Food Culture in South America JOSE RAFAEL LOVERA Translated by Ainoa Larrauri Food Culture around the World Ken Albala, Series Editor GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut - London Library of Congress Cataloging^in-Publication Data Lovera, Jose Rafael Food culture in South America / Jose Rafael Lovera ; translated by Ainoa Larrauri p cm — (Food culture around the world, ISSN 1545-2638) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-313-32752-1 (alk paper) Cookery, Latin American Cookery—South America Food habits—South America I Title II Series TX716.A1L68 2005 641.598—dc22 2005005501 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available Copyright © 2005 by Jose Rafael Lovera All rights reserved N o portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005005501 ISBN: 0-313-32752-1 ISSN: 1545-2638 First published in 2005 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, C T 06881 A n imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America T h e paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984) 10 Illustrations by J Susan Cole Stone T h e publisher has done its best to make sure the instructions and/or recipes in this book are correct However, users should apply judgment and experience when preparing recipes, especially parents and teachers working with young people T h e publisher accepts no responsibility for the outcome of any recipe included in this volume Contents Series Foreword by Ken Albala vii Acknowledgments ix Introduction xi Timeline xv Historical Overview Major Foods and Ingredients 39 Cooking 77 Typical Meals 93 Eating Out 127 Special Occasions 137 Diet and Health 153 Glossary 165 Resource Guide 167 Bibliography 175 Index 177 This page intentionally left blank Series Foreword The appearance of the Food Culture around the World series marks a definitive stage in the maturation of Food Studies as a discipline to reach a wider audience of students, general readers, and foodies alike In comprehensive interdisciplinary reference volumes, each on the food culture of a country or region for which information is most in demand, a remarkable team of experts from around the world offers a deeper understanding and appreciation of the role of food in shaping human culture for a whole new generation I am honored to have been associated with this project as series editor Each volume follows a series format, with a chronology of food-related dates and narrative chapters entitled Introduction, Historical Overview, Major Foods and Ingredients, Cooking, Typical Meals, Eating Out, Special Occasions, and Diet and Health Each also includes a glossary, bibliography, resource guide, and illustrations Finding or growing food has of course been the major preoccupation of our species throughout history, but how various peoples around the world learn to exploit their natural resources, come to esteem or shun specific foods and develop unique cuisines reveals much more about what it is to be human There is perhaps no better way to understand a culture, its values, preoccupations and fears, than by examining its attitudes toward food Food provides the daily sustenance around which families and communities bond It provides the material basis for rituals through which people celebrate the passage of life stages and their connection to divinity Vlll Series Foreword Food preferences also serve to separate individuals and groups from each other, and as one of the most powerful factors in the construction of identity, we physically, emotionally and spiritually become what we eat By studying the foodways of people different from ourselves we also grow to understand and tolerate the rich diversity of practices around the world What seems strange or frightening among other people becomes perfectly rational when set in context It is my hope that readers will gain from these volumes not only an aesthetic appreciation for the glories of the many culinary traditions described, but also ultimately a more profound respect for the peoples who devised them Whether it is eating New Year s dumplings in China, folding tamales with friends in Mexico or going out to a famous Michelin-starred restaurant in France, understanding these food traditions helps us to understand the people themselves As globalization proceeds apace in the twenty-first century it is also more important than ever to preserve unique local and regional traditions In many cases these books describe ways of eating that have already begun to disappear or have been seriously transformed by modernity To know how and why these losses occur today also enables us to decide what traditions, whether from our own heritage or that of others, we wish to keep alive These books are thus not only about the food and culture of peoples around the world, but also about ourselves and who we hope to be Ken Albala University of the Pacific Writing this book has been a challenge and a pleasure at the same time A challenge, because great efforts were necessary to compress the vast information represented by the food culture of more than 12 countries And a pleasure, because for years I have been dedicated to the study of this topic and because, as a South American, I am pleased to be given the opportunity to spread this culture in the United States Many people have made contributions to this book It would be impossible to mention them all, but I want to refer to some of them either by name or in a general way, to all of whom I express my most sincere gratitude Both the editor of this series, Ken Albala, and the acquisitions editor of Greenwood Press, Wendi Schnaufer, not only allowed me to be the author of this book, but also patiently read each of the chapters, making suggestions and encouraging me constantly throughout the work I particularly want to express my profound appreciation for the contribution of the numerous friends—experts on the gastronomy of the different South American countries—who have conversed with me during the journeys I have undertaken for a number of years to the different zones of the continent I must also express my gratitude to two persons who worked as my research assistants, namely Cordelia Arias Toledo and Marilyn Sivira, who were also involved in the transcription of the manuscript Similarly, I need to mention Ainoa Larrauri, whom I hired to translate the manuscript—a task she performed to my satisfaction I had fruitful long talks with her aimed at guaranteeing X Acknowledgments that the English version accurately expressed my ideas and the information I had gathered I also want to thank Graciela Valery de Velez, among other people, for help with recipes I hope I have fulfilled the objective of spreading the South American food culture, while I assume the entire responsibility for any possible defects of my work Introduction Giving a detailed account of South American food culture is a challenging task This continent comprises more than 10 countries, its inhabitants not all speak the same language, and the food traditions of the different societies vary in some ways People's diets are not only the result of certain traditions—cultural heritage, cooking techniques, and so on—but they are also strongly related to the geographical environment The vast South American continent can roughly be divided into four large zones, taking into consideration geographical and cultural characteristics: the Andes, the Llanos and Pampas, Amazonia, and the coastal areas The Andean region starts from western Venezuela and runs in a southerly direction along Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, down to Tierra del Fuego The Andes can be considered South America's backbone They feature a great number of mountains, plateaus, hillsides, and valleys Countless rivers run from their highlands, while perennial snows cover their summits Almost all climates can be found in this elongated region, from hot to cold It was the cradle of the only urban cultures that existed in the region in pre-Hispanic times and, traditionally, the place where the largest number of inhabitants would settle Headquarters of the most developed agricultural systems in ancient South America, the Andes are the birthplace of the potato, which is a staple food of the continent, and the place where corn and beans were grown—two key foods that were never totally displaced despite the transculturation process that took place with the arrival of the Europeans 172 Resource Guide Brazil Duro, Elton "CookBrazil: Brazilian Food Recipes." http://www.cookbrazil.com/ Polasky, Rod "Brazilian Cooking: Anthropology of Food." http://www.archaeo link.com/brazilian_cooking_anthropology_o.htm Thomson, Sheila "Maria's Cookbook." http://www.maria-brazil.org/fdind.htm Chile Canfield, Eric "Chilean Food." http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/Cabana/ 6234/food.htm CFFA "The World of Chilean Fresh Fruit." http://www.cffausa.org/m_recipes htm Colombia Comidacolombiana.com http://www.comidacolombiana.com/guia.htm Universidad de Los Andes "Comidas T (picas de Colombia." http://www.uniandes edu.co/Colombia/Recetas/recetas.html Guyana Moses, Wayne "Guyana Outpost: Wayne's Guyana Page." http://guyana.gweb works.com/recipes/recipes_cat.shtml Paraguay Weinstock, Steven D "Paraguayan Recipes." http://www.pyadopt.org/recipe html Peru ServerPro "Peru Recipes at Food Down Under Recipe Database." http://food downunder.com/cgi-bin/search cgi?q=peru Yanuq Inc "Yanuq Cooking in Peru." http://www.cocinaperuana.com/english/ Suriname TROPILAB INC "Recipes from the Surinam Kitchen." http://www.tropiiab com/surinamkitchen.html Resource Guide 173 Uruguay Domenech, Enrique "Recetas de Uruguay-Receta Cocina Uruguaya." http:// www.kike.c.telefonica.net/endosan/uruguay.htm#Carbonada%20criolla Gupo IDA S L "A Recetas de Uruguay." http://www.arecetas.com/uruguay/ Venezuela Cantv "Cantv Paginas Amarillas: Gufa Gastronomica." http://www.paginas amarillascantv.com.ve/gastronomia/default.asp Centro de Estudios Gastronomicos de Venezuela "CEGA." http://cega.org.ve Scannone, Armando "El Placer de Comer." http://www.elplacerdecomer.com/ This page intentionally left blank Acosta, Joseph de Historia natural y moral de las Indias 1590 Reprint, Madrid: Ramon Angles, 1894 Alfaro, Alfonso "Los espacios de la sazon." In Congreso sobre Patrimonio Gastronomico y Turismo Cultural en America Latina y el Caribe, vol 1:1, 55-68 Mexico City: CONACULTA, 2002 Brack Egg, Antonio Frutas del Peru Lima: Universidad San Martin de Porres, 2003 Briz Garizurleta, Marcela "Los restaurantes ante la modernidad." In Cuarto Congreso sobre Patrimonio Gastronomico y Turismo Cultural en America Latina y el Caribe, 197-200 Mexico City: CONACULTA, 2003 Camara Cascudo, Luis da Dicciondrio folclore brasileiro Rio de Janeiro: Istituto Nacional Livro, 1954 Carvalho-Neto, Paulo de Diccionario del folklore ecuatoriano Quito: Editorial Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, 1964 Historia del folklore iberoamericano Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1969 Castillo de Lucas, Antonio Refranerillo de la alimentation Madrid: Graficas Reunidas, S A., 1940 Castro, Josue de The Geography of Hunger Boston: Little, Brown, 1952 La alimentation en los tropicos Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1946 Cervantes, Abdiel "Los jovenes en las cocinas." In Cuarto Congreso sobre Patrimonio Gastronomico y Turismo Cultural en America Latina y el Caribe (Memorias), 27-30 Mexico City: CONACULTA, 2003 176 Bibliography Coluccio, Felix Diccionario folklorico argentino Buenos Aires: Libreria El Ateneo Editorial, 1950 Deleito y Pinuela, Jose La mujer, la casa y la moda Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1946 Domingo, Xavier De la olla al mole Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispanica, 1984 Foster, George McClelland Culture and Conquest: America's Spanish Heritage Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1960 "Hippocrates' Latin American Legacy—Hot and Cold in Contemporary Folk Medicine." In Colloquia in Anthropology vol 2, ed R K Wetherington, 3-19 Dallas: Southern Methodist University and Fort Burgwin Research Center, 1978 Furlong, Guillermo Historia social y cultural del Rio de la Plata Buenos Aires: Tipografica Editora Argentina, 1969 Hambidge, Gove The Story of FAO New York: D Van Nostrand, 1955 Lovera, Jose Rafael Historia de la alimentation en Venezuela Caracas: Centro de Estudios Gastronomicos, 1998 Manuel Guevara Vasconcelos o la politica del convite Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1998 Manfed, Leo Siete mil recetas botdnicas a base de mil trescientas plantas medicinales Buenos Aires: Editorial Kier, 1947 Millstone, Erik, and Tim Lang Atlas de Valimentation dans le monde Paris: FAO, 2003 Moreno, Victor A "Los jovenes y la cocina en Venezuela." In Cuarto Congreso sobre Patrimonio Gastronomico y Turismo Cultural en America Latina y el Caribe (Memorias), 19-26 Mexico City: CONACULTA, 2003 Mosbach, Ernesto Wilhelm de Botdnica indigena de Chile Santiago de Chile: Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, Fundacion Andes, Editorial Andres Bello, 1992 Nuix y Perpina, Jose Reflexiones imparciales sobre la humanidad de los espanoles en las Indias 1780 Reprint, Madrid: Ediciones Atlas, 1944 O'Leary, Simon B., ed Memorias del General O'Leary publicadas por su hijo Vol 24 Caracas: Imprenta de El Monitor, 1884 Patino, Victor Manuel Plantas cultivadas y animales domesticos en America Equinoctial vols Cali, Colombia: Imprenta Departamental, 1963-74 Sanchez Botero, Esther "Potencial y riesgo de la Gastronomia en America Latina." In Congreso sobre Patrimonio Gastronomico y Turismo Cultural en America Latina y el Caribe, vol 1:2, 77-95 Mexico City: CONACULTA, 2002 Silva, Silvestre P Frutas-Brasil Sao Paulo: Empresa das Artes, 1991 Strauss K., Rafael Diccionario de cultura popular Caracas: Fundacion Bigott, 1999 Tauro, Alberto Diccionario enciclopedico del Peru vols Buenos Aires: Editorial Americalee, 1966 The Visual Encyclopedia of Food New York: Macmillan, 1996 Index Acosta, Jospeh de, 18 African slaves: cacao production, 56; as cooks, 79; food customs of, 36, 42, 94, 95, 99; medicle knowledge of, 157; nutritional concerns, 157-58; population of, 8; religious customs, 33, 146; sugar plantation work, 49; trade, 11-12, 13,32,157 Agriculture, - , , 20-25, 34 Agro-industry, 20, 24-25 Aioli, 45 Ajiaco Bogotano (Columbia), 52, 103-4 Ajicero, 41 Alexander VI, Pope, Alfajores (Argentina), 125-26 Algae, 139 All Saints/All Souls day, 144-45 Almuerzo, 93, 101 Alpaca, 26 Amazon River, 4, 21 Amphibians, 35 Andalusians, 8, 9, 23 Andean region, - , 21, 22-23, 96 Andenes, 21, 23 Andes, 3, 4, 23 Anghiera, Peter Martyr d', 40, 68 Animals, domesticated, 4, 21, 25, 28-29 Animism, 33-34 Aniseed, 73-74 Annatto, 19, 51-52 Annona, 54—55 Antelope, 12 Arabs, 10, 12, 16, , , Arawak, 21, 45 Arenas, 5-6, 20, 42, 95-96, 133 Argentina, 1,4, 14-16,81 Argentinean Pampas, 29 Argo-industry, 20, 24-25 Armadillos, 69 Asado, 64, 106 Atlas (Mercator), Atol, 43 Avocados, 53-54, 100 Azores, 7, 49 Bagres, 52 Bdquiro, 22 Barbacoa, 178 Barley, Basque Country, 8, Batido, 20 Beans, , - , , 120-21 Beasts of burden, 25, 26 Beef, 10, 63-66 Beer, 19,47-48, 163 Beverages: alcoholic, 148, 149, 150, 151; beer, 19, 47-48, 163; carbonated, 47; cocoa, 46, 100; coffee, 16, 21, 23, 37, 46-47, 100; of corn, 43; foreign, 46-48; guarana-based sodas, 47; native, 45-46; tea, 45-46; wine, 9-10, 34, 48 Birds, 22, 27-28,32, 67, 78, 111 Birth festivities, 149 Black beans, 40 Bogota, Bolivar, Simon, 13, 80 Bolivia, 1, Bombilla, 46 Bom-Bocado de Coco (Coconut Delight Dessert) (Bahia, Brazil), 57-58 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 13, 80 Books: cookbooks, 85-89; culinary, 89-90; on diet and health, 154-55, 158-59; on food culture, 86 Botelle, Juan Bautista, 79 Botet, Pierre, 79 Bovines, 12, 29-30 Braganza monarchy, 13, 14 Brazil, 1,4,8, 11,13-16, 24 Brazilian Planicies, 29 Breads, 9, 61,95-98 Bull of the Holy Crusade, 35 Cacao, 21, 23, 56 Cafecito, 37, 46 Cafes, 131-32 Cafeterias, 83, 127, 133 Caloric requirements, 160-62 Camelidae, 6, 25-27 Index Canary Islands, 31, 49 Canned foods, 24, 84-85 Cape of Good Hope, 11 Capers, 10 Cape Verde, 11,31 Capsicum, 40-41, 48 Capybaras, 69 Caracas, 8, 31 Carbohydrates, 161-62, 163 Carica papaya, 54 Cassava, 22, 34, 41-42, 118-19 Castro, Josue de, 160 Catholicism, 33, 138, 146, 147, 149 Cattle, 12, 29-30 Cebiche de Pescado (Ecuador), 114 Cebiche (Peru), 115 Cena, 93, 107 Central America, 2, 54, 74, 96, 97 Chacras, 21, 24 Charqui, 25, 111 Cheese, 49-51, 66, 130 Chefs, 81, 91, 135 Cherimoya, 54 Chibcha, 3, 23 Chicha, 2, 6, 34, 43, 44, 100 Chicken, 67 Chickpeas, 12 Chile, 1,3,4, 12, 14 China, 10, 15 Chinchivi, 62 Chinese, 15, 16 Chives, 71 Chocfo,6,96, 114, 138 Chocolate, 46, 56, 100, 143 Christening festivities, 149 Christianity, 9, 33, 34-35 Christmas, 67, 138, 141-44 Chupe, 104, 140 Chupe de Camarones (Peru), 103-4 Cinnamon, 10, 72-73 Citrons, 59 Cloves, 10, 73 Cocks, 31, 32 Index Cocoa, 46, 100 Coconut palm, 56-57 Coconuts, 57 Coffee, 16, , , , - , 100 Colombia, 1, 3, 7, 12 Colombian-Venezuelan Llanos, 29 Colonial times, 14, 17-19, 79-80 Columbus, Christopher, 6, 49 Combe, Francois, 79 Communal festivities, 147-49 Condiments, 48-50 Conucos, 21, 22, 23, 24 Cookbooks, 10, 13, 42, 85-89 Cooking: men and, 78-82; prizes for, 81; schools/studies, 80-82, 89-90; styles of, 82-85; women and, 77-80 See also Food Coolies, 16 Copper, 10 Coriander, 62-63 Corn, 2, 5-6, 35, 42-43, 94-97, 119-20 Corncobs, 119, 129, 143 Corn kernels, 32, 114, 120 Corominas, 57 Cortes, Hernan, 56 Cosmographiae Introductio (Waldseemuller), 6-7 Cowpeas, 12 Criollo, 19, 39, 68, 155 Crusade of the Middle Ages, 35 Crustaceans, 53, 113 Culture and Conquest (Foster), 155 Cumin, 73 Dairy products, 35, 50-51 Deceased, ceremonies for, 151 Dende, 76, 112, 115 Desayuno, 93, 94 Desserts, 122-26 Diccionario Critico Etimologico (Corominas), 56-57 Diet, and health, 153; books on, 154-55, 156; caloric requirements, 179 160-62; Hippocratic-Galenic traditions, 153-55; Indian/African botanical-medicinal heritage, 155-58; institutions for, 159-60; medicinal plants, 54-55, 62, 157; modern knowledge, 85, 160-64; nutritional sciences, arrival of, 158-60; publications on, 158-59; staples, balance of, 162-64 Dining out See Eating out Dioscorides, 154 Disease, 6, 155 Domesticated animals, 4, 21, 25, 28-29 Ducks, 67; muscovy, 27-28, 112 Dulce de Leche (Argentina), 126 Dure, Joseph, 79 Dyes, 19,51-52 Easter, 138-41 Eating out, 127-28; fast-food stands, 132-33; luncherias, 132; market stands, 129-30; restaurants/cafes, 130-32, 134-35; street-food stands, 128-29; workplace, 133-34 Ecuador, 1, Eggs, 32, 67, 99, 121-25 Elephants, 12 Empanada, 110, 118, 129 Empanadas de Crema (Chile), 122 Enciso, Martin Fernandez de, 53 Ensalada, 99, 121, 140, 141 Ethnic groups, 4, 21-22, 34, 45, 146 Europeans, 3,4, 6-11, 17-18 Exports, 23, 26, 47-48, 70 Extremadura, 30 Farming, 6, 14, 23, 56 Farmworkers, 3, 22, 24, 147 Fast food, 20, 132-33 Fasting, 34, 138, 141 Fats: butter, 9; calories and, 162; importance of, 164; lard, 9, 30; mar- 180 garine, 12-13; swine and, 30 See also Oils Feijoada a la Brasilera (Brazil), 120-21 Fertilizers, 22, 23 Figs, 54, 123 Fish: breeding, 116; freshwater, 10, - , , 116, 139; fried, 115; meals and, 113-17; religion and, 35; salted, 49 Fishing, , - 2 , , 77 Food: preparation, 10, 81, 83, 90-91; preservation, 5, 51, 64, 78, 123; prices, 20, 36, 37, 106, 132, 133, 163; processing, 24, 84; researchers, 90; storage, 5, 13, 23; taboos, 33-34 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 159 Food culture: books on, 85; history, studies on, 90; market stands and, 130; mixing of, 17-19; study of, 89-90 Fortresses, 3-4 Foster, George M., 155 Fremont, Francois, 80 French fries, 44 Freyre, Gilberto, 79 Frijoles, 39-40, 121, 139 Frozen foods, 56, 84 Fruits, 12, 19, 21, 23, 24, 53-59, 122-23 Gama, Vasco da, 57 Game, 10,68-70, 77, 101,112, 130 Garlic, 71 Gastronomic information, 86, 88, 135 Gastronomy academies, 135 Gatherers, 21-22 Gaucho, 35, 77 Gazelle, 12 Geografia fame (Castro), 160 Geography (Ptolemy), Ginger, 12 Index Giraffes, 12 Glass, 10 Goats (caprines), 10, 12, , 66, 111 Gourds, 45, 139, 141 Grains, 9, 12, 61-62 Grape harvest festivities, 148 Grapes, 9-10, 148 Grinding stones, 13, 82, 85 Guanaco, 27 Guano, 23 Guarana, 47, 101 Guasca, 63 Guava, 19, 55-56 Guinea, 1, 11 Guinea fowl, 32 Guinea pig (cuy), 27 Guirior, Manuel de, 79 Hacienda, 23-24, 158 Hamburgers, 20, 128, 129, 132 Hare, 12 Heating sources, 5-6, 10, 82-84 Hens, 31, 112-13 Herbs, 4, 62-63 Hernandez, Francisco, 74 Hippocratic-Galenic traditions, 153-55 Hippopotamuses, 12 Historia natural y moral de las Indias (Acosta), 18 Holy War, 35 Honey, 10, 12 Hospitality, 37 Hot dogs, 20, 128, 129, 132 Hot pepper, 4, 71 Huacatay, 4, 63 Huascar, Huevos Mollos (Paraguay), 123-24 Humitas (Bolivia), 97 Hunters, 34 Hunting, 12, 21-22; laws, protection, 68,69, 112; poaching, 112-13 181 Index Iberian Peninsula, 8-10, 13-14, 31 Ice cream, 129 Immigrants, 2, 14-16, 19, 76, 141 Imports, 14, , , , Inca Cola, 47, 101 Inca Empire, 3, 4, 23 India, 15, 16, 19 Indians, 2, 12, 17-19 Indigenous peoples, 2-6; diet of, - ; domesticated animals and, 29; European extermination of, 6; fast foods of, 20; food habits of, 18, 36; food preparation, - ; population of, in New World, 8, 11, 14, 36; poultry breeding, 32; religious beliefs of, 32-34; wedding festivities, 150-51 Infusions, 45-46 Instituto de Nutricion de Argentina, 159 Inter caetera, Internet, 89 Irrigation, 21-22, 23 Jambu, 63 Japanese, 15, 16 Jews, 16, 35 Joao VI, King, 13,80 Jolofo tribe, 12 Kid meat See Goats Kiwis, 19 Laguna, Andres, 154 Lake Titicaca, 43 Lamb, 66-67, 111 Lard, 9, 30 Lasala, Monsieur, 79 Laws, protection: hunting, 68-69, 112; indigenous peoples, 11; sanitary, for dairy products, 50; wild animals, 112-13 Lechero, 50 Legumes, 10, 12 Lemons, 59 Lemoyiven, Louis, 80 Lent, 34, 69, 139, 140, 141 Lentils, 12 Libro de agricultura (Zacarfa), 10 Liniers, Santiago de, 79 Linnaeus, 40, 54, 55, 56, 73, 74 Lipoids, Llama, 66-67, 112 Llanero, 16, 30, 149 Llapingachos (Ecuador), 44 Losada, Diego de, 31 Lowland tapir, 68 Luncherias, 132 Majao (Bolivia), 64-65 Maku group, 22 Manana, 22 Mandarins, 59-60 Mandingo tribe, 12 Manfred, Leo, 154 Mangoes, 19, 58-59 Manioc, 2-3, 41-42, 94, 97-98 Manjar, 60 Market stands, 129-30 Mate, 45-46 Meals, 93-94; breakfast, 59, 94-101; desserts, 122-26; family tradition of, 37; lunch, 101-6; supper, 106-21 See also Eating out Meats: in African diets, 12; cold, 31; meals and, 107-13; meat-based diet, 9, 36-37; proteins and, 163— 64; quality of, 30; religious food rules and, 35; salted, 49 See also individual listings Medicinal Material (Dioscorides), 154 Mediterranean diets, Men, 77-80 Merienda, 93-94 Microwave ovens, 85 Military, 3, 7-9 182 Millet, 12 Missionaries, 22, 24, 33 Mollusks, 53 Monardes, Nicolas, 41 Monkey, 22 Mortars, 10, 13, 82 Mulattoes, Muqueca Bahiana (Bahian Boiled Fish) (Brazil), 115-16 Muslims, 35 Mute dog, 25, 27 Nahuatl, 40 Nandu, 70 Nazca culture, Neruda, Pablo, 71 New World, 6-8 Nikei cuisine, 91 North America, 7, 14, 19, 32, 66 Nukak peoples, 22 Nutmeg, 10 Nuts, 70-71 Oats, Oficinas, 24 Oils, 9, 12, 13,30, 75-76 Olive oil, 9, 30, 76 Olives, 34 Olive trees, 30 Onions, 70-71 Oranges, 59 Orinoco River, 4, 6, 21, 41 Orixds, 146 Ostrich, 70 Otomf Indians, 45 Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernandez de, 45 Oxen, 23 Pabellon (Venezuela), 105-6 Paca, 68 Pachallampi, 148 Packaged foods, 24, 84 Palaces, 3-4 Index Palillo, 52 Palm oil, 12,76 Papain, 54-55 Papas Chorreadas (Columbia), 118 Papaya, 54-55 Paracas culture, Paraguay, 1, Parsley, 62 Parties, private, 149-51 Partridges, 10 Passion fruit, 55 Pasta, 22 Pastel de Choclo (Chile), 119-20 Payette, Pierre, 79 Peanuts, 70 Peccary, 68 Pellagra, 43 Pepper, 10, 12, 72 Peppers, 40-41 Perfumes, 55 Perpina, Jose Nuix y, 18 Peru, 1, 2, 7, 12, 14; cooking schools in, 81 Pigs See Swine (porcines) Pinata, 149-50 Pisca, 62 Pisillo, 68, 69 Pizarro, Francisco, 30 Plantains, 98-99, 100, 107 Plantations, 23, 49 Plants: aromatic, 10, 62, 72, 73, 74, 114; domestication of, 21; medicinal, 54-55, 62, 157; Nukak peoples' knowledge of, 22; religion, fertility and, 34 Pleistocene Era, Plows, 22, 23 Pomelos, 59-60 Pompa, Geronimo, 156 Pork, 10, 65-66, 110-11 See also Swine (porcines) Portuguese, 7-9, 12, 13 Potatoes, 2, 43-44, 118 Index Pots See Soups Pottery, 5, 83 Poultry, , - , Prickly pears, 55-56 Proteins, 27, 40, 54, 163-64 Ptolemy, Publications: on caloric requirements, 160; cookbooks, 85-89; culinary, 88-89; gastronomic, 135; on nutrition, 158-59; on plant medicines, 156 Puchero (Argentina), 102-3 Pyrenees, Quechua, 1,40 Quince, 19 Quinoa, 61 Quito, 3, Rain forest, 2, 7, 21 Ramon, Monsieur, 79 Rams, 31 Raspberries, 19 Refrigeration, 47, 64, 84 Religion: Afro-Brazilian cults, 146-47; blending of, 35-36; festivities, 33, 138-47; food attitudes and, 32-33; food rules and, 34-35; indigenous peoples, 32-34; male involvement in, 77; transubstantiation, 9, 10; wine, 10, 34, 35 Restaurants, 16, 91, 130-35 Rice, 10, 12, 22, 51-52, 61, 121-22 Rio de Janeiro, Road system, Rocas, 21, 24 Rock salt, Rodents, 27, 69, 70 Romans, 10 Rye, Saffron, 10, 19,51-52 Salt, 4, 10, , - , 183 Salt mines, 49 Santo Domingo, 49 Sao Paulo State, 16 Sao Tome, 49 Sausages, 30, 31, 111 Sea salt, Sesame oil, 13, 76 Sheep (ovines), 10, 12, 31, 111-12 Shellfish, 10,35, 113 Silver, 10 Slash-and-burn farming method, 22 Sofrito, 65, 76, 106, 108, 110, 120 Sopa, 40, 105, 139, 140,144 Sorghum, 12, 19 Soups, 101-6 Soursop, 54 South America, 1-2; discovery of, 6-7; fast food, introduction to, 20; language, 1, 32, 33, 34; migration to, 13-14, 19; name origin, 6-7; political organization, 3, 13-14; republican times, 19-20; Spanish Empire and, 8, 11-12; trade relationship, 14; Wars of Independence and, 13-14; writing system, Soy, 19 Spanish, 6-9 Spanish Civil War, 15 Spanish Empire, 11-12, 13, 14 Special occasions, 137-38; communal, 147-49; private parties, 149-51; religious festivities, 138-47 Spices, 10, 12, 71-74, 72, 74 Stock breeding, 20-21, 25, 27-32 Stoves, 10, 82, 83-84 Street-food stands, 128-29 Sugar: cane, 10, 12, 23, 123; noncentrifugal form of, 50; refined, 22, 49; refining factories, 49; unrefined, 49 Sugar apple, 55 Suma de Geografia (Enciso), 53 Suriname, Sweeteners, 10, 12 Index 184 Swine (porcines), 30-31, 35 Swineherds, 30 Tamales, 94, 96, 98 Tamanaco Indians, 54 Tawuantinsuyo, 23 Tayassuidae, 68 Tayrona culture, 3-4 Temples, Terrace cultivation, 21, 23 Terrapin, 22 Theobroma, 46, 56 Tiahuanaco culture, Timoto-Cuica culture, 3, 23 Tiwanacu culture, Tomatoes, 74-75 Tools, 22 Tostones (Venezuela), 58 Treaty of Tordesillas, Trees, 19, 46 Tribes: Central American pre-Hispanic, 56; chicha, 45; hunter-gatherer, 12, 27; indigenous, 8, 27; nomadic, 4, 21-22; rebel, Trinidad, Tsetse fly, 12 Tubers, 10, 117 Tupi-Guarani, 21 Turcos, 15-16 Turkeys, 19, 32, 67 TV programs, culinary, 89 Urban development, 4, 37, 82, 90-91, 133 Uruguay, 1, 4, 14 Utensils, 5, 10, 13,22,82, 85 Valencia, Vanilla, 71,74 Vasconcelos, Manuel de Guevara, 79 Vegetables, 10, 12, 117-20 Vegetarian diet, Venezuela, , , , , 12, 13, 14 Venison, 10, 69-70 Vespucci, Amerigo, Vicuna, 26 Vinegar, 50 Viscacha, 69 Vitamin A, 164 Vitamin C, 59, 164 Waldseemuller, Martin, 6-7 Wars of Independence, 13-14 Wedding festivities, 150-51 Wheat, 9, 34, 60-61, 61, 98-99 Wild boar, 10,68 Wine, 9-10, 34, 48 Women, 6, 9, 77-80 Wool, 25, 26, , , 6 World War II, 15,84 Zacaria, Abu, 10 About the Author JOSE RAFAEL LOVERA is Associate Professor, School of History, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, and the Director of Centro de Estudios Gastronomicos (CEGA), Caracas, which trains young chefs and promotes Latin American gastronomy Recent Titles in Food Cultures around the World Food Culture in Japan Michael Ashkenazi and Jeanne Jacob Food Culture in India Colleen Taylor Sen Food Culture in China Jacqueline M Newman Food Culture in Great Britain Laura Mason Food Culture in Italy Fabio Parasecoli Food Culture in Spain Xavier F Medina Food Culture in the Near East, Middle East, and North Africa Peter Heine Food Culture in Mexico Janet Long-Solis and Luis Alberto Vargas ... what Introduction xin could be called a gastronomical map of South America Gaining a clear picture of South American food culture requires first familiarizing oneself with the history of its people,... start to be imported to South America, mainly from the United States 1928 First institute for nutritional matters in South America, the Instituto de Nutricion de Argentina, is founded 1931 Brazil... up with provisions In cities such as Cuzco and Quito, apart from ordinary housing, they had built enormous palaces, temples, and fortresses Food Culture in South America with stone slabs so finely