL circuits, 174–175 series resonance, crystals and, 697 service panels connecting mains to, 92–94 in home wiring, 976 servo motors in BSII robot, 859–860 controlling, 882 RC (remote control), 936–938 1020 Index set-reset (SR) flip-flops, 759–763 ICs, 763–764 shape, of waveforms, 683 sharp, resonant circuits, 193 Sharp GP2YOA21YK optical sensor, 537–538 shielded inductors, 364 shielded twin lead cable, 257 shielding transformers, 386 shields, Arduino, 866–868 shift register ICs 7491 A 8-bit serial-in/serial-out shift register, 792–793 74164 8-bit serial-in/parallel-out shift register, 793, 796 74165 8-bit parallel-to-serial shift register, 797 74194 universal shift register, 794–795 74299 universal shift/storage register with three-state interface shift register, 794–795 shift register sequencer (ring counter), 791 shift registers applications, 796–799 8-bit parallel-to-serial interface, 797–798 8-bit serial-to-parallel converter with simultaneous data transfer, 796–797 16-bit serial-to-parallel converter, 796 ICs, 792–796 Johnson shift counter, 791–792 parallel-in/serial-out, 790–791 recirculating memory registers, 798–799 ring counter (shift register sequencer), 791 serial-in/parallel-out, 790 serial-in/serial-out, 789 shock absorbers, 235 shock hazard, 47 short circuits, 68–69, 75 Short Message Service (SMS), 967 short-wave receiver, 372 shot noise, resistor, 311–312 signal analyzer, in multifunction PC instrument, 611 sign-magnitude representation, 721 signal diodes, 409 signal transformers, 392 silicon, 30–31 applications of, 406–407 clarifying confusion regarding, 405–406 doping process, 403–405 overview of, 402–403 silicon chips, in pressure sensors, 545 silver mica capacitors, 335, 339 silver oxide batteries comparing primary batteries, 276–277 internal voltage drop, 290 selecting, 287 SIMM memory modules, 837 simulation, 928–931 example, with SPICE computer program, 249–251 MultiSim circuit simulator, 72 programs, 245 programs for circuit design, 558 simulators, simultaneous multiple comparator, 812 sine functions, trigonometry, 985 wave generator, 693 waveforms, 84 single in-line memory modules (SIMMs), 840 single pole double throw (SPDT), 292 single pole multiple throw (SP(n)T), 292 SINGLE-PULSE/PULSE-TRAIN switch, 758 single-pulse generators, 774–777 monostable multivibrators (one-shot), 775–777 one-shot/continuous-clock generator, 777 single switch interfaces, microcontrollers, 874–875 sinusoidal voltage signal, 587–588 sinusoidal waveforms See also circuits, AC circuits with; circuits, with sinusoidal sources combining sinusoidal sources, 83–84 overview of, 81 skin effect energy loss in inductors and, 154 wires and cables and, 262–263 SLA (sealed lead acid) batteries comparing secondary batteries, 280, 284 internal voltage drop, 290 selecting, 287 Slave Select (SS) line, 890 slew rate, op am specification, 648–649 slotted coupler/interrupter, optoisolators, 522 SMA connectors illustration of, 617 oscilloscopes and, 601 small signal JFETs, 457–458 small signal transformers, 392 small signal transistors, 443 small switching JFETs, 457–458 small switching transistor, 443 smaller circuit breakers, 399 SMD (surface mounted devices), 963 smoke detectors, 546 SMS (Short Message Service), 967 snap (microswitch) switches, 293 snubber networks, 144 in arc suppression, 350 overview of, 144 socket-and-bus strips, for prototype PCBs, 621 software-controlled devices, 752–753 solar cells, 516–517 solar energy, storing without using battery, 353 soldering circuits, 568–569 safety tips, 553 solder and flux supplies in laboratory, 618–619 tools for removing solder, 619–621 soldering irons, 568, 618 solderless breadboards, 621 solenoid, 117 solid core wire, 253, 624 solid-state relays, 296–297, 523 SOP (sum of products), AND-ORINVERTER gates and, 736–737 SOS, 754 Index sound interfacing with microcontrollers, 883–884 in PBASIC2 language, 854 sensors, 549 theory, 947–949 sound-activated switches, 961 sound interfaces, 883–884 sound sensors, 549 source follower, JFETs (junction field-effect transistors), 455–456 source impedance, 209 spade lug, barrier strip and, 258 spade terminals, 617 SparkFun PIR sensor, 541 SPDT (single pole double throw), 292 speaker wire, 255 speakers, 956–957 crossover networks, 350 dynamic, 956 ICs (integrated circuits) for driving, 959 impedance matching and, 396 midrange, 957 piezoelectric, 860 specialized ICs, spectrum analyzers, displaying Fourier transformation with, 245 speed control, for dc motors, 475 SPI (serial peripheral interface), 890–891 SPICE computer program limitations of, 249 simulation example with, 249–251 working of, 246–249 spikes inductive voltage spikes, 147 protection diodes, 413 transient suppressors for eliminating, 298 unwanted coupling due to spikes, lightning, and other pulses, 149–150 voltage regulation and, 700 spin quantum number, 29 spiral coil inductor, 132, 358 SP(n)T (single pole multiple throw), 292 SPST (single pole single throw) relays, 296 switches, 292 square waveforms, 84, 92, 239 squarewave generators microcontroller oscillator as, 698 VCOs (voltage-controlled oscillators), 692–693 squarewave oscillators (clocks), 683–684 squarewave RC circuit, 241–242 SR (set-reset) flip-flops, 759–763 edge-triggered, 762 ICs, 763–764 level-triggered SR, 761 pulse-triggered, 762–763 rules for deciphering, 763 switch debouncer, 760–761 SRAM (static RAM), 837–838 DDRAMM II (double-data-rate SRAM), 841 nonvolatile, 838 types of memory in ATiny microcontrollers, 845 SRF (self resonant frequency), 362 Stamps, 851 BSI See BSI (BASIC Stamp I) BSII See BSII (BASIC Stamp II) standard twisted nematic display, LCDs (liquid-crystal displays), 819 standing wave pattern, 268 See also VSWR (voltage standingwave ratio) static electric effects, as voltage source, 16 static electricity See also ESD (electrostatic discharge) checking potentiometers for static noise, 591 sources of voltage, 16–17 static RAM (SRAM) See SRAM (static RAM) steady-state conditions, 35, 37 steepness factor, normalized stop frequency for filters, 667 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 534 Steinhart-Hart equation, 529 step-down regulator, 712 step-down transformers converting line voltage to dc, 699 for DC power supply, 394 overview of, 376 step-up regulator, 712 1021 stepper motors, or steppers, 938–943 bipolar, 941 controlling, 883 driving, 941–943 identifying, 945–946 permanent-magnet, 939–943 translator circuit controlling drivers, 943–945 types of, 939–941 unibipolar, 940–941 universal, 941 variable-reluctance, 940 stop-band frequency, filter response and, 665 straight-wire inductance, 147–148 strain gauges, for sensing force, 544–545 strained hookup wire, in laboratory supplies, 624 stranded wire overview of, 254 reducing resistance due to skin effect, 262 stray capacitance, 108 capacitors and, 108 characteristics of real transformers, 384–385 strip line cable, 256 stubs, for impedance matching, 271 subminiature fuses, 399 subminiature relays, 297 substitution boxes, setting up laboratory, 614–616 substitution method, for analyzing circuits, 72 subtraction binary adder/subtractor, 749–751 in binary arithmetic, 722 successive approximation analog-to-digital conversion, 811 successive approximation register (SAR), 811 sum of products (SOP), 736–737 summing amplifier, negative feedback examples, 642 supercapacitors applications of, 352–355 comparing capacitor types, 339–341 1022 Index supercapacitors (Cont.) overview of, 285–286 selecting batteries by application, 287 superposition theorem analyzing linear circuits, 74–75 analyzing sinusoidal circuits with complex impedances, 165–167 supertwist nematic display, LCDs (liquid-crystal displays), 819 supply current, op am specification, 648–649 supply-side comparators, 656 supply-side op amps, 647 surface-mounted device (SMD), 963 SURFBOARDS, PCB options, 622 surgectors devices used as transient suppressor, 484 overview of, 490 switch debouncers, 760–761, 764 switch-mode power supplies (SMPS), 699, 713–714 switched-capacitor filters, 682 switchers (switching power supplies) overview of, 710–712 step-up, step-down, and inverting, 712–713 switch-mode power supplies (SMPS), 699, 713–714 switch-mode variable power supplies, 598 switches analog, 802 applications of, 294–295 bilateral, 741–743 debouncing, 877–878 determining current flow and voltage when switch is opened, 226–227 diode switch, 415 example of use of transient circuits, 223–224 glow discharges damaging contacts, 350 inductance and capacitance influencing behavior of, 97, 103, 107, 114, 125, 128 switches (Cont.) interfacing with microcontrollers, 874–878 multiple, 875–876 overview of, 290 single, 874–875 SINGLE-PULSE/PULSE-TRAIN, 758 sound-activated, 961 symbols for, 292 transistor switch, 437 triac application, 478 types of, 292–294 using a matrix keypad, 876–877 working of, 291 switching MOSFETs, 466 UJTs, 470 switching diodes, 409 switching regulators ICs, 713 inductors for, 370 inverting, 713 on/off pulses, 711 step-down, 712 step-up, 712 supplies, 710–713 symbols of an air core inductor, 122 of an inductor, 122 Boolean expression, 731–732 in circuit design, 556 fuse, 68 grounds, 41, 45–46 inductor, 355–356 JFETs (junction field-effect transistors), 449 LEDs (light emitting diodes), 502 resistors, 23, 50, 300 switches, 292 wire and connector, 261 synchronous counter, 772–773 synchronous counter ICs 74160/63 presettable 4-Bit (MOD-16) synchronous up/down counters, 785–786 74190 presettable decade (BCD or MOD-10) synchronous up/down counter, 784–785 74191 presettable decade (MOD-16) synchronous up/down counter, 784–785 synchronous counter ICs (Cont.) 74192 presettable decade (BCD or MOD-10) synchronous up/down counter, 783–784 74193 presettable 4-bit (MOD-16) synchronous up/down counter, 783 synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), 841 synthesizing sound, 949 T T-connectors, 260 tachometer, applications of phototransistors, 520 tangent delta (tanδ), capacitor specification, 331–332 tantalum electrolytic capacitors, 334–335, 339 TC (temperature coefficient) capacitor specification, 332–333 inductor specification, 362 resistors, 308–310 TCP (temperature coefficient of resistance), ceramic (single-layer) capacitors, 335–336 Teensyduino, Arduino variants, 867 temperature protecting laser diode drive circuits, 509 relationship of resistivity and conductivity to, 26 resistor ratings, 313 temperature coefficient of resistance (TCP), ceramic (single-layer) capacitors, 335–336 temperature coefficient (TC), of resistivity (α), 26–27, 38 temperature sensors analog/digital interfacing, 800 analog thermometer ICs, 532–533 digital thermometer ICs, 533–534 infrared thermometers/ pyrometers, 534 interfacing with microcontrollers, 878–879 overview of, 528 Index temperature sensors (Cont.) RTDs (resistive temperature detectors), 532 summary of, 534–535 thermistors, 529–531 thermocouples, 531–532 types of sensors, 526 ten’s complement, 748 test equipment, introduction to electronics and, thermal conductivity, 35 of nonmetals, 34 thermal heat conductivity, 35–37 overview of, 34–35 resistivity, 36–37 thermal resistance, 36 thermal resistivities, 36 thermal velocity, 19, 21 thermal (white) noise, in resistors, 311–312 thermionic emission, 20 thermistors illustration of, 528 overview of, 529–531 pros/cons and applications of, 534 thermocouples illustration of, 528 pros/cons and applications of, 534 in temperature sensors, 531–532 thermodynamics, conservation of energy and, 34–35 thermoelectric effects, sources of voltage, 16 thermometers analog thermometer ICs, 532–533 digital thermometer ICs, 533–534 infrared thermometers/ pyrometers, 534 using thermistor as, 530 Thevenin equivalent circuit, 76 Thevenin equivalent resistance, 209 Thevenin resistance, 76–77 Thevenin voltage, 76 Thevenin’s theorem, 74–77 in AC form, 186–187 analyzing complex circuits, 76–77 application in a complex circuit, 79–80 Thevenin’s theorem (Cont.) examples applying, 78–80 in voltage divider circuit, 77 Thevinen equivalent impedance, 222 Thevinin’s theorem, 170 thick film chip resistors comparing resistor types, 317–318 illustration of, 306 power ratings, 308 thin film chip resistors comparing resistor types, 317–318 illustration of, 306 Thomson, Joseph, 7–8 three-phase power distribution, 974–975 throws, switch, 291 thyristors four-layer diodes and diacs, 480–481 kinds of, 473 SCRs (silicon-controlled rectifiers), 473–476 SCS (silicon-controller switch), 476–477 solid-state relays, 297 triacs, 477–480 tilt measurement, 545 time, in PBASIC2 language, 854 time constant, 106, 143, 211, 216 time-lag (slow-blow) fuses, 397 timers 555 timers, 686 applications of 555 timer, 691–692 applications of UJTs, 471 astable operation of 555 timer, 687–689 ICs (integrated circuits) for modular development, 964 monostable operation of 555 timer, 689–690 specifications and considerations regarding 555 timer, 690–691 timing circuits, capacitors in, 347–348 TINA Lab II, from DesignSoft, 610–611 TINAPro simulator program, 245, 611, 631 tinning, soldering irons, 568 1023 tip connectors, 259 TL783 voltage regulators, 702 TMP36 analog thermometer ICs, 532–533 illustration of, 528 interfacing with microcontrollers, 878–879 temperature sensor IC, 878 toggle switches, 292 tokens, 852 tolerances error and, 979–980 resistor ratings, 307 tone generator, audio circuits, 960 toroidal core transformer, 386, 391–393 toroidal inductor, 138, 358, 365 toroids, 365 touch screens, 535–536 See also proximity and touch sensors transconductance JFETs, 453 MOSFETs, 461–463 transducers, measurements with, 581 transfer function, 219–220 transformer utilization factor, bridge rectifiers and, 417 transformers air core RF, 391 applications, 392–396 audio, 391 audio impedance matching, 396 autotransformer, 387–388 basic operations, 374–377 boosting and bucking configurations, 389 center-tap transformers, 382–384, 393 characteristics of real transformers, 384–385 constructing power supplies and, 716 core shapes, 385–386 current, 393 current ratio, 377 gear analogy, 382 home wiring, 976–977 impedance matching, 270, 396 impedance ratio, 380–382 increasing/decreasing voltage with, 81–82 1024 Index transformers (Cont.) isolation transformers, 389–390, 611–613 for landscape lighting, 394 line filter and, 709 microphone input, 396 powdered-iron, 392 power, 390 power ratio, 378–380 precautions, 385 pulse, 392 rectifier arrangements, 395 selecting for power supply, 703 shielding, 386 small signal, 392 split supply from single transformer winding, 423 standard and specialized types, 390–392 step-down, 394 switch mode power supplies and, 713–714 toroidal ferrite, 392 variable (Variac), 388–389 windings, 387 transient voltage suppressors, 709–710 avalanche diodes, 491 devices used as, 483–484 for eliminating spikes, 298 fly-back diode for, 413 MOVs (metal oxide varistors), 487–489 overview of, 481–483 PolySwitches, 490–491 surgector, 490 switching regulator supplies, 709 TVSs (transient voltage suppressor diodes), 484–486 transistor arrays, 444 transistor relays, 413 transistor sockets, hardware needed for circuit construction, 576 transistor switches, 437 transistors bipolar See bipolar transistors constructing relaxation oscillators, 685 junction field-effect transistors See JFETs (junction field-effect transistors) transistors (Cont.) logic gates, 449 metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors See MOSFETs (metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors) overview of, 429–430 solid-state relays, 297 used in logic devices, 753 translator circuits, 941 controlling the driver with, 943–945 transmitters, 268, 334, 356, 372, 496, 544, 664, 860, 938, 965, 967 triacs applications of, 478–479 optoisolated, 523 overview of, 477–478 thyristors and, 473 types of, 480 working of, 478 triangle waveforms, 92, 240 triangle-wave generator combining with comparator, 685 VCOs (voltage-controlled oscillators), 692–693 trigger mode controls, oscilloscopes, 583–586 trignometry, 984–985 complex numbers and, 160 trimmers (presets) capacitors, 333–334 variable resistors in, 320–321 truth tables (Boolean expressions), using with Karnaugh maps, 738 TTL (transistor-transistor logic), 753 serial, 891 serial level conversion, 892 tunnel diodes, microwave diodes, 426 TVs, safety tips, 552, 554 TVSs (transient voltage suppressor diodes) applications of, 486 devices used as transient suppressor, 483–484 overview of, 484–485 specifications, 485 tweeter, 957 twin lead cable, 256–257 twin-T oscillators, 693 twisted pair cable, 257 two-lead black box, 31–32 resistance, 32–33 two-wire interface (TWI) or I2C microcontroller-tomicrocontroller communication, 888–890 voltage level conversion in microcontrollers, 892 TXS0102 level converter, 893 U UART (universal asynchronous receiver transmitter), 844 UJTs (unijunction transistors) applications of, 471–472 conductivity, 470, 685 constructing relaxation oscillators, 685–686 mode of operation, 430 overview of, 468 in relaxation oscillator, 470 speed control of DC motors, 934 types of, 470 working of, 469–470 ULN2003 IC, 942 Ultiboard PCB Layout, 631 ultrasonic distance-measuring devices, 536–537, 540 ultrasonic sensors, for flow measurement, 544 ultraviolet photons, 496 unary operators, PBASIC2 language, 855 unbalanced coaxial cable, 257 uncertainty estimates in error analysis/ detection, 980–982 fractional (relative) error, 979–980 Understanding Digital Signal Processing (Lyons), 863 unibipolar steppers, 940–941 unijunction transistors (UJTs) See UJTs (unijunction transistors) unipolar steppers, 941–942 unit of current, unity gain amplifier (buffer), negative feedback examples, 640–641 Index unity gain frequency, frequency compensation in op amps, 652 universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART), 844 universal gates, 735–736 Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface, 844 universal stepper, 941 universal synchronous/ asynchronous receiver transmitter (USART), 844 Uno, Arduino boards, 864–866 Uno R3, Arduino boards, 866 up/down counters 74160/63 presettable 4-bit (MOD-16) synchronous up/down counters, 785–786 74190 presettable decade (BCD or MOD-10) synchronous up/down counter, 784–785 74192 presettable decade (BCD or MOD-10) synchronous up/down counter, 783–784 74191 presettable decade (MOD-16) synchronous up/down counter, 784–785 USART (universal synchronous/ asynchronous receiver transmitter), 844 USBDroid, Arduino variants, 867 user-defined graphics, 827–828 USI (Universal Serial Interface), 846 V +5-V power supply, 704 V (volts) definition of, 14–15 in Ohm’s Law, 23 VA (apparent power), in AC circuits, 176–178 vaccum, as insulator or conductor, 28 vacuum capacitors, 334 valance band of semiconductors, 31 valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries, 279–280 varactor (varicap) diodes mode of operation, 428 variable capacitance diode, 424–425 variable transformers, 388–389 variable-reluctance steppers, 940 Variac (variable transformer) overview of, 388–389 setting up laboratory, 613–614 varicap (varactor) diodes mode of operation, 428 variable capacitance diode, 424–425 VCOs (voltage-controlled oscillators), 425, 692–693 Venus638FLPx GPS module, 550 Verilog data selector, programming using, 916–919 modules, 915 number format, 915 overview, 914–915 parallel execution, 915 ripple counter schematic project, 919–920 wires, registers and busses, 915 vertical mode controls, 582–583 VHDL, 931 vibration sensors illustration of, 540 overview of, 545 VI-322-DP, driving LCDs, 820–821 visible light LEDs, 501 Visual Studio, NET Gadgeteer programmed in, 969 117-volt plug/socket, 258 120-volt power, mains power and, 94 240-volt power, mains power and, 94 voltage, 9–18 applying across a conductor, 21–23 capacitor ratings, 99–100 coefficient of resistance, 313 combining batteries in series to increase, 15–16 comparing phase relationship between two voltage signals, 598–599 constructing voltage divider, 61–62 determining current flow and voltage when switch is opened, 226–227 difference between points in the same conductor, 14 digital logic states, 717–718 diodes in regulation of, 412 1025 voltage (Cont.) dropper, diode/rectifier applications, 412 equation, 12 feedback, types of negative feedback, 640 formal definition of volt, 14–15 gain, op am specification, 648–649 global differences in electricity supply, 977–978 half-wave voltage doubler, 416 in home wiring, 976–977 inductive voltage spikes, 147 internal voltage drop in batteries due to resistance, 289–290 level conversion in microcontrollers, 892 line voltage as safety hazard, 551 measuring, 65–66 measuring generally, 65–67 measuring RMS voltage and currents, 91–92 measuring sinusoidal voltage signal with oscilloscope, 587–588 measuring with multimeters, 66–67, 572–573 measuring with oscilloscope, 575–576 mechanisms of, 11–14 offset compensation in op amps, 651–652 overvoltage protection, 424 power-distribution system, 973–978 relationship between difference in potential energy and, 12 resistor ratings, 306–307 sensors, 526 shifter, 423 sinusoidal voltage source in complex notation, 167–169 sources, 16–17, 62–65 suppressors, 68 in terms of resistance and current, 24 trippler and quadrupler, 417 water analogy for understanding, 17–18 voltage coefficient of resistance, 313 1026 Index voltage divider equations, 56, 217 applying Thevenin’s theorem, 77 for load device, 57 voltage dividers AC (alternating current), 172, 174 capacitive, 113 constructing, 61–62 equations, 56–57 inductive, 155 light-sensitive, 513 potentiometer as, 542 relation, 64 resistors and, 304 variable resistors as, 320 voltage dropper, diode/rectifier applications, 412 voltage feedback, types of negative feedback, 640 voltage gain, op am specification, 648–649 voltage/potential energy expression, 12 voltage regulators, 700 applications of, 702–703 bleeder resistors and transient suppressors, 710–712 booster, 423 diode/rectifier applications, 412 ICs (integrated circuits) for, 701–702 inverting, 712–713 overview of, 699–701 overvoltage protection, 710 ripple reduction features in, 708 specifications, 702 step-up, step-down, and inverting, 712–713 switching power supplies, 709 zener diodes, 421, 442 voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs), 425, 692–693 voltage-controlled resistors, 457 voltage-level indicator, op amps (operational amplifiers), 657 voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR), 268–269 voltage states, voltage-to-current converter, op amp applications, 658 voltage-to-current converter, op amp applications, 658 voltmeters, 31, 65 analog multimeter functions, 573 LED voltmeter, 424 measurement errors, 574–575 measuring voltage, current, and resistance with, 52, 65–67 oscilloscope as, 580 volts (V) formal definition of, 14–15 in Ohm’s Law, 23 VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), 571–574 See also multimeters analog, 573–574 digital, 574 overview of, 571–572 VRLA (valve-regulated lead acid) batteries, 279–280 VSWR (voltage standing-wave ratio), 268–269 W wall plug-in power supplies, 715 warbler siren, 960 water analogy AC circuits, for understanding, 82 diodes, for understanding, 409 to explain voltage, 17–18 forward biasing, for understanding diodes, 409 inductors, 127–128 JFETs (junction field-effect transistors), for understanding, 450–451 n-channel JFETs, for understanding, 450–451 npn bipolar transistors, for understanding, 436 p-channel JFETS, for understanding, 450–451 pnp, 436 wattage increasing wattage rating of zener diode, 424 watts (W) as unit of power, 14–15 waveform generator circuit, 729–730 waveforms adjustable waveform clipper, 414 enable/disable logic gates in generation of, 729 waveforms (Cont.) microcontroller oscillator generating, 698 modifier and limiter, 423 oscillators generating shape, frequency, and amplitude of, 683 VCOs (voltage-controlled oscillators) generating, 692–693 waveforms, AC amplitude, 85 frequency and period of, 85–86 overview of, 84 phase of, 86–87 wavelengths, LEDs (light emitting diodes), 502–504 white light, perception of photons, 496 wide-band design active bandpass filters, 678–679 passive bandpass filters, 672 wideband chokes, 365 Wien-bridge oscillators, 693 windings, split supply from single transformer winding, 423 windings, transformers and, 379–387 window, between reference voltages, 656 window comparators, 656 wire ac/dc resistance ratio as function of frequency, 263 applying voltage across a conductor, 21–23 connectors, 256, 258–260 cutters, 622–623 forces exerted between two current-carrying, 118 gauges, 39–40 laboratory supplies, 624–625 overview of, 253–254 plane cable and, 256 skin effect and, 262 straight wire inductance, 147–149 symbols, 261 types of, 254–255 wire cutters, 622–623 wire strippers, 622–623 Index wire wound resistors frequency response and, 310 illustration of, 306 power ratings, 308 power wirewound, 315 precision wirewound, 314–315 wire-wrap PCB board, 560–561 wireband chokes, 365 woofers, 957 work area in laboratory, 594–595 safety tips, 554 work function, of metals, 20 workbench building, 631–633 creating work area in laboratory, 594–595 list of items on, 570 wrist straps, for ESD protection, 595 X X-rays, 497 XBee modules, 967 xenon flash lamps, 499 xy graphics mode, oscilloscopes, 580 Y Y connection, in three-phase electricity, 975 Z Zambetti, Nicholas, 889 zener diodes, 710 applications of, 423–424 biasing methods, 438 devices used as transient suppressor, 483 mode of operation, 428 overview of, 420 1027 zener diodes (Cont.) overvoltage protection and, 710 selecting, 422 voltage regulator, 421, 442 zero-Ohm resistors, 319 zinc-air batteries comparing primary batteries, 277–278 internal voltage drop, 290 selecting, 287 zinc carbon batteries, 290 zinc-chloride batteries comparing primary batteries, 275, 278 selecting, 287 zinc-mercuric oxide batteries, 276, 278 ... promotions or for use in corporate training programs To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com Practical Electronics for Inventors, Fourth Edition Copyright... co-authored numerous technical journal papers within the field of Smarter Grids Practical Electronics for Inventors Fourth Edition Paul Scherz Simon Monk New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London... Scherz and Simon Monk xxv Practical Electronics for Inventors C H A PT ER Introduction to Electronics Perhaps the most common predicament newcomers face when learning electronics is figuring out