Microbiology, an introduction 10th ed g tortora, b funke (pearson, 2010) 1

• •• r r , - • < r r •• •• " .r • " • • • • • • r •• ••• •••• r ' ·•••• •• •• r , \ " ."·'rt , r r •• • ' ••••• ••• , c ' ' , , • < • • • • • • • • • r •••••••••• AN INTRODUCTION TENTH EDITION Gerard J Tortora BERGEN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Berdell R Funke NORTH DAKOTA STATE UNIVERSITY Christine L Case SKYLINE COLLEGE Benjamin Cummings San Francisco Boston New York Cape Town Hong Kong London Madrid Mexico City Montreal Munich Paris Singapore Sydney Thkyo Thronto Executive Editor: Leslie Berriman Art Development Editor: Lisa Torri Project Editor: Robin Pille Artists: Precision Graphics Development Manager: Barbara Yien Copyeditor: Sally Peyrefitte Assistant Editors: Katie Heimsoth and Kelly Reed Proofreader: Martha Ghent Managing Editor: Wendy Earl Senior Art and Photo Manager: Travis Amos Production Supervisor: Janet Vail Photo Researcher: Maureen Spuhler Director, Media Development: Lauren Fogel Image Rights and Permissions Manager: Zina Arabia Media Producer: Lucinda Bingham Senior Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey Weinberger Interior Designer: tani hasegawa Senior Marketing Manager: Neena Bali Cover Design: Riezebos Holzbaur Design Group Executive Market Development Manager: Josh Frost Art Coordinator: Jean Lake Cover Photo Credit: Science Photo Library/Eric Graves Text art, and photo credits appear after the Glossary Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, [nc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 1301 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA 94111 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mec hanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Ed ucation, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025 For information regarding permissions, call (847) 486-2635 Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks W here those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps Pearson Benjamin Cummings is a trademark, in the U.S and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc or its afffiliates Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tortora, Gerard J Microbiology: an introduction / Gerard J Tortora, Berdell R Funke, Christine L Case p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-321-55007-1 (Student ed.) ISBN-IO: 0-321-55007-2 (Student ed.) ISBN-13: 978-0-321-58202-7 ( Professional copy) ISBN-IO: 0-321-58202-0 (Professional copy) I Microbiology-Textbooks I Funke, Berdell R II Case, Christine L., 1948- III Title [DNLM: I Microbiology QW T712m 20 I I QR41.2.T672010 579-dc22 2008044384 ISBN 10: 0-321-55007-2; ISBN 13 : 978-0-321-55007-1 (S tudent edition) ISBN 10: 0-321-58202-0; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-58202-7 (Professional copy) Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of - 10th ed PEARSON _.pearsonhighered.com I IO-DOW-12 II 10 09 08 Manufactured in the United States of America Executive Editor: Leslie Berriman Art Development Editor: Lisa Torri Project Editor: Robin Pille Artists: Precision Graphics Development Manager: Barbara Yien Copyeditor: Sally Peyrefitte Assistant Editors: Katie Heimsoth and Kelly Reed Proofreader: Martha Ghent Managing Editor: Wendy Earl Senior Art and Photo Manager: Travis Amos Production Supervisor: Janet Vail Photo Researcher: Maureen Spuhler Director, Media Development: Lauren Fogel Image Rights and Permissions Manager: Zina Arabia Media Producer: Lucinda Bingham Senior Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey Weinberger Interior Designer: tani hasegawa Senior Marketing Manager: Neena Bali Cover Design: Riezebos Holzbaur Design Group Executive Market Development Manager: Josh Frost Art Coordinator: Jean Lake Cover Photo Credit: Science Photo Library/Eric Graves Text art, and photo credits appear after the Glossary Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, [nc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 1301 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA 94111 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mec hanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Ed ucation, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025 For information regarding permissions, call (847) 486-2635 Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks W here those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps Pearson Benjamin Cummings is a trademark, in the U.S and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc or its afffiliates Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tortora, Gerard J Microbiology: an introduction / Gerard J Tortora, Berdell R Funke, Christine L Case p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-321-55007-1 (Student ed.) ISBN-IO: 0-321-55007-2 (Student ed.) ISBN-13: 978-0-321-58202-7 ( Professional copy) ISBN-IO: 0-321-58202-0 (Professional copy) I Microbiology-Textbooks I Funke, Berdell R II Case, Christine L., 1948- III Title [DNLM: I Microbiology QW T712m 20 I I QR41.2.T672010 579-dc22 2008044384 ISBN 10: 0-321-55007-2; ISBN 13 : 978-0-321-55007-1 (S tudent edition) ISBN 10: 0-321-58202-0; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-58202-7 (Professional copy) Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of - 10th ed PEARSON _.pearsonhighered.com I IO-DOW-12 II 10 09 08 Manufactured in the United States of America ABOUT THE AUTHORS Gerard J Tortora Jerry Tortora is a professor of biology and teaches microbiology, human anatomy, and physiology at Bergen Community College in Paramus, New Jersey He received his M.A in Biology from Montclair State College in 1965 He belongs to a number of biology/microbiology organizations such as the American Society of Microbiology (ASM) Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS), American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), National Education Association (NEA), New Jersey Educational Association (NJEA), and the Metropolitan Association of College and University Biologists (MAGUB) Jerry is the author of numerous biological science textbooks In 1995, he was selected as one of the finest faculty scholars of Bergen Community College and was named Distinguished Faculty Scholar In 1996 Jerry received a National Institute for Staff and Organizational Development (NISOD) excellence award from the University of Texas and was selected to represent Bergen Community College in a campaign to increase awareness of the contributions of community colleges to higher education Berdell R Funke Bert Funke received his Ph.D • M.S • and B.S in microbiology from Kansas State University He has spent his professional years as a professor of microbiology at North Dakota State University He taught introductory microbiology including laboratory sections general microbiology food microbiology soil microbiology clinical parasitology and pathogenic microbiology As a research scientist in the Experiment Station at North Dakota State he has published numerous papers in soil microbiology and food microbiology Christine l Case Chris Case is a registered microbiologist and a professor of microbiology at Skyline College in San Bruno California where she has taught for the past 38 years She received her Ed.D in curriculum and instruction from Nova Southeastern University and her M.A in microbiology from San Francisco State University She was Director for the Society for Industrial Microbiology (S IM) and is an active member of the ASM and Northern California SIM She received the ASM and California Hayward outstanding educator awards In 2008 Chris received the SACNAS Distinguished CommunityfTribal College Mentor Award for her commitment to her student s several of whom have presented at undergraduate research conferences and won awards In addition to teaching Chris contributes regularly to the professional literature develops innovative educational methodologies and maintains a personal and professional commitment to conservation and the importance of science in society Chris is also an avid photographer and many of her photographs appear in this book iii PREFACE Since the publication of the fi rst edition nearly 30 years ago, well over one million students have used Microbiology: An Introduction at colleges and universities around the world, making it the leading textbook for non-majors microbiology The tenth edition continues to be a comprehensive beginning text, assum ing no previous study of biology or chemistry The text is appropriate for students in a wide variety of programs, including the allied health sciences, biological science, environmental sciences, animal science, forestry, agric ulture, home economics, and the liberal arts HALLMARKS OF MICROBIOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION We have retained in this new edition features that made the previous editions so popular: • An appropriate balance between microbiological fundamentals and applications, and between medical applications and other applied areas of microbiology As in previous editions, basic microbiological principles are given greater emphasis than are applications, and health-related applications are featured • Straightforward presentation of complex topics Each section of the text has been written with the student in mind Our book is known for its clear explanations and consistent pedagogy • Clear, accurate, and pedagogically effective illustrations and photos Step-by-step diagrams that closely coordinate with narrative descriptions aid student comprehension of concepts Clear and accurate renderings of processes and structures focus students on what they need to learn The quantity and quality of electron and light micrographs is unmatched in the market • Flexible organization We have organized the book in what we thin k is a useful fas hion while recognizing that the material might be effectively p resented in a number of other sequences For instructors who wish to use a different order, we have made each cha pter as independent as possible and have included numerous cross- references The Instructor's Guide, written by Christine Case, provides detailed guidelines for organizing the material in several other ways NEW TO THE TENTH EDITION Please see pages x- xviii for a visual introduction to the new tenth edition The changes in this edition address instructors' biggest challenge in the introductory microbiology course: the wide range of student levels, including student under-preparedness The tenth edition meets all students at their respective levels of skill and understanding The highlights of the tenth edition can be seen in the new Foundation Figures, the new features that help studen ts check their understanding as they progress through each chapter, and the improved boxes that prepare students to start thinking like a cli nician Content and currency have also been substantially updated Foundation Figures In order to help students focus on and master the core concepts of microbiology, the authors have integrated text and visuals in to twenty specially designed Foundation Figures These Foundation Figures include both a key concept statement that ensures students understand the central concept of the figure and an explanation of how each figure is foundational to further learning in the course In addition, throughout the entire book the illustration program has been dramatically revised and updated with new art styles and a brighter color palette that has more contrasting colors and more dimensionality Features that Help Students Check Their Understanding New Check Your Understanding questions encourage students to engage interactively with the material and self-assess their unde rstanding of the Learning Objectives as they progress through each chapter New Draw It questions are now included in the end-of-chapter Review Questions, asking students to sketch a rough diagram or fill in missing parts of a figure or graph The popular Figure Legend Questions have been retained and im proved Support for Students to Start Thinking like a Clinician Revised and redesigned Appl ications of Microbiology boxes describe current and practical uses of microbiology New and updated Clinical Focus boxes contain data from the Morbidityalld Mortality Weekly Report modified into clinical problem-solving questions that help students develop their critical thinking skills and give them an active role while reading Diseases in Focus boxes replace disease comparison tables, organizing comparative information about similar diseases in a d iscovery-oriented and visually interesting format that provides a helpful study tool for students Updates in Content and Currency Antimicrobial resistance, biofilms, bioterrorism, and evolution receive special attention and increased emphasis The immunity chapters-Chapters 16 and 17- have received a careful and sig- PREFACE nificant update for increased currency, clarity, and accuracy, with out an increase in the level of detail Taxonomy, nomenclature, and d isease incidence data are current through August 2008 Cutting-Edge Media Supplements Turn to the inside front cover of this book for an overview of the new MyMicrobiologyPlace website with its simple th ree-step approach to learning Pages xiv-xv provide more details about the exciting new student and instructor media, including the MP3 Tutor Sessions, the 3D MicroFlix animations, and the Instructor's Resource DVD/CD -ROM CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER REVISIONS Every chapter in this edition has been thoroughly revised, and data in the text, tables, and figures have been updated through August 2008 where possible The main changes for each chapter are summarized below Part One Fundamentals of Microbiology Chapter 1: The Microbial Wortd and You • The table "Making Scientific Names Familiar" has been moved to this chapter from Chapter 10 • Biofilms are introduced • Discussion of emerging infectious diseases has been updated, including a section on antibiotic-resistant bacteria Chapter 2: Chemical Principles • Definitions have been expanded, including definitions of cis and trans fatty acids • Figure 2.16 is now a Foundation Figure Chapter 3: Observing Microorganisms through a Microscope • Two-photon microscopy is included • Several new photos illustrate microscopic images • Figure 3.2 is now a Foundation Figure Chapter 4: Functional Anatomy of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells • Figure 4.6 is now a Foundation Figure • The discussion of flagella, fimbriae, and pili has been revised, as has the discussion of the lipopolysaccharide • The discussion of facilitated diffusion has been revised, and a new figure compares types of diffusion across membranes, including aquaporins Chapter 5: Microbial Metabolism • • • • The section on biochemical tests has been expanded New renditions of enzymes are more realistic Figure 5.11 is now a Foundation Figure A new Clinical Focus box illustrates the use of biochemical tests to identify slow-growing mycobacteria Chapter 6: Microbial Growth • The discussion ofbiofitms previously appearing in Chapter 27 has been moved to this chapter and been significantly updated and expanded v • Discussion of anaerobic growth media and methods has been updated • A discussion of Biosafety Levels has been added, including a figure illustrating Biosafety Level • A new figure showing differential medium is included • Figure 6.15 is now a Foundation Figure • A new Clinical Focus box illustrates the role of biofilms in causing nosocomial infections Chapter 7: The Control of Microbial Growth • The definition of sterilization has been updated and qualified in consideration of the existence of prions • Figure 7.1 is now a Foundation Figure • Discussion of ultra-h igh temperature (UHT ) has been clarified • New products and newly approved uses are included • A new Clinical Focus box illustrates the relationship between improper disinfection and nosocomial infection Chapter 8: Microbial Genetics • Figure 8.2 is now a Foundation Figure • Discussion of genetic combination by crossing over has been revised for clarity • snRNPs are defined • Inducible and repressible operons are explained and compared in separate figures Chapter 9: Biotechnology and Recombinant DNA • Figure 9.1 is now a Foundation Figure • Gene silencing, reve rse genetics, and real-time PCR are discussed • A new Clincal Focus box describes using reverse-transc ription PCR to track a norovirus outbreak Part Two A Survey of the Microbial World Chapter 10: Classification of Microorganisms • Figure 10.1 is now a Foundation Figure • Photos of fossil and living stromatolites are included • The use of transport media is explained Chapter 11 : The Prokaryotes: Domains Bacteria and Archaea • Several new bacterial groups are discussed: Pelagibacter, Acinetobacter baumallii, Planctomycetes, Gemmata obscuriglobus • Discussion of the theoretical minimal size of a bacterium and its genetic requirements has been revised Chapter 12: The Eukaryotes: Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, and Helminths • Examples of new uses of fungi as pesticides are listed • Discussion of the oomycotes is expanded to include introduction of Phytophthora into the United States The oomycote life cycle is illustrated in a new figure • Heartworm is included • A new Clinical Focus box h ighlights cryptosporidial diarrhea, the most common pathogen associated with sWlmmmg vi PREFACE Chapter 13: Viruses, Viroids, and Prions • The chapter begins with the use of retroviridae to genetically modify cells • Figure 13.15 is now a Foundation Figure • Bee colony collapse is mentioned • The Clinical Focus box on the evolution and occurrence of avian flu has been updated Part Three Interaction Between Microbe and Host Chapter 14: Principles of Disease and Epidemiology • Figure 14.3 is now a Foundation Figure • Statistics on notifiable infectious diseases have been updated • A new Clinical Focus box illustrates the emergence of hospital-acquired and community-acquired MRSA Chapter 15: Microbial Mechanisms of Pathogenicity • Discussion of A-B toxins has been expanded and clarified • Figure 15.5, action of an exotoxin, has been revised and expanded • Figures 15.4 and 15.9 are now Foundation Figures • A new Clinical Focus box illustrates role of biofilms and endotoxins in postoperative infections Chapter 16: Innate Immunity: Nonspecific Defenses of the Host • Treatment of several topics has been expanded and/or reorganized and clarified: physical and chemical factors in the first line of defense; fo rmed elements in blood; the lymphatic system (including additional illustrations); adherence, acute-phase proteins, complement, iron-binding proteins, and antimicrobial peptides • The role of biofilms in evading phagocytosis is included • Figures 16.7 and Figure 16.9 are now Foundation Figures • The Applications of Microbiology box on serum collection has been revised to include testing for complement to monitor immune complex diseases in patients Chapter 17: Adaptive Immunity: Specific Defenses of the Host • A new photo depicts actual antibody morphology shown by atomic force microscopy • Several important figures have been extensively revised for accuracy and clarity: • Figure 17.5 Clonal selection and differentiation of B cells • Figure 17.10 Activation ofCD4 + T cells • Figure 17.11 Killing of virus-infected target cell by cytotoxic T lymphocyte • Figure 17.19 The dual nature of the immune system (now a Foundation Figure} • A new photo and illustration (Figure 17.9) show M cells found within Peyer's patches • Discussion of the major histocompatibility complex (M HC) has been revised and improved • Nomenclature conventions have been updated for T cells (for example, T helper cell, CD4 + T cell) • The discussions ofT cells, dendritic cells, and cytokines have been completely revised • A new Applications of Microbiology box describes the possible use of I L-12 to treat psoriasis Chapter 18: Practical Applications of Immunology • Figure 18.2 is now a Foundation Figure • Discussions of DNA vaccines and adjuvants have been updated and revised • The tables of vaccine schedules have been updated • A new Clinical Focus box illustrates the success of vaccination in eliminating measles in the U.S and highlights the importance of measles as a cause of death in developing countries Chapter 19: Disorders Associated with the Immune System • Coverage of blood groups includes a discussion of the relationship between certain blood groups and their relative resistance or susceptibility to certain diseases • A discussion of the autoimmune disease psoriasis and its associated arthritis has been introduced, along with the current treatments with monoclonal antibodies • The discussion of stem cells has been updated, and a new figure (Figure 19.10 ) the derivation of stem cells and stem cell lines • The discussion of HIV and AIDS has been revised and updated Especially important is the complete revision of Figure 19.13, which shows the sequence of attachment, fusion, and entry of the virus into the target CD4+ T cell • Figure 19.16 is now a Foundation Figure Chapter 20: Antimicrobial Drugs • Figure 20.2 is now a Foundation Figure • The historical importance of the sulfa drugs is given more prommence • The current methods used for the discovery of new antibiotics are discussed, including rapid throughput methods • The discussion of antibiotics has been updated to admit new antibiotics The discussion of antivirals for the treatment of HIV / AIDS has been especially updated and revised to include the latest developments in this constantly changing area • The discussion of resistance to antibiotics has been completely revised and expanded, and a new Foundation Figure (Figure 20.20) illustrates the most important target areas for resistance • The concluding discussion on the future of antibiotic development and the prospect for unconventional antibiotics has been completely revised and updated Part Four Microorganisms and Human Disease Chapter 21 : Microbial Diseases of the Skin and Eyes • The discussion of Staphylococcus aurerlS has been completely rewritten to emphasize the importance of MRSA PREFACE • The discussion of impetigo and scalded skin syndrome has been revised, and discussion of a new disease, Buruli ulcer, has been added • Some of the newer treatments for acne now have an expanded discussion Chapter 22: Microbial Diseases of the Nervous System • A new figure (Figure 22.4) illustrates a spinal ta p • The discussion of cryptococcosis has been revised to include a newer pathogen • A brief description of prions has been included to supplement that given in Chapter 13 • The discussion of chronic disease syndrome has been completely revised and now includes the CDC's diagnostic definition and the alternative name of myalgic en cep halo myel it is Chapter 23: Microbial Diseases of the Cardiovascular and lymphatic Systems • The definitions of the similar terms septicemia and sepsis have been revised • Discussions of brucellosis and rat-bite fever have been completely rewritten • The discussion of ehrlichiosis has been revised to include the new terminology of anaplasmosis • Discussion of the disease chikungunya fever has been added because of its current spread into temperate climates • The discussion of malaria has been revised completely to better differentiate between prophylaxis and the rapy Chapter 24: Microbial Diseases of the Respiratory System • The discussion of pertussis has been revised to better describe some of the latest developments, especially the recent increase in cases • The discussion of tuberculosis has been updated and revised to include more on extensively resistant strains of the pathogen and some of the more recent testing methods vii • Discussion of influenza has been thoroughly revised and updated, especially the means by which mutants arise and the infectiveness of the avian flu virus Chapter 25: Microbial Diseases of the Digestive System • The discussion of traveler's diarrhea has been rewritten to include the important pathogen enteroaggregative E coli • Recent therapeutic drugs for HBV have been included • The discussion of noroviruses has been updated with special attention to decontamination methods available to deal with outbreaks Chapter 26: Microbial Diseases of the Urinary and Reproductive Systems • The discussion of vaginal microbiota has been extensively revised • The introductory discussion of syphilis, especially relating to recent genetic analysis on its probable origin in the New World, has been revised • The discussion of testing for syphilis has been revised • The TORCH panel of tests is included Part Five Environmental and Applied Microbiology Chapter 27: Environmental Microbiology • The sulfur cycle figure (Figure 27.7)has been completely redrawn • The discussion of biodegradable plastics has been revised and updated Chapter 28: Applied and Industrial Microbiology • The discussion of biofuels has been expanded ACKNOWLEDG M ENTS In preparing for this textbook, we have benefited from the guidance and advice of a large number of microbiology the country The reviewers listed provided cnticism and valuable suggestions 011 various stages of the reV ISIO n We gratefully acknowledge our debt to these individuals Christina Gan Higldine Comltllmity College TENTH EDITION REVIEWERS Dawn Janich Com lll/mity College of Philadelphia Cynthia Anderson MI SaILA/lEOnia College Judy Kaufman Monroe COlllllllmity College Rod Anderson Ollio Northern Ulliversity MaIda Kocache George Maw// University Terry Austin John M Lammert GI/stavus Adolphus College Temple Col/ege Pete Haddix AI/IIIITII University Montgomery Rachel Hirst Massasoit Co mm/mity College Joan Baird Rose State College Paul A leBlanc University of Alabama Archna Bhasin Valdosta SUIte University Michael W Lema Mid/aI/tis Tee/mimI College Victoria Bingham Daytonll Beach College John Lennox The Pelll/sylvm/ia Stale University Phyllis Braun Fairfield Ulliversity Shawn Lester Montgomery College Donald P Breakwell Briglrllm Young University Leslie Lichtenstein Mlissasoit Commw/ity College Sandra Burnett Brig/ulIlI YOU/IS University Eric Lifson Bllch COl/lilY Commllllity College Susan Capasso Sf ViI/ceil/'s College Suzanne Long Mal/roe Commul/ity College Carol Castaneda indillll(l Ullil'ersity Nortlnvest William C Matthai Tnrrallf COWIIY College Northeast James K Collins University of Arizon(l Philip Mixter WashillgtOl1 State University Lee Couch Rita B Moyes Texas A&M University University of New Mexico Ellen C Cover Lamar Ulliversity Ellyn R Mulcahy Jolmsoll COl m ty Comm/wity College Jean Cremins Middlesex COllllfllmity College Tim R Mullican Dakolll Wesleyml University Melissa A Deadmond Truckee Meadows Community College Richard L Myers Mi550uri Stale Ulliversity Janet M D«ker University of Arizona Kabi Neupane Leeward Comm/mity College Vivian Elder OZ(lrh Trchnical Commlmity College Lourdes P Norman Florit/II COlllllllwily College, Jacksonville viii Designer Jeans: Made by Microbes? Denim blue jeans have become increasingly popular ever since levi Strauss and Jacob Oavis fi rst made them for California gold miners in 1873 Now, companies that manufacture blue jeans are turning to microbiology to develop environmentally sound production methods th at minimize toxic wastes and the costs associated with treating IOllie wastes Moreover microbiological methods can provide abundant renewable raw materials Stone Washing? A so fter denim, caUed was introduced in the 19805 The fabric is nol really washed with rocks Enzymes, called cellulases, from Trichoderma fungus are used to digest some of the cellulose in the cotton, thereby softening it Unlike many chemical reactions, enzymes usually operate at sa fe temperatures and pH Moreover enzymes are proteins, so they are readily degraded for removal from wastewater Fabric Colton production requires large tracts of land, pesticides, and ferti lizer and the crop yield depends on the weather However bacteria can produce both colton and polyester with less environmental impac\ Gluconacetobacter xylinus bacteria make cellulose by attaching glucose units to simple chains in the outer membrane of the bacterial cell wall The cellulose microfibrils are extruded through pores in the outer membrane and bundles of microfibrils then twist into ribbons Bleaching Peroxide is a safer bleaching agen t than chlorine and can be easily removed from fabric and was tewater by enzymes Researchers at Novo Nordisk Biotech cloned a mushroom peroxidase gene in yeast and grew the yeasts in washing machine condi tions The yeast tha t survived the washing machine were selected as the peroxidase producers Plastic M icrobes can even make plastic zippers and packaging material for the jeans Over 25 bacteria make polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) inclusion granules as a food reserve PHAs are similar to common plastics, and because they are made by bacteria, they are also readily E coli bactena prod uce degraded by many Indigo from trytophan bacteria PH As could provide a biodegradable altern ative to conventional plastic which is made from pet roleum Indigo-producing E cob bacteria Indigo Chemical synthesis of indigo requi res a high pH and produces waste that explodes in contact with air However, a California biotechnology company, Genencor, has developed a method to produce indigo by using bacteria In the Genencor labs, researchers put the gene for conversion of the bacterial by-product indole to indigo from a soil bacterium, Pseudomonas putida, into Escherichia coli bacteria, which then turned blue I bacteri um Table 1.1 co ntains more examples The genus of the bacteri um £Sc/lcricllia coli (esh-e-rik'-e-ii k6'1! o r k6'le) is named for a scientist, Theodor Escherich , whereas its specific epithet, coli, rem inds us that E coli live in the colon, or large intestine CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING / Distinguish a genus from a speci fi c epi thet 1-2 I Types of Microorganisms The classification and identification of m icroorganisms is d iscussed in Chapter 10 Here is an overview of the major grou ps Bacte ria Bacteria (singular: bacterium ) are relatively simple, single-celled (u nicellular) organisms Because their genetic material is not enclosed in a special nuclear membrane, bacterial cells are If PART ONE Fundamentals of Microbiology Table 1.1 Making Scientific Names Familiar Use the word roots guide in Appendix E to find out what the name means The name will not seem so strange if you translate it When you encounter a new name, practice saying it out loud The exact pronunciation is not as important as the familiarity you will gain Guidelines for pronunciation are given in Appendix D Following are some examples of microbial names you may encounter in the popular press as well as in the lab Salmonella Iyphimurium (bacterium) Streptococcus pyogenes (bacterium) Source of Specific Epithet Pronunciation Source of Genus Name sal-mOn-el'la ti-fi-mur'e-um Honors public health microbiologist Daniel Salmon (muri- ) Appearance of cells in chains Forms pus strep-t6-kok'kus pHij'en-ez Causes stupor (typh-) in mice (pyo-) (slreplo-) Fungus (-myces) that uses sugar Makes beer (cerevisia) Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) sak-il-r6-mi'ses se-ri-vis'e-i Penicillium chrysogenum pen-i-sii'le-um krT-so'jen-um Tuftlike or paintbrush (penicill-) appearance microscopically Produces a yellow pigment lri-pa-no-so'ma kruz' i! Corkscrew- (trypano-, borer; soma-, body) Honors epidemiologist Oswaldo Cruz (fungus) Trypanosoma cruzi (protozoan) (saccharo-) called prokaryotes (pro-kar'e-ots), from Greek words meaning prenucleus Prokaryotes include both bacteria and archaea Bacterial cells generally appear in one of several shapes Bacillus (bit-sil'lus) (rodli ke), illustrated in Figure 1.la, mcClls (kok'kus)(spherical or ovoid), and spiral (corkscrew or curved) are among the most common shapes, but some bacteria are starshaped or square (see Figures 4.1 through 4.5, pages 78- 79) Individual bacteria may form pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings; such formations are usually characteristic of a particular genus or species of bacteria Bacteria are enclosed in cell walls that are largely composed of a carbohydrate and protein complex called peptidoglycan (By contrast, cellulose is the main substance of plant and algal cell walls.) Bacteria generally reproduce by dividing into two equal cells; this process is called binary fission For nutrition, most bacteria use organic chemicals, which in nature can be derived from either dead or living organisms Some bacteria can manufacture their own food by photosynthesis, and some can derive nutrition from inorganic substances Many bacteria can "swim" by using moving appendages called flagella (For a complete discussion of bacteria, see Chapter 11 ) Archaea Like bacteria, archaea (ar'ke-a) consist of prokaryotic cells, but if they have cell walls, the walls lack peptidoglycan Archaea, often found in extreme environments, are divided into three main groups The methanogens produce methane as a waste product from respiration The extreme /Ia/op/tiles (halo = salt; philic = (chryso-) loving) live in extremely salty environments such as the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea The extreme t/termophiles (therm = heat) live in hot sul furous water, such as hot springs at Yellowstone National Park Archaea are not known to cause disease in humans Fungi Fungi (singular: fungus) are eukaryotes (yO.-kar'e-ots), organisms whose cells have a distinct nucleus containing the cell's genetic material (DNA), surrounded by a special envelope called the nuclear membrane Organisms in the Kingdom Fungi may be uni cellular or multicellular (see Chapter 12, page 330) Large multicel lular fungi, such as mushrooms, may look somewhat like plants, but they cannot carry out photosynthesis, as most plants can True fung i have cell walls composed primarily of a substance called chitin The unicellular forms of fungi, yeasts, are oval microorganisms that are larger than bacteria The most typical fungi are molds (Figure l _lb) Molds fOfm visible masses called mycelia, which are composed of long filaments (hyphae) that branch and intertwine The cottony growths sometimes found on bread and fruit are mold mycelia Fungi can reproduce sexually or asexually They obtain nourishment by absorbing solutions of organic material from their environment- whether soil, seawater, fresh water, or an animal or plant host Organisms called slime molds have characteristics of both fungi and amoebas They are discussed in detail in Chapter 12 Protozoa Protozoa (singular: protozoan) are unicellular eukaryotic microbes (see Chapter 12, page 345) Protozoa move by CHAPTER The Microbial World and You (.) I 1.01'm I (b) I I • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • (d) (0) Figure 1.1 Types of microorganisms Note: Throughout the book, a red icon under a micrograph mdicates that the micrograph has been artificially colored (a) The rod-shaped bacterium Haemophr/us mfiuenzae, one of the bacterial causes of pneumonia (b) Mucor, a common bread mold, is a type of fungus When released from sporangia, spores that land on a favorable surface germ mate into a network of hyphae (filaments) that absorb nutrients ee) An amoeba, a protozoan, approaching a food particle Cd) The pond alga, Volvox Ce) Several human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs) the causative agent of AIDS, budding from a CD4 + T cell Q How are bacteria, archaea, fungi , protozoa, algae, and viruses distinguished on the basis of cellular structure? ( ) f-< 50 nm PART ONE Fundamentals of Microbiology pseudopods, flagella, or cilia Amoebas (Figure 1.lc) move by using extensions of their cytoplasm called pseudopods (false feet) Other protozoa have long flagella or numerous shorter appendages for locomotion called cilia Protozoa have a variety of shapes and live either as free entities or as parasites (organisms that derive nutrients from living hosts) that absorb or ingest organic compounds from their environment Protozoa can reproduce sexually or asexually Algae Algae (singular: alga) are photosynthetic eukaryotes with a wide variety of shapes and both sexual and asexual reprod uct ive forms (Figure 1.1 d) The algae of interest to microbiologists are usually unicellular (see Chapter 12, page 340) The cell walls of ma ny algae, are composed of a carbohydrate called cellulose Algae are abundant in fresh and salt water, in soil, and in association with plants As photosynthesizers, algae need light, water, and carbon dioxide for food production and growth, but they not generally require organic compounds from the environment As a result of photosynthesis, algae produce oxygen and ca rbohydrates that are then utilized by other organisms, including animals Thus, they play an important role in the balance of natu re Viruses Viruses (Figure l.le) are very different from the other microbial groups mentioned here They are so small that most can be seen only with an electron microscope, and they are acellular (not cellular) Structurally very simple, a virus particle contains a core made of only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA This core is surrou nded by a protein coat Sometimes the coat is encased by an additional layer, a lipid membrane called an envelope All living cells have RNA and DNA, can carry out chemical reactions, and can reproduce as self-sufficient units Viruses can reproduce only by using the cellular machinery of other organisms Thus, viruses are considered to be living when they multiply within host cells they infect In this sense, viruses are parasites of other forms of life On the other hand, viruses are not considered to be living because outside living hosts, they are inert (Viruses will be discussed in detail in Chapter 13.) Multicellular Animal Parasites Although multicellu lar animal parasites are not strictly microorganisms, they are of medical importance and therefore will be discussed in this text Animals are eukaryotes The two major groups of parasitic worms are the fla tworms and the roundworms, collectively called hehninths (see Chapter 12, page 352) During some stages of their life cycle, helminths are microscopic in size Laboratory identification of these organisms includes many of the same techniques used for identifying microbes CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING ' " Which groups of microbes are prokaryotes? Which are eukaryotes? 1-3 Classification of Microorganisms Before the existence of microbes was known, all o rganisms were grouped into either the animal kingdom or the plant kingdom When microscopic organisms with characteristics of animals and plants were d iscovered late in the seventeenth century, a new system of classification was needed Still, biologists could not agree on the criteria for classifying the new organisms they were seeing un til the late 1970s In 1978, Carl Woese devised a system o f classification based on the cellular organization of organisms It groups all organisms in three domains as follows: I Bacteria (cell walls contain a protein-carbohydrate complex called peptidoglycan) Archaea (cell walls, if present, lack pept idoglycan) Eukarya, which includes the following: • Protists (slime molds, protozoa, and algae) • Fungi (unicellular yeasts, multicellular molds, and mushrooms) • Plants (includes mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants) • Animals (includes sponges, worms, insects, and vertebrates) Classification will be discussed in more detail in Chapters 10 through 12 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING ' " What are the three domains? 1-4 A Brief History of Microbiology LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1-5 Explam the Importance of observations made by Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek 1-6 Compare spontaneous generation and biogenesis 1-7 Identify the contributions to microbiology made by Needham Spalianzani Virchow and Pasteur 1-8 Explam how Pasteur"s work influenced Lister and Koch 1-9 Identify the importance of Koch·s postulates 1-10 Identify the importance of Jenner"s work 1-11 Identify the contributions to microbiology made by Ehrlich and Fleming 1-12 Define bacteriology mycology parasitology immunology and Virology 1-13 Explam the importance of microbial genetics and molecular biology T he science of microbiology dates back only 200 years, yet the recent discovery of Mycobacterium tuberCillosis (mi -ko-ba kti're-um lli-bcr-ku-Io'sis) DNA in 3000-year-old Egyptian mummies reminds us that microorganisms have been around CHAPTER The Microbial World and You ,OC' '" "I specimen on pin ""w J) " ,, " ' JiJ· b d3