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Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume Committee on Spacecraft Exposure Guidelines, Committee on Toxicology, National Research Council ISBN: 0-309-66693-7, 534 pages, x 9, (2006) This free PDF was downloaded from: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Visit the National Academies Press online, the authoritative source for all books from the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, the Institute of Medicine, and the National Research Council: • Download hundreds of free books in PDF • Read thousands of books online, free • Sign up to be notified when new books are published • Purchase printed books • Purchase PDFs • Explore with our innovative research tools Thank you for downloading this free PDF If you have comments, questions or just want more information about the books published by the National Academies Press, you may contact our customer service department toll-free at 888-624-8373, visit us online, or send an email to 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The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance This project was supported by Contract No G-NAG 9-1451 between the National Academy of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project International Standard Book Number 13: 978-0-309-10379-4 International Standard Book Number 10: 0-309-10379-7 Library of Congress Control Number 2004102556 Additional copies of this report are available from The National Academies Press 500 Fifth Street, NW Box 285 Washington, DC 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) http://www.nap.edu Copyright 2007 by the National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters Dr Ralph J Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers Dr Wm A Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education Dr Harvey V Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine Dr Ralph J Cicerone and Dr Wm A Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council www.national-academies.org Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html COMMITTEE ON SPACECRAFT EXPOSURE GUIDELINES Members GAROLD S YOST (Chair), University of Utah, Salt Lake City A JOHN BAILER, Miami University, Oxford, OH DAROL E DODD, CIIT Centers for Health Research, Research Triangle Park, NC KEVIN E DRISCOLL, Procter and Gamble Pharmaceuticals, Mason, OH DAVID G GAYLOR, Gaylor and Associates, Eureka Springs, AR1 JACK R HARKEMA, Michigan State University, East Lansing2 DAVID G KAUFMAN, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill KENNETH ROSENMAN, Michigan State University, East Lansing KENNETH E THUMMEL, University of Washington, Seattle JOYCE TSUJI, Exponent Environmental Group, Inc., Bellevue, WA ROCHELLE TYL, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC JUDITH T ZELIKOFF, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo Staff JENNIFER SAUNDERS, Project Director EILEEN N ABT, Senior Program Officer SUSAN N.J MARTEL, Senior Program Officer RUTH E CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor ALEXANDRA STUPPLE, Senior Editorial Assistant TAMARA DAWSON, Senior Program Assistant Sponsor NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION David G Gaylor joined the committee in August 2005 Jack R Harkema joined the committee in October 2005 v Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html COMMITTEE ON TOXICOLOGY Members WILLIAM E HALPERIN (Chair), New Jersey Medical School, Newark LAWRENCE S BETTS, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk EDWARD C BISHOP, Parsons Corporation, Pasadena, CA JAMES V BRUCKNER, University of Georgia, Athens GARY P CARLSON, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN MARION EHRICH, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg SIDNEY GREEN, Howard University, Washington, DC MERYL KAROL, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh JAMES MCDOUGAL, Wright State University School of Medicine, Dayton, OH ROGER MCINTOSH, Science Applications International Corporation, Baltimore, MD GERALD WOGAN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge Staff KULBIR S BAKSHI, Program Director EILEEN N ABT, Senior Program Officer for Risk Analysis SUSAN N J MARTEL, Senior Program Officer ELLEN K MANTUS, Senior Program Officer JENNIFER SAUNDERS, Associate Program Officer AIDA NEEL, Program Associate TAMARA DAWSON, Senior Program Assistant RADIAH ROSE, Senior Editorial Assistant vi Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY3 Members JONATHAN M SAMET (Chair), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD RAMOҁN ALVAREZ, Environmental Defense, Austin, TX JOHN M BALBUS, Environmental Defense, Washington, DC DALLAS BURTRAW, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC JAMES S BUS, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI COSTEL D DENSON, University of Delaware, Newark E DONALD ELLIOTT, Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP, Washington, DC MARY R ENGLISH, University of Tennessee, Knoxville J PAUL GILMAN, Oak Ridge Center for Advanced Studies, Oak Ridge, TN SHERRI W GOODMAN, Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, VA JUDITH A GRAHAM, American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA WILLIAM P HORN, Birch, Horton, Bittner and Cherot, Washington, DC JAMES H JOHNSON, JR., Howard University, Washington, DC WILLIAM M LEWIS, JR., University of Colorado, Boulder JUDITH L MEYER, University of Georgia, Athens DENNIS D MURPHY, University of Nevada, Reno PATRICK Y O’BRIEN, ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Company, Richmond, CA DOROTHY E PATTON (retired), Chicago, IL DANNY D REIBLE, University of Texas, Austin JOSEPH V RODRICKS, ENVIRON International Corporation, Arlington, VA ARMISTEAD G RUSSELL, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta ROBERT F SAWYER, University of California, Berkeley LISA SPEER, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY KIMBERLY M THOMPSON, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MONICA G TURNER, University of Wisconsin, Madison MARK J UTELL, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY CHRIS G WHIPPLE, ENVIRON International Corporation, Emeryville, CA LAUREN ZEISE, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland Senior Staff JAMES J REISA, Director DAVID J POLICANSKY, Scholar RAYMOND A WASSEL, Senior Program Officer for Environmental Sciences and Engineering KULBIR BAKSHI, Senior Program Officer for Toxicology EILEEN N ABT, Senior Program Officer for Risk Analysis This study was planned, overseen, and supported by the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology vii Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html KARL E GUSTAVSON, Senior Program Officer K JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer ELLEN K MANTUS, Senior Program Officer SUSAN N.J MARTEL, Senior Program Officer STEVEN K GIBB, Program Officer for Strategic Communications RUTH E CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor viii Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY Scientific Review of the Proposed Risk Assessment Bulletin from the Office of Management and Budget (2007) Assessing the Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene: Key Scientific Issues (2006) New Source Review for Stationary Sources of Air Pollution (2006) Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals (2006) Health Risks from Dioxin and Related Compounds: Evaluation of the EPA Reassessment (2006) Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Scientific Review of EPA’s Standards (2006) State and Federal Standards for Mobile-Source Emissions (2006) Superfund and Mining Megasites—Lessons from the Coeur d’Alene River Basin (2005) Health Implications of Perchlorate Ingestion (2005) Air Quality Management in the United States (2004) Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River (2004) Atlantic Salmon in Maine (2004) Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin (2004) Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas Development (2003) Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations (2002) Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002) The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002) Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001) Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001) Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001) A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001) Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (five volumes, 2000-2006) Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000) Strengthening Science at the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (2000) Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000) Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000) Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999) Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999) Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (four volumes, 1998-2004) The National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997) Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996) Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996) Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995) Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995) ix Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 500 Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines woman who underwent three GI surgeries for gastric ulcer and was prescribed zinc at 2.9-3.9 mg/kg/d for 10 mo She developed hypocupremia, hyperchromic and microcytic anemia, and leukopenia (Hoffman et al 1988) According to several published case reports (see Chronic Exposure >100 d in this document), ingestion of supplemental zinc over a period of 1-2 y resulted in severe anemia (Hoogenraad et al 1985; Patterson et al 1985; Simon et al 1988; Broun et al 1990; Gyorffy and Chan 1992) Although anemia seems to be a very well-documented adverse effect of chronic zinc ingestion, and although the effects were predicted by indicative observations in subacute studies on animals, these studies could not be used, because of small sample size and lack of a clear NOAEL for this serious adverse effect These were case studies, and the subjects had no medical conditions before their exposure to zinc Data from short-term studies by Black et al (1988) and the 6-wk study by Chandra (1984), described in detail in earlier sections, could not be extrapolated to 1,000 d with a large time extrapolation factor Such an extrapolation would result in a very low, unrealistic value that would be far lower than the amount of zinc present in multivitamin tablets used by the public The study by Black et al did not identify a clear NOAEL because, although some differences between treated and placebo groups were statistically significant, the effects of placebos varied greatly An attempt to evaluate a 10-y CHD risk (using the Framingham CHD risk calculator) using the worst-case value of HDL cholesterol at the highest dose of zinc at 75 mg/d for 12 wk did not indicate a risk significantly different from that of the placebo group One might assume that the risk, if any, of CHD for 1,000 d must then be much lower than the 10-y risk For this reason, the effect on serum HDL cholesterol was not considered a significant end point for a 1,000-d AC A 1,000-d value also could not be derived from existing human data that document anemia in subjects therapeutically treated with zinc compounds and in subjects who used zinc supplements (Porter et al 1977; Hoffman et al 1988; Prasad 1988; Simon et al 1988) Therefore, data from some long-term animal studies were evaluated In a study by Aughey et al (1977), male and female C3H mice that ingested zinc as ZnSO4 at 70 mg/kg/d in their drinking water ad libitum for 12 mo exhibited hypertrophy and vacuolation of islet cells of the pancreas, hypertrophy of the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex, and histopathologic evidence of increased synthetic and secretory activity of adrenals Although these effects were prominent at 12-14 mo, they were not seen at mo Because histochemistry was weakly positive at and mo, a dose of zinc at 70 mg/kg/d can be identified as a LOAEL for mo Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Zinc and Zinc Salts (Inorganic) 501 The limitation of the study is that there are no dose-response data However, the time-response data were used to derive a 1,000-d AC A 1,000d AC was calculated from the 6-mo data as a LOAEL after using a time factor of 1,000 d/180 d Because tissue damage was demonstrated histopathologically, a factor of 10 was used to derive a NOAEL from a LOAEL A 1,000-d AC for hypertrophy of the adrenal cortex and pancreatic and islets was calculated as follows: (70 mg/kg/d ì 70 kg) ữ (10 ì 10 ì 2.8 L/d × [1,000 d/180 d]) = mg/L (rounded), where 70 mg/kg/d = LOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = LOAEL to NOAEL extrapolation factor; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; and 1,000 d/180 d or 5.555 = time extrapolation factor Bentley and Grubb (1991) reported that feeding rabbits a diet containing zinc carbonate at 5,000 μg/g (estimated 175 mg/kg/d) for 22 wk resulted in a significant decline in blood hemoglobin and copper concentration Anemia, possibly secondary to hypocupremia, was also seen Although the authors had used a 1,000 μg/g diet (studied for only wk) and a 5,000 μg/g diet (fed for 22 wk), they reported the changes in the hemoglobin and copper concentrations only for the highest dose for 22 wk Although no dose-response data were available, this effect on hemoglobin has been reported by several studies in humans and animals Therefore, a 1,000-d AC was derived using a LOAEL of 175 mg/kg/d for 22 wk (155 d) Thus, a 1,000-d AC can be calculated as follows: (175 mg/kg/d × 70 kg) ữ (10 ì 10 ì 2.8 L/d ì [1,000 d/154 d] × 3) = mg/L (rounded), where 175 mg/kg/d = LOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = LOAEL to NOAEL extrapolation factor; 10 = species extrapolation factor; Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 502 Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; 1,000 d/154 d or 6.5 = time extrapolation factor; and = spaceflight safety factor for anemia (changes in hemoglobin) EPA determined that an oral RfD of 0.3 mg/kg/d is equivalent to 21 mg/d for a 70 kg adult human This dose includes sources such as drinking water and diet If one subtracts 11 mg as the contribution from diet, an acceptable amount from water is 10 mg/d Using the EPA nominal water volume of L, the ACs will be mg/L (for a human lifetime) A 1,000-d AC of mg/L has been derived by NASA Although the 1,000-d AC is lower than the EPA guideline, given the fact that NASA’s 1,000-d AC also incorporates a safety factor that protects against any spaceflightinduced hematologic effects, the value for spacecraft water derived by NASA from animal studies is consistent with that of EPA A summary of ACs and SWEGs for various durations is listed in Table 11-7 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Human Human Human Bonham et al 2003a,b 10/¥19 Yadrick et al 1989 Yadrick et al 1989 10 LOAEL, 0.833 LOAEL, 0.833 Chandra 1984 Human LOAEL, 4.4 1 1 1.43 1.43 1 Bonham et al 2003 Human NOAEL, 0.43 Time Extrapolation Principal To Study NOAEL Species Factor Yadrick et 1 al 1989 Exposure (mg/kg/d) Species NOAEL, Human 0.833, oral Effects on NOAEL, immunologic status 0.43 and copper status Toxicity End Point Effects on ESOD, hematocrit, and hemoglobin Effects on immunologic status and copper status Immune system effects (impaired mitogenic response and chemotactic response) Decrease in hematocrit Decreased ESOD and serum ferritin UFs 1 1 Spaceflight Factor TABLE 11-7 Summary of Acceptable Concentrations (ACs) for Zinc in Drinking Water — — — — 11 — — — 11 11 5 — — Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved (Continued) — — — — — d 10 d 100 d 1,000 d 21 — — — AC (mg/L) a Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 503 UFs Time Extrapolation Toxicity End Exposure Principal To Point (mg/kg/d) Species Study NOAEL Species Factor Effects on NOAEL, Human Bonham et 10/¥19 1 immunologic status 0.43 al 2003a,b and copper status Hypertrophy of LOAEL, Mouse Aughey et 10 10 5.55 adrenal cortex and 70 al 1977 pancreatic cells Reduction in LOAEL, Rabbit, Bentley 10 10 6.5 hemoglobin and in 175 male and Grubb serum copper 1991 concentrations (hypocupremia) SWEG a The AC values for water are in addition to the daily contribution of dietary zinc TABLE 11-7 Continued — 11 — 11 — 2 3 — — — d 10 d 100 d 1,000 d — — — Spaceflight Factor AC (mg/L) a Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 504 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Zinc and Zinc Salts (Inorganic) 505 REFERENCES Aamondt, R.L., W.F Rumble, and R.I Henkin 1983 Zinc absorption in humans: Effects of age, sex, and food Pp 61-82 in The Nutritional Bioavailability of Zinc, G Inglett, ed Washington, DC: The American Chemical Society Alexander, J., J Aaseth, and T Refsvik 1981 Excretion of zinc in rat bile—A role of glutathione Acta Pharmacol Toxicol 49:190-194 Amacher, D.E., and S.C Paillet 1980 Induction of trifluorothymidine-resistant mutants by metal ions in L5178Y/TK+/í cells Mutat Res 78:279-288 Anderson, M.B., K Lepak, V Farinas, and W.J George 1993 Protective action of zinc against cobalt-induced testicular damage in the mouse Reprod Toxicol 7:49-54 Aslam, N., and H.J McArdle 1992 Mechanism of zinc uptake by microvilli isolated from human term placenta J Cell Physiol 151:533-538 ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) 1994 Toxicology Profile for Zinc (Update) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA Aughey, E., L Grant, B.L Furman, and W.F Dryden 1977 The effects of oral zinc supplementation in the mouse J Comp Pathol 87:1-14 Banu, B.S, K.D Devi, M Mahboob, and K Jamil 2001 In vivo genotoxic effect of Zn sulfate in mouse peripheral blood leukocytes using Comet assay Drug Chem Toxicol 24:63-73 Baudier, J., K Haglid, J Haiech, and D Gerard 1983 Zinc ion binding to human brain calcium binding proteins, calmodulin and S100b protein Biochem Biophys Res Commun 114:1138-1146 Bentley, P.J., and B.R.Grubb 1991 Effects of a zinc-deficient diet on tissue zinc concentrations in rabbits J Anim Sci 69:4876-4882 Black, M., D.M Medeiros, E Brunett, and R Welke 1988 Zinc supplements and serum lipids in young adult white males Am J Clin Nutr 47:970975 Bonham, M., J.M O’Connor, H.D Alexander, J Coulter, P.M Walsh, L.B McAnena, C.S Downes, B.M Hannigan, and J.J Strain 2003a Zinc supplementation has no effect on circulating levels of peripheral blood leucocytes and lymphocyte subsets in healthy adult men Br J Nutr 89:695703 Bonham, M., J.M O’Connor, L.B McAnena, P.M Walsh, C.S Downes, B.M Hannigan, and J.J Strain 2003b Zinc supplementation has no effect on lipoprotein metabolism, hemostasis, and putative indices of Cu status in healthy men 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into the future Am J Clin Nutr 53(5):1087-1101 Chobanian, S.J 1981 Accidental ingestion of liquid Zn chloride: local and systemic effects Ann Emerg Med 10:227-233 Coogan, T.P., R.M Bare, and M.P Waalkes 1992 Cadmium-induced DNA strand damage in cultured liver cells: reduction in cadmium genotoxicity following zinc pretreatment Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 113:227-233 Cousins, R.J 1985 Absorption, transport, and hepatic metabolism of copper and zinc: special reference to metallothionein and ceruloplasmin Physiol Rev 65:238-309 Davies, N.T 1980 Studies on the absorption of zinc by rat intestine Br J Nutr 43:189-203 Davies, N.T., and R Nightengale 1975 Effect of phytate on zinc absorption and faecal zinc excretion and carcass retention of zinc, iron, copper and manganese Proc Nutr Soc 34:8A-9A Deknudt, G., and M Deminatti 1978 Chromosome studies in human lymphocytes after in vitro exposure to metal salts Toxicology 10:67-75 Deknudt, G., and G.B Gerber 1979 Chromosomal aberrations in bone-marrow cells of mice given a normal or a calcium-deficient diet supplemented with various heavy metals Mutat Res 68:163-168 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Zinc and Zinc Salts (Inorganic) 507 Domingo, J.L., J.M Llobet, J.L Paternain, and J Corbella 1988 Acute zinc intoxication: Comparison of the antidotal efficacy of several chelating agents Vet Hum Toxicol 30:224-228 EPA (U.S Environmental Protection Agency) 1990 Health Advisory for Zinc U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC EPA (U.S Environmental Protection Agency) 1992 Zn chloride Health Advisory Office of Water, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC Evenson, D.P., R.J Emerick, L.K Jost, H Kayongo-Male, and S.R Stewart 1993 Zinc-silicon interactions influencing sperm chromatin integrity and testicular cell development in the rat as measured by flow cytometry J Anim Sci 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D.K Sorensen, and H.C Kernkamp 1958 Essential fatty acid deficiency; its role in parakeratosis Am J Vet Res 19:921-930 Hempe, J.M., and R.J Cousins 1991 Cysteine-rich intestinal protein binds zinc during transmucosal zinc transport Proc Natl Acad Sci 88:9671-9674 Hempe, J.M., and R.J Cousins 1992 Cysteine-rich intestinal protein and intestinal metallothionein: an inverse relationship as a conceptual model for zinc absorption in rats J Nutr 122:89-95 Henkin, R.I 1974 Metal-albumin-amino acid interactions: chemical and physiological interrelationships Adv Exp Med Biol 48:299-328 Henkin, R.I., B.M Patten, P.K Re, and D.A Bronzert 1975 A syndrome of acute zinc loss Cerebellar dysfunction, mental changes, anorexia, and taste and smell dysfunction Arch Neurol 32:745-751 Hidiroglou, M., and J.E Knipfel 1984 Zinc in mammalian sperm: a review J Dairy Sci 67:1147-1156 Hoffman, H.N., II, R.L Phyliky, and C.R Fleming 1988 Zinc-induced copper deficiency Gastroenterology 94:508-512 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 508 Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines Holden, J.M., W.R Wolf, and W Mertz 1979 Zinc and copper in self-selected diets J Am Diet Assoc 75:23-28 Hoogenraad, T.U., A.W Dekker, and C.J van den Hamer 1985 Copper responsive anemia, induced by oral zinc therapy in a patient with acrodermatitis enteropathica Sci Total Environ 42:37-43 Hooper, P.L., L Visconti, P.J Garry, and G.E Johnson 1980 Zinc lowers highdensity lipoprotein-cholesterol levels JAMA 244:1960-1961 Hunt, J.R., G Lykken, and L.K Mullen 1991 Moderate and high amounts of protein from casein enhance human absorption of zinc from whole wheat or white rolls Nutri Res 11:413-418 Huntoon, C.L., P.A Whitson, and C.F Sams 1994 Hematologic and immunologic functions Pp 351-362 in Space Physiology and Medicine, 3rd Ed., A.E Nicogossian, C.L Huntoon, and S.L Pool, eds Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger IOM (Institute of Medicine) 2001 Zinc In Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc Washington, DC: National Academy Press Istfan, N.W., M Janghorbani, and V.R Young 1983 Absorption of stable 70Zn in healthy young men in relation to zinc intake Am J Clin Nutr 38:187194 Johnson, P.E., C.D Hunt, D.B Milne, and L.K Mullen 1993 Homeostatic control of zinc metabolism in men: zinc excretion and balance in men fed diets low in zinc Am J Clin Nutr 57:557-565 Johnson, P.E., J.R Hunt, and N.V Ralston 1988 The effect of past and current dietary Zn intake on Zn absorption and endogenous excretion in the rat J Nutr 118:1205-1209 Judd, A.M., R.M Macleod, and I.S Login 1984 Zinc acutely, selectively and reversibly inhibits pituitary prolactin secretion Brain Res 294:190-192 Ketcheson, M.R., G.P Barron, and D.H Cox 1969 Relationship of maternal dietary zinc during 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http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Zinc and Zinc Salts (Inorganic) 509 Kozik, M.B., L Maziarz, and A Godlewski 1980 Morphological and histochemical changes occurring in the brain of rats fed large doses of zinc oxide Folia Histochem Cytochem (Krakow) 18:201-206 Krebs, J.M., V.S Schneider, A.D LeBlanc, M.C Kuo, E Spector, and H.W Lane 1993 Zinc and copper balances in healthy adult males during and after 17 wk of bed rest Am J Clin Nutr 58:897-901 Kumar, S 1976 Effect of zinc supplementation on rats during pregnancy Nutr Rep Int 13:33-36 Kurokawa, Y., M Matsushima, T Imazawa, N Takamura, M Takahashi, and Y Hayashi 1985 Promoting effects of metal compounds on rat renal tumorigenesis J Am Coll Toxicol 4:321-330 L’Abbe, M.R., and P.W Fischer 1984a The effects of dietary zinc on the activity of copper-requiring metalloenzymes in the rat J Nutr 114:823-828 L’Abbe, M.R., and P.W Fischer 1984b The effects of high dietary zinc and copper deficiency on the activity of copper-requiring 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Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, 11th Ed S Budavari, M.J O’Neil, and A Smith, eds Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck & Co Methfessel, A.H., and H Spencer 1973 Zinc metabolism in the rat I Intestinal absorption of zinc J Appl Physiol 34:58-62 Moore, R 1978 Bleeding gastric erosion after oral zinc sulphate Br Med J 1(6115):754 Mulhern, S.A., W.B Stroube, Jr., and R.M Jacobs 1986 Alopecia induced in young mice by exposure to excess dietary zinc Experientia 42, 551-553 Murphy, J.V 1970 Intoxication following ingestion of elemental zinc JAMA 212:2119-2120 Nishioka, H 1975 Mutagenic activities of metal compounds in bacteria Mutat Res 31:185-189 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 510 Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines NRC (National Research Council) 1977 Inorganic Solutes Pp 205-488 in Drinking Water and Health Washington, DC: National Academy Press NRC (National Research Council) 1980a The contribution of drinking water to mineral nutrition in humans Pp 315-321 in Drinking Water and Health Washington, DC: National Academy Press NRC (National Research Council) 1980b The contribution of drinking water to mineral nutrition in humans Pp 265-404 in Drinking Water and Health Washington, DC: National Academy Press NRC (National Research Council) 1989 Recommended Dietary Allowances, pp 195-246 Washington, DC: National Academy Press NRC (National Research Council) 1994 Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants Washington, DC: National Academy Press NRC (National Research Council) 2000 Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines Washington, DC: National Academy Press O’Dell, B.L 1989 Mineral interactions relevant to nutrient requirements J Nutr 119:1832-1838 Ohno, H., R Doi, K Yamamura, K Yamashita, S Iizuka, and N Taniguchi 1985 A study of zinc distribution in erythrocytes of normal humans Blut 50:113-116 Pal, N., and B Pal 1987 Zinc feeding and conception in the rats Int J Vitam Nutr Res 57:437-440 Patterson, W.P., M Winkelmann, and M.C Perry 1985 Zinc-induced copper deficiency: megamineral sideroblastic anemia Ann Intern Med 103:385386 Pierre, L., R.L Sauer, Y.E Sinyak, V.M Skuratov, N.N Pratasov, and L.S Bobe 1999 Chemical Analysis of Potable Water and Humidity Condensate: Phase One Final Results and Lessons Learned SAE Technical Paper Series no 1999-01-2028 29th International Conference on Environmental Systems, Denver, CO, July 12-15 Porea, T.J., J.W Belmont, and D.H Mahoney, Jr 2000 Zinc-induced anemia and neutropenia in an adolescent J Pediatr 136:688-690 Porter, K.G., D McMaster, M.E Elmes, and A.H Love 1977 Anaemia and low serum-copper during zinc therapy Lancet 2:774 Potter, J.L 1981 Acute Zn chloride ingestion in a young child Ann Emerg Med 10:267-269 Prasad, A.S 1978 Hypocupremia induced by zinc therapy in adults J Am Med Assoc 240:2166-2168 Prasad, A.S 1988 Clinical spectrum and diagnostic aspects of human zinc deficiency In Essential and Toxic Trace Elements in Human Health and Disease, A.S Prasad, ed New York, NY: Alan R Liss Inc Prasad, A.S., J.G Brewer, E.B Schoomaker, and P Rabbani 1978 Hypocupremia induced by zinc therapy in adults J Am Med Assoc 240(20):2166-2168 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Zinc and Zinc Salts (Inorganic) 511 Quarterman, J., and W.R Humphries 1979 Effect of zinc deficiency and zinc supplementation on adrenals, plasma steroids and thymus in rats Life Sci 24:177-183 Reinhold, J.G., B Faradji, P Abadi, and F Ismail-Beigi 1991 The Journal of Nutrition, Volume 106:1976: Decreased absorption of calcium, magnesium, zinc and phosphorus by humans due to increased fiber and phosphorus consumption as wheat bread Nutr Rev 49:204-206 Roth, H.P., and M Kirchgessner 1977 Content of zinc, copper, iron, manganese and calcium in bone and liver of rats during zinc depletion and repletion [in German] Zentralbl Veterinarmed A 24:177-188 Samman, S., and D.C Roberts 1988 The effect of zinc supplements on lipoproteins and copper status Atherosclerosis 70:247-252 Sandstrom, B 1992 Dose dependence of zinc and manganese absorption in man Proc Nutr Soc 51:211-218 Sandstrom, B., A Almgren, B Kivisto, and A Cederblad 1987 Zinc absorption in humans from meals based on rye, barley, oatmeal, triticale and whole wheat J Nutr 117:1898-1902 Schiffer, R.B., F.W Sunderman, Jr., R.B Baggs, and J.A Moynihan 1991 The effects of exposure to dietary nickel and zinc upon humoral and cellular immunity in SJL mice J Neuroimmunol 34:229-239 Schlicker, S.A., and D.H Cox 71968 Maternal dietary zinc, and development and zinc, iron, and copper content of the rat fetus J Nutr 95:287-294 Schroeder, H.A., A.P Nason, I.H Tipton, and J.J Balassa 1967 Essential trace metals in man: zinc Relation to 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H.H Sandstead 1983 Studies on the bioavailability of zinc in humans: mechanism of the intestinal interaction of nonheme iron and zinc J Nutr 113:337-349 Spencer, H., L Kramer, and D Osis 1985 Zinc metabolism in man J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 5:265-278 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html 512 Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines Spencer, H., D Osis., and L Kramer 1976 Intake, excretion, and retention of zinc in man In Trace Elements in Human Health and Disease Vol Zinc and Copper, A.S Prasad, ed New York, NY: Academy Press Stowe, H.D 1976 Biliary excretion of cadmium by rats: effects of zinc, cadmium, and selenium pretreatments J Toxicol Environ Health 2:45-53 Sutton, W.R., and V.E Nelson 1937 Studies on Zinc Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 36:211-213 Tanner, J.T., and M.H Friendman 1977 Neutron activation analysis for trace elements in foods J Radioanal Chem 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and its regulation in normal humans Am J Physiol 251:R398-408 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Zinc and Zinc Salts (Inorganic) 513 Whitson, P., M Pietrzak, and C Sams 1999 Space flight and the risk of renal stones J Gravit Physiol 6:87-88 Yadrick, M.K., M.A Kenney, and E.A Winterfeldt 1989 Iron, copper, and zinc status: response to supplementation with zinc or zinc and iron in adult females Am J Clin Nutr 49:145-150 Yamada, G., K Sugimura, S Nakamura, M.O Yamada, Y Tohno, I Maruyama, I Kitajima, and T Minami 1997 Trace element composition and histological analysis of rat bones from the space shuttle Life Sci 60:635-642 Yamaguchi, M., K Takahashi, and S Okada 1983 Zinc-induced hypocalcemia and bone resorption in rats Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 67:224-228 Yamaguchi, M., T Sakurai, J Ohtaki, and T Hoshi 1991 Simulated weightlessness and bone metabolism: Evidence for direct gravitational effect and its related insulin action Res Exp Med (Berl.) 191:273-280 Zaporowska, H., and W Wasilewski 1992 Combined effect of vanadium and zinc on certain selected haematological indices in rats Comp Biochem Physiol C 103:143-147 Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Copyright © National Academy of Sciences All rights reserved ... Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines in 2000 A second report, Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants, Volume (2004a), used these guidelines to set exposure levels for. .. the series, Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines Volume 1, published in 2004, used the NASA guidelines to establish exposure concentrations... Sciences All rights reserved Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants: Volume http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11778.html Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for periods up to 24 hours
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