UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS FIFTH EDITION Join us at josseybass.com Instructor Resources Comprehensive instructor resources to accompany this fifth edition of Understanding and Managing Public Organizations are available online at www.wiley.com/college/rainey Materials are organized by chapter and include the following: • Two sample syllabi Both are intended for graduate-level courses and are intended to provide students with a solid grounding in the concepts, topics, and research in public management and organization theory • PowerPoint slides for each chapter These follow the organization of the text and highlight the chapter themes and main subparts • Key terms for each chapter A list of key terms is provided for each chapter • Discussion questions for each chapter These questions can be used in class to prompt discussion on key themes or assigned to students as homework The typical discussion question can be answered in one or two paragraphs • Writing assignments and reports These are intended to be take-home writing assignments, as they require more thorough consideration of topics and, in some instances, additional research The typical question can be answered in as few as two pages or developed further into a more lengthy report • Case studies Nine case studies can be found at the end of this document, with suggestions for their use • Class exercise All class exercises can be completed in less than forty-five minutes of class time These are designed to reinforce chapter lessons while encouraging collaborative learning among students Essential Texts for Public and Nonprofit Leadership and Management The Handbook of Nonprofit Governance, by BoardSource Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, 5th Edition, by John M Bryson The Effective Public Manager: Achieving Success in Government Organizations, 5th Edition, by Steven Cohen, William Eimicke, and Tanya Heikkila Handbook of Human Resources Management in Government, 3rd Edition, by Stephen E Condrey (ed.) The Responsible Administrator, 6th Edition, by Terry L Cooper The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management, 3rd Edition, by David O Renz, Robert D Herman, and Associates (eds.) Benchmarking in the Public and Nonprofit Sectors, 2nd Edition, by Patricia Keehley, and Others The Ethics Challenge in Public Service, 3rd Edition, by Carol W Lewis, and Others Managing Nonprofit Organizations, by Mary Tschirhart and Wolfgang Bielefeld Social Media in the Public Sector: Participation, Collaboration, and Transparency in the Networked World, by Ines Mergel Meta-Analysis for Public Management and Policy, by Evan Ringquist The Practitioner’s Guide to Governance as Leadership: Building High-Performing Nonprofit Boards, by Cathy A Trower Measuring Performance in Public and Nonprofit Organizations, by Theodore H Poister Human Resources Management for Public and Nonprofit Organizations: A Strategic Approach, 4th Edition, by Joan E Pynes Fundraising Principles and Practice, by Adrian Sargeant, Jen Shang, and Associates Hank Rosso’s Achieving Excellence in Fundraising, 3rd Edition, by Eugene R Tempel, Timothy Seiler, and Eva Aldrich (eds.) Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation, 3rd Edition, by Joseph S Wholey, and Others (eds.) UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS FIFTH EDITION Hal G Rainey Cover design by Michael Cook Cover image © Scibak/Getty Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved Published by Jossey-Bass A Wiley Brand One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594—www.josseybass.com No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the Web at www.copyright.com Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read Jossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores To contact Jossey-Bass directly call our Customer Care Department within the U.S at 800-956-7739, outside the U.S at 317-572-3986, or fax 317-572-4002 Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rainey, Hal G (Hal Griffin) Understanding and managing public organizations / Hal G Rainey —5th Edition pages cm — (Essential texts for public and nonprofit and public leadership and management) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-58371-5 (pbk.); ISBN 978-1-118-58449-1 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-58446-0 (ebk) Public administration I Title JF1351.R27 2014 351–dc23 2013044990 Printed in the United States of America fifth edition PB Printing 10 CONTENTS Figures, Tables, and Exhibits ix Preface xi The Author xix PART ONE THE DYNAMIC CONTEXT OF PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS 1 The Challenge of Effective Public Organization and Management Understanding the Study of Organizations: A Historical Review What Makes Public Organizations Distinctive 53 Analyzing the Environment of Public Organizations The Impact of Political Power and Public Policy 86 109 PART TWO KEY DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZING AND MANAGING Organizational Goals and Effectiveness 16 145 147 vii viii Contents Formulating and Achieving Purpose: Power, Decision Making, and Strategy 173 Organizational Structure, Design, Technology, Information Technology, and Social Media 208 Understanding People in Public Organizations: Motivation and Motivation Theory 257 10 Understanding People in Public Organizations: Values, Incentives, and Work-Related Attitudes 297 11 Leadership, Managerial Roles, and Organizational Culture 335 12 Teamwork: Understanding Communication and Conflict in Groups 382 PART THREE STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING AND IMPROVING PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS 407 13 Managing Organizational Change and Development 14 Advancing Effective Management in the Public Sector References 487 Additional Reference Materials 533 Name Index Subject Index 539 555 409 449 558 Country club management, 338 Court system, and political authority, 112 Courts and legislative process: authority of, 129; and bureaucratic power, 111, 128; and compromise among diverse interests, 128; influence on agency operations, 129–130; influences of laws and regulations on, 131; new partnership between judges and public managers, 129 Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government (Bozeman), 67 Cultural conditions, organizational environments, 88 Cultural development, leadership in, 360–363 Cultural roots framework, for analysis of public organizations (Khademian), 359 Culture(s): assessing, 358–359; communication of, 359–360; conceptions and dimensions of, 356–357; language, 360; leadership in cultural development, 360–363; narratives, 360; practices/special events, 360; symbols, use of, 359; variations among, 357–358 Customer-driven government, 467 D Decentralized government, 468 Decision making in organizations, 183–189; garbage can model of, 49; incremental processes, 188–193; participative (PDM), 205; political influences on, 205–206; in public organizations, 205; rational Subject Index models, 184–188; and strategic planning, 205–206 Decline and death of organizations, 412–418 See also Organizational death; and cutback management, 415–416; environmental entropy, 414; responses to, 414–417; vulnerability and loss of legitimacy, 414 Delphi technique, 400 Democratic elections, and direct implications for organizations, 102 Demographic conditions, organizational environments, 88–89 Directive leadership style, 340, 345–346 E Ecological conditions, organizational environments, 88 “Economic man,” 31 Economic markets: absence of, for outputs of public bureaucracy, 45; and public bureaucracy, Economics, 5, 7–8 EEO Coordinating Commission, 131 Effective public organizations See Public organizations Elected officials, and effective management of agencies, Elites, incentives for, 301 Employee participation, incentives for, 301 Encounter groups, 48 “End run” model, of civil servants and legislators, 132 Enterprising government, 468 Environmental scanning, 195 Equal employment opportunity (EEO) initiatives, 127 Subject Index Equity theory (Adams), 276–278 Exchange commitment, 325 Executive roles, 347 Expectancies, 279 Expectancy theory, 278–281, 290; formulations for, 279 Expert power, 177 External incentive, 303 Extrinsic rewards, 302 F Felt conflict, 397 Fixed schedule of reinforcement, 284 Forest Ranger, The (study), 50 Formal authority, 122–125; committees, 124; legislation, 122– 123; oversight, 123–124; power of the purse, 122 Functions of the Executive, The (Barnard), 28–29, 49 G Gain-sharing plans, 291 Garbage can model, 49, 191–193; defined, 192 Gatekeepers, 392 General Accounting Office, 123–124 General incentives, 301 General management, 5–9; functions of, 347; and organizational concepts, 10–11 General organizational goals, 150–151; clarification of, 150; sets of, 151 General public opinion, and political authority, 113 Generalist managers, 374 Generic tradition, Goal ambiguity, in public agencies, 153–154 559 Goal approach, to organizational goals, 155–157 Goal-setting theory, 287–289 Goals: clarification of, 156; defined, 299; general organizational, 150–151; goal and action competencies, 152– 153; official, 150; operative, 150; organizational, 147–172; of public organizations, 151–155; short-term/ long-term, conflict between, 151 Government 2.0, use of term, 251 Government Accountability Office (GAO), 476–477 Government agencies: as overseers/ allies/competitors, 130–131; and political authority, 112 Government bureaus, and information leakage, 403 Government employees, work effort/ satisfaction, 261 Government managers, and organizational rules, 154 Government movement, reinventing, 466–469 Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), 148, 175 Government Performance Project (GPP), 160–162; conceptual framework of, 161 Government, political rationales for, 64 Grace Commission, 104 Group dynamics/processes, 32–33, 48 Groups in organizations: advantages/ disadvantages of, 388–389; contexts, 387–388; formation of, 385–387; groupthink, 389–390; managing, 398–401; norms, 385– 386; outcomes, 387–388; roles, 386–387; structures, 387–388 Growth communities, 372 560 H Harvard Policy and Stakeholder model of strategic planning, 195 Hawthorne studies, 27–28, 47 High-performance organizations, 384 High-performance work systems, 384 Homeland Security, Department of: debate about, 61; debate over the design of, 336; federal agency requirements for, 476; formation of, 178, 260 Homogeneity principle, 23 Hoover Commission, 24 Human capital, as payoff for performance, 380 Human capital movement, 259–260, 475–477 Human needs and values, complexity of, 300 Human relations school, 34–37 Human resource and internal process models, for assessing organizational effectiveness, 159–160 Human resource changes, 424 Humanitarians, 316 Hygiene factors, 273 I Idealized influence, as transformational behavior, 350 Identification commitment, 325 Impoverished management, 338 Improved performance appraisal systems, 291 Incentives: and attitudes toward money, security and benefits, and challenging work, 308–313; defined, 299; economies of, 305; extrinsic, 306; general, 301; intrinsic, 306; Subject Index material, 301; and organizationalmember needs, 306–308; in organizations, 305–313; in public management, 319; purposive, 302, 305; solidary, 302, 305; specific, 301; types of, 301–303 Incremental decision-making processes, 188–193; development phase, 191; garbage can model, 191–193; identification phase, 191; logical incrementalism, 190–191; mixed scanning, 190; within organizations, model of, 191; selection phase, 191 Individualized consideration, as transformational behavior, 350 Inducements-contributions equilibrium, 28–31 Informal legislative influences, 124– 125 Information technology, 242–251, See also Social media; Government 2.0, use of term, 251; social media, 251–256; Web 2.0, use of term, 251 Innovation, 418–422; attributes affecting implementation, 419; in public and nonprofit organizations, 420–422; resistance to change, 422–424; types of change, 424–425 Inspirational motivation, as transformational behavior, 350 Institutional isomorphism, 97 Instrumental motives, 314 Intellectual stimulation, as transformational behavior, 350 Intendedly rational managers, 187 Interest groups: activities, 121–122; and political authority, 113 Intermittent reinforcement, 285 Subject Index Internal Revenue Service (IRS), 208–209, 382; operating divisions, 209; shared services division, 209 Interval schedule of reinforcement, 284 Intrinsic rewards, 302 Iron triangle analogy, 134 Iron triangles, defined, 110, 134 Issue networks, 134 J Job involvement, and motivation, 324, 331–332 Job satisfaction, 319–323; consequences of, 322–323; determinants of, 321–322 L Latent conflict, 397 Leader match procedure (Fiedler), 340 Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership, 343–344 Leader-member relations, 339 Leadership: in government, 372–374; and organizational culture, 354– 360; paying attention to, 369–370 Leadership and Administration (Selznick), 50 Least preferred coworker (LPC) scale, 338–340 Legal conditions, organizational environments, 88 Legislative bodies, 122–125 See also Formal authority; formal authority, 122–125; informal influence, 124– 125; limits on legislative power, 125; and political authority, 112 Legitimate power, 177 Liaison roles, 392 561 Life-cycle theory, 342 Logical incrementalism, 195 Low-ratio reinforcement schedule, 285 M “Madisonian systems,” 395, 401 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Program, 464 Management, 375–377; defined, 376; and organization theory, 43–52; paying attention to, 369–370; stability of, 380; use of term, Management by objectives (MBO), 156 Management of Innovation, The (Burns/ Stalker), 39–40 Management skill topics, 347 Management theory, major 20thcentury developments in, 46–52 Managerial capacity, 380 Managerial networking, 379 Managerial work/roles, 346–349 Manifest conflict, 397 Market-oriented government, 468 Mass publics: defined, 113; and public opinion, 114–115 Material incentives, 301 Media power, 116–120, See also News media Merit pay, 291 Miles and Snow typology, 198–202; analyzers, 199; centralization studies, 201–202; defenders, 198–199; and government enterprises, 199; prospectors, 198; and public organizations, 199–200; reactors, 199; and representative bureaucracy, 200; strategic action, 200; strategic stance, 200; strategy content, 200–201; and workforce diversity, 200 562 Mimetic isomorphism, 97 Mission-driven government, 467 Motivation, 257–296 See also Work motivation; affective motives, 314; classifying theories of, 268–269; content theories, 268–278; defined, 263; extrinsic, 306, 312; human needs and values, complexity of, 300; human values as basic components of, 304; incentive structures and reward expectancies in public organizations, 292–293; incentives, types of, 301–303; instrumental motives, 314; intrinsic, 306, 312, 317; job involvement, 324, 331–332; job satisfaction, 319–323; to join an organization/to work well, 266– 267; measuring/assessing, 263– 266; norm-based motives, 314; and organizational commitment, 324– 325, 331–333; and organizational goal clarity, 328–329; patriotism of benevolence, 314; practice/ techniques, 290–291; process theories, 268–289; professionalism, 325–327; and public management, 258–261; in public management, 319; in public organizations, 328–333; in public organizations, context of, 261–263; for public service, 313–319; public service motivation (PSM), 313–319; recent directions in motivation theory, 289; rival influences on performance, 267; and role ambiguity, 328; and role conflict, 328; role conflict and ambiguity, 323–324; self-reported, 294–296; stimulating, 333–334; as an Subject Index umbrella concept, 267–268; work motivation, concept of, 263–268; and work satisfaction, 329–331 Motivators, 273 Motive, defined, 299 N National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, National Organizations Survey (NOS), 97, 383 National Performance Review (NPR), 61, 104, 114, 127, 168, 199, 215, 235, 246, 292, 308, 413, 466, 469– 472 National Public Management Research Conferences, 8–9 National Taxpayer’s Union, 114–115 National Training Laboratory, 33 Nature of Managerial Work, The (Mintzberg), 348 Need, defined, 299 Need for equity (Adams), 270, 276–278 Needs for achievement/power/ affiliation (McClelland), 270, 274–276 Needs hierarchy (Maslow), 47–48, 269, 271–272, 303–304 Negative reinforcement, 284 Networking, 137–141 Networks: collaborative, 144; defined, 138; governance/effectiveness, 140; leadership networking, 140–141; nature of, 140; negative implications of, 141; policy, 134, 144; prevalence of, 138 New Public Management movement, 59–60 Subject Index News media: government, scrutiny of, 117; managing relations with, 119–120; media attention, 118–119; and political authority, 113; power of, 118; unfavorable press coverage, 118 Non-routine tasks, organizations with, 40 Nonprofit organizations, innovation in, 420–422 Norm-based motives, 314 Normative commitment, 324–325 Normative isomorphism, 97 O Obama administration: appointment of the first federal government CIO, 245; Obamacare, 137; Transparency and Open Government memorandum, 252 Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 260, 473 Official goals, 150 Ohio Bureau of Mental Retardation, deinstitutionalization policy, 87 Ohio State leadership studies, 337–338 One master, 47 Open-systems approaches, 37–43 Operant conditioning theory, 281–284, 290, 344–345; concepts/principles of, 283–284 Operant extinction, 284 Operative goals, 150 Opinion leaders, 392 Organization development (OD), 399–400, 425–433; action research model, phases of, 428; assumptions, 426; consultants/ change agents, 426, 429; effects and controversies, 429–430; 563 intervention techniques, 427– 428; interventions and change processes, 427; practitioner values, 427; projects, 429; in the public sector, 430–433 Organization theory, 51–52; adaptive systems and contingency theory, 51–52; defined, 6; extensions to, 52; generic tradition in, 54–56; major 20th-century developments in, 46–52 Organizational analysis, conceptual framework, 11–13 Organizational behavior, 51, 337– 338; attribution models, 343; charismatic leadership, 351–354; cognitive resource utilization theory, 345–346; contingency theory of leadership (Fiedler), 338–339; defined, 5–6; leadermember exchange (LMX) theory of leadership, 343–344; leadership and organizational culture, 354–360; leadership theories in management and, 337–346; lifecycle theory, 342; managerial grid approach (Blake and Mouton), 338, 372; managerial work/ roles/skills, 346–349; Ohio State leadership studies, 337–338; operant conditioning theory, 344– 345; path-goal theory of leadership, 340–342; social learning theory, 344–345; trait theories, 337; transformational leadership, 349–351; Vroom-Yetton normative model, 342 Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod), 285–286 Organizational change, 409–448; case reviews, 439–447; conditions 564 for change in a federal agency, 446; decline and death, 412–418; innovation, 418–422; largescale planned organizational change, success/failure in, 433–447; modularization of claims processing in the Social Security Administration, 442–447; “O Area” reforms in State Department, 440–442; patterns of success, 435; in public sector, determinants of success, 437–438; revitalization in public agencies, 439; stages of organizational life, 410–412; transformation steps, 436 Organizational commitment, 324–325 Organizational contingencies, 40–41 Organizational culture, 336; assessing, 358–359; communication of, 359– 360; conceptions and dimensions of, 356–357; language, 360; and leadership, 354–360; leadership in cultural development, 360–363; narratives, 360; practices/special events, 360; symbols, use of, 359; variations among, 357–358 Organizational decline and death, 417–418; and cutback management, 415–416; environmental entropy, 414; responses to, 414–417; vulnerability and loss of legitimacy, 414 Organizational effectiveness, 149–150; models for assessing, 155–162 Organizational environments: cultural conditions, 88; demographic conditions, 88–89; descriptive and analytical dimensions of, 93; ecological conditions, 88; economic conditions, 88; Subject Index environmental variations, research on, 90–92; general dimensions of, 88–90; general environmental conditions, 88; legal conditions, 88; political conditions, 88; technological conditions, 88–89; trends in research on, 94–98; use of term, 87 Organizational goals, 147–172; Balanced Scorecard, 167–169; clarification of, 154–155, 156; competing values approach, 165– 167; dimensions/measures, 162– 163; effectiveness dimensions for educational institutions, 164–165; general, 150–151; goal ambiguity, 153–154; goal approach, 155–157; Government Performance Project (GPP), 160–162; human resource and internal process models, 159–160; managing goals and effectiveness, 171; participantsatisfaction models, 159; systemsresource approach, 157–158 Organizational life cycles, 410–422 Organizational networks, effectiveness in, 169–171 Organizational psychology, 51 Organizational sociology, 20–21 Organizational structure: characteristics, 212–213; development of research on, 213–216; dimensions/influences, 216–223; organizational design, 223–232; in public organizations, 232–242 Organization(s), 33; administrative management school, 22–26, 47; bureaucracy, as an ideal construct, 20–22; bureaucratic form of, Subject Index 21–22; classic theories of, 46–47; decision making in, 183–189; defined, 12–13; Hawthorne studies, 27–28, 47; historical developments, 16–17; inducements-contributions equilibrium, 28–31; power and politics inside, 175–183; scientific management, 19–20; systems metaphor, 17–19; Theory X and Theory Y, 17, 34–35, 48 Organizations, groups in, 385–390; organizational life cycles, 410–422 Organizations in Action (Thompson), 41, 219 Organizations (March/Simon), 31, 49 O’Toole-Meier formal theory of public management, 201 Oversight, 123–124 P Participant-satisfaction models, for assessing organizational effectiveness, 159 Participative decision making (PDM), 33 Participative leadership style, 341 Participative management and decision making, 291 Partnership for Public Service, 258 Passive management by exception, 351 Path-goal theory of leadership, 340– 342 Patriotism of benevolence, 314 Patriots, 316 Pay-for-performance systems, 291 Paybanding systems, 291 Perceived conflict, 397 Performance management and PART, 473–477 565 Performance Management and Recognition System (PMRS), 280–281 Performance measurement, systems and procedures for, 473–477 Policy communities, and political authority, 113 Policy networks, 134, 144 Policy subsystems, 134; and political authority, 113 Political and institutional environments of public organizations, 98–108; competence values, 104–105; constitutional provisions, 101–104; general institutions and values of the political economy, 100–102; major components and dimensions, 98–100; responsiveness values, 105–108 Political authority, 73–74; formal powers/bases of influence, 111– 113 Political conditions, organizational environments, 88 Political economy: competence values, 104–105; Constitutional provisions, 101–104; general institutions and values of, 100; responsiveness values, 105–108 Political environment, public managers’ perceptions of, 132 Political science, 5, 7–8 Polyarchy, defined, 62–63 Porter Needs Satisfaction Questionnaire, 321, 329 POSDCORB (acronym), 23, 346 Position power of the leader, 339 Positive reinforcement, 284–285 566 Power and politics, inside organizations, 175–183 Power, in public organizations, 203– 205 President’s Management Agenda, 114, 472–474 Privatization, 477–485; environment, 481; goals/values, 481; leadership/ strategy/culture, 481; managing, 478–480; performance and effectiveness, 483; pitfalls/ironies, 479–485; in policy areas, 135; process, 482–483; structure, 482 Process strategies, 195 Process theories of motivation, 268–289; behavior modification, 284–286; expectancy theory, 278– 281; goal-setting theory, 287–289; operant conditioning theory, 281–284; social learning theory, 286–287 Product and service changes, 424 Professionalism, 325–327 Profit-sharing, 291 Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART), 474–475 Program loyalists, 374 Program zealots, 374 Project ACORD (Action for Organizational Development), 430 Public administration, 7–8 Public agencies, 154; goal ambiguity in, 153–154; management procedures, 10–11 Public bureaucracies, efforts to control, 110–111 Public management: collaboration in, 141–144; common assertions about, 79–85; distinctive characteristics of, 79–85; education Subject Index and research issues, 8–9; effective, 10; effective, advancing, 449–486; effective, examples of, 5–9; and employee motivation, 261; “end run” model, 132; environmental factors, 79–80; and general management, 5–9; incentives in, 319; ineffective, 9; influence of, 375–376; managerial capacity, 380; measuring/modeling, 375–379; and motivation, 258–261; motivation in, 319; networking, 137–141; networks and collaboration in, 137–141; organization-environment transactions, 80; organizational roles and structures/processes, 80–82; practical lessons for public managers, 379–380; values in, 319 Public opinion: and agencies/policies/ officials, 116; ambivalence and paradoxes in, 115–116; and mass publics, 114–115; and political authority, 113 Public organizations See Information technology; Motivation/motivation theory; Organizational environments: administrative authority and leadership practices, 81; advancing effective management in, 449– 486; agencies/enterprises as points on a continuum, 70–72; agencies, enterprises, and hybrid organizations, 71; collaboration in, 141–144; common assertions and research findings, 79–85; contracting out, 477–485; corporate excellence profiles, 452–456; defining, 69–70; distinctive Subject Index characteristics of, 79–85; distinctive nature of, 53–85; economic authority, 73; effective, examples of, 5; effectiveness of, 171–172; environment of, analyzing, 86–108; environmental factors, 79–80; general characteristics of, 203; general managerial roles, 81; goals of, 151–155; government movement, reinventing, 466–469; incentive structures and reward expectancies in, 292–293; incentives, 82–84; influence of administrative officials, 204; and information technology, 242–251; innovation in, 420–422; leadership/management in, 363–367; management of, 4–56; and management researchers/ consultants, 6; meaning and nature of, 69–76; meaning/nature of, 69–76; motivation-related variables in, 328–333; National Performance Review (NPR), 469–472; organization-environment transactions, 80; and organization theory, 43–52; organizational and individual performance, 82; organizational roles/structures/ processes, 80–82; organizational structure, 81; ownership/ funding, 72, 75; performance management and PART, 473–477; performance measurement, 473– 477; performance of, 5, 147–150, 450–452; political and institutional environment of, 259; political and institutional environments of, 98–108; political authority, 73–74; political influences on 567 decision making, 205–206; political rationales for government., 64; politics and markets, 62–64; power in, 203–205; President’s Management Agenda, 472–473, 472–474; private organizations vs., 54–62; privatization, 477–485; Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART), 474–475; and public, 113– 116; public and private ownership and funding, 72; public authority, 73–76; public values, 64–69; publicness, 73–76; purpose of, 62–64; Reinventing Government movement, 466–469; relative power of, 111; research on, 456– 458; sectors, blurring of, 57–62; sequestration of federal funds, 260; special considerations for, 401–405; strategic decision making, conditions for, 205; strategic decision-making processes, 81; structural characteristics, 212–213; Total Quality Management (TQM), 459–466; understanding, 4–56; work-related attitudes/behaviors, 82 Public policy process, 133–144; agenda-setting process/agenda garbage can, 135–137; functions/ policy domains of government activity, 133; networking, 137–141; networks and collaboration in, 137; policy subsystems, 133–135 Public-private comparisons, 76–78; common assertions about, 79–85; problems/approaches in, 76–78 Public service, 364–367; motivation for, 313–319 Public service motivation (PSM), 313–319; affective motives, 568 314; communitarians, 316; humanitarians, 316; instrumental motives, 314; and “mission valence,” 316; motivation crowding hypothesis, 317; patriotism of benevolence, 313–319; patriots, 316; public service conceptions, 316; samaritans, 316 Public values: Accenture Public Sector Value Model, 65–66; concept of, 64–69; creating, 64–65; identifying, 68–69; and public interest (Bozeman), 66–68 Public Values and Public Interest (Bozeman), 66 Publicness of an organization, 73–76 Punishment, 284 Purpose: formulating/achieving, 173– 207; formulating and achieving, 173–207 Purposive incentives, 302, 305 Q Quality Circles (QCs), 291 Quality of Work Life (QWL) programs, 291 Quasi-stationary equilibrium, 32 R Ratio schedule of reinforcement, 284 Rational decision-making models, 184–188; bounded rationality, 187; contingency perspectives on decision making, 187–188; intendedly rational managers, 187; limits of rationality, 187; in public organizations, 184–186; rationality assumptions and the behaviors Subject Index of public managers and officials, 186–187 Referent power, 177 Reinforcement, 282; schedules of, 284; types of, 283 Reinventing Government (Osborne/ Gaebler), 466 Reinventing Government (REGO): movement, 466–469; strategies for, 467–468 Representative bureaucracy, and Miles and Snow typology, 200 Resistance to change, 422–424 Results-oriented government, 467 Reward power, 176–177 Role ambiguity, 323; defined, 328 Role conflict, 323; defined, 328 Routine tasks, organizations with, 40 S Samaritans, 316 Satisficing, 31, 49–50 Scalar principle (Mooney), 23–24, 47 Scientific management, 19–20, 26 Sectors in public organizations: blurring of, 57–62; complex interrelations, 60; functional analogies, 59–60; mixed/ intermediate/hybrid forms, 57–59; oversimplification, avoiding, 61–62; social role and context analogies, 60–61 Self-efficacy, 287 Self-reported motivation, among public employees, 294–296 Senior Executive Service (SES), 281 Sensitivity groups, 48 Sequestration of federal funds, 260; Congressional dispute over, Subject Index Social learning theory, 286–287, 344– 345 Social media, 251–256; and citizen unrest and protest, 252; constructive chaos stage, 255; control of contributions to, 254–255; and crime prevention/ responses to crimes, 252; e-government, 255; framework for government use of, 255–256; government use of, 254; and grievance/protest, 253–254; institutionalization stage, 255–256; intrapreneurship and experimentation stage, 255; limitations/pitfalls of, 254–255; and program- and policy-related initiatives, 252; trolls, 254; Turkey’s efforts to expand e-government and use of IT, 252–253; use, initiating/implementing, 255 Social psychology, 48 Social Psychology of Organizations, The (Katz/Kahn), 38 Social Security Administration (SSA), 148; performance plan, 148–149 Solidary incentives, 302, 305 Span of control, 17, 47; conflict with unity of command, 30 Special-interest politics, 120–121 Specialization, 23 Specific incentives, 301 Stakeholder analysis, 195 Strategic issues management, 195 Strategic management, 193–198; competitive analysis, 195; logical incrementalism, 190–191, 195; managerial strategies in the public sector, analytical research on, 569 196–198; military strategy, 193–194; political influences on decision making, 205–206; prescriptive frameworks for, 194–195; process strategies, 195; public sector applications, 195–196; stakeholder management, 195; strategic negotiation, 195; strategic planning systems, 195 Strategic management group (SMG), 195–196 Strategic negotiation, 195 Strategic planning systems, 195 Strong tradition See Generic tradition Subformal communication, 403 Supportive leadership style, 340 Sustained attention and analysis, challenge of, 10–11 SWOT analysis, 195, 196 Systems-resource approach, to organizational goals, 157–158 T T-groups, 48 Tavistock Institute, 37–38 Teams, 382–405 See also Communication; Conflict; examples of, 382–384; teambased organization, 384; team management, 338, 384 Technical efficiency, 47 Technological conditions, organizational environments, 88–89 Technology changes, 424 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Act (1996), 336 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 90, 373 570 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 274 Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor), 17, 34–35, 48, 269, 272 Total Quality Management programs, 43 Transactional behaviors, 349–350 Transformational behaviors, 349 Transformational leadership, 349–351; transactional leadership compared to, 349 TVA and the Grass Roots (Selznick), 50 Two-factor theory (Herzberg), 270, 273–274 Typology of existence, relatedness, and growth needs (Alderfer), 304 Typology of human needs (Murray), 299 U U.S Constitution: equal protection and due process implications in, 101; lack of provisions for freeenterprise system in, 101; limits on government and guarantees of citizen rights in, 101; requirement for legal due process in, 101-102 U.S Bureau of Prisons, 357 U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 87, 174 U.S Department of Labor, 124 U.S Food and Drug Administration, 63, 87 U.S Forest Service, 50, 456 U.S General Accounting Office (GAO), 104, 174, 260, 292 U.S Geological Survey, 383 U.S Internal Revenue Restructuring and Reform Act (RRA98), 173, 208 Subject Index U.S Internal Revenue Service, 89, 382 U.S Merit Systems Protection Board, 290, 322; periodic federal employee surveys, 258 U.S Office of Economic Opportunity, 222 U.S Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 260, 473 U.S Office of Personnel Management (OPM), 8, 78, 257, 260, 281, 292 U.S Postal Service, 57, 72, 451 U.S Social Security Administration, 88, 89, 148, 188 U.S State Department, 367, 439 V Valences, 279 Values, in public management, 319 Variable schedule of reinforcement, 284 Volcker Commission, 117 Vroom-Yetton normative model, 342 W Web 2.0, use of term, 251 Whistle-blowing, 314; harsh treatment received by whistle-blowers, 117 Work enhancement, 291 Work motivation, 263–268; attempts to specify needs, values, and incentives in, 297; enhancement methods, 291; attitudes toward money, security and challenging work in, 308–313; concepts of values, motives, and incentives in, 313– 314; distinction between higherand lower-order motives in, 304; extrinsic and intrinsic incentives in, 306; general public service motive Subject Index UPLOADED BY [STORMRG] and, 314; human values as basic components of, 304; incentives in organizations, 305–313; and job satisfaction, 320–323; lists and typologies of needs, motives, values, and incentives, 299–303; “most important” incentives, 306; observations about their coworkers’ motivation, 266; proxy 571 measures in, 266; superior benefits in public sector, 309; theories of, 268–289; types of incentives in, 309; typologies in, 299–303; as umbrella concept, 267–268 Work satisfaction, and motivation, 329–331 Workforce diversity, studies focused on, 200 ... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rainey, Hal G (Hal Griffin) Understanding and managing public organizations / Hal G Rainey —5th Edition pages cm — (Essential texts for public and nonprofit and public. .. Technology, and Social Media 208 Understanding People in Public Organizations: Motivation and Motivation Theory 257 10 Understanding People in Public Organizations: Values, Incentives, and Work-Related... organizational culture and performance, and the comparison of organization and management in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors The first edition of Understanding and Managing Public Organizations