Bài báo khoa học Cognitive load theory and lesson planning final (Vận dụng Lý thuyết Tải lượng tri nhận vào thiết kế bài giảng) lý giải những yếu tố tác động tới quá trình nhận thức của người học và gợi ý hướng dẫn thiết kế bài giảng tiếng Anh dựa trên lý thuyết tải lượng tri nhận.
COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY AND LESSON PLANNING (Vận dụng Lý thuyết Tải lượng tri nhận vào thiết kế giảng) Abstract Lesson planning may be a trouble to all teachers sometimes The lesson plans may look good and scientific, promising successful teaching sessions; however, in practice, they still fail to get students learn the lessons and fail to encourage them take in new knowledge as expected The answer to this problem has lately been found and it is largely attributable to the architecture of human cognition For the past fifty years, there have been a good number of studies dwelling deeply into the cognitive architecture as well as the cognitive process of humans Those studies have contributed to bringing us the knowledge about the components that shape human memory and how human memory works Findings about the human cognitive architecture are of great importance to various areas, including the science of education By looking into the human cognitive architecture and the theory of cognitive load, this article presents a brief summary of how to plan lessons in an effective manner by applying the cognitive load theory to lesson planning (Việc thiết kế giảng, soạn giáo án tạo nên áp lực không nhỏ đội ngũ giảng dạy Giáo án đôi lúc thiết kế khoa học hứa hẹn giảng tốt thực tế lại lúc người học khơng đáp ứng đòi hỏi tiếp nhận kiến thức mong đợi Nhiều câu trả lời cho vấn đề đưa ra, có liên quan trực tiếp khối lượng kiến thức cấu trúc tri nhận người học Về khoa học tri nhận, năm mươi năm gần có nhiều nghiên cứu chuyên sâu tập trung bóc tách cấu trúc nhớ người chế hoạt động Kết từ nghiên cứu đóng góp phần quan trọng vào nghiên cứu phát triển nhiều lĩnh vực liên quan tới tư người, có khoa học giáo dục Bài viết tóm lược cấu trúc tri nhận người phân tích Lý thuyết Tải lượng tri nhận (Cognitive Load Theory) ứng dụng lý thuyết vào thiết kết giảng với mục đích đem lại hiệu trình giảng dạy Keywords: cognitive load theory (lý thuyết tải lượng tri nhận), lesson planning (thiết kế giảng), human cognitive architecture (cấu trúc tri nhận người), human memory (bộ nhớ người) Preparation of a lesson is much related to understanding of human cognitive architecture and how its components work A good lesson plan often utilizes positive features of the architecture and, therefore, facilitates learning This article seeks to summarize the architecture of human cognition and the cognitive load theory and apply its education implications to making lesson plans Introduction to human cognitive architecture Human beings stand out from other animals in that we know how to think Thinking is the very feature that leads to the desire to tirelessly discover new information and knowledge, including the wish to find out where knowledge comes from, where it is stored, how it is later retrieved for use and what the architecture of human cognition is like Previously, for a very long period of time, people used to think that human memory consists of just one single part However, as various experimental studies were conducted, scientists came to find out that human memory consists of different equally-important components According to Ayres (2010), human cognitive architecture is broken down into three parts, namely the sensory memory, the working memory and the long-term memory The sensory memory takes in new information via visual and audio channels However, according to Atkinson & Shiffin (1968), the sensory memory is very limited in capacity (just several millionth of a second) and new information entering the sensory memory decays quickly New information goes through the sensory memory via the two channels then reaches the working memory In fact, the working memory is where learning occurs, as it is the place where the human cognitive process takes place, helping humans understand and control the information stored there Therefore, the working memory itself is more complicated than the other two components It also has three parts, namely the audio patch (capable of keeping information there for two seconds), the image and spatial sketch (keeping and processing images), and the central processing unit which controls the whole system of analyzing information stored in the working memory New information often enters the working memory in the forms of sounds or images or both Like the sensory memory, the working memory is also limited in capacity Miller (1956) proves that depending on individuals, the working memory is capable of storing 7+/-2 units of information at the same time It would be difficult for a person to remember if the units of information exceed that magical number (7+/-2) and without assistance A very common example is memorizing telephone numbers For a ten-digit number like 0975468312, if a person takes in the formation in the way that breaks down the number into the ten separate digits like 0-9-7-5-4-6-8-3-1-2, he/she will most likely fail to keep the number in his/her mind after just a few seconds However, if the person breaks the number into three chunks like 0975-468-312, he will likely remember the number for much longer That is because the chunking turns the number into three units of information instead of 10 units like before, which is within the capacity of the working memory Looping or continuous repetition and concentration are important to keep the information in the working memory from decaying Otherwise, the information will decay quickly, leaving space in the working memory for newer information entering via the sensory memory (Sweller, 1999) The information when received and placed into the working memory will be processed However, information in the working memory comes not only from the sensory memory, but also from the long-term memory Therefore, in the working memory, new information will interact with available information retrieved from the long-term memory The combined information, including both new information from the sensory memory and available information from the long-term memory, will eventually be stored in the long-term memory in the form of schemas Those schemas can be simple or complex; however, each of them is all about related contents Regardless of being simple or complex, each schema is treated equally by the memory as one unit of information When stored in the long-term memory, the information will remain there forever However, unlike the previous two memory components, the long-term memory is controlled by sub-consciousness and the information from the long-term memory is only managed by consciousness when it is accessed and retrieved by the working memory, which is very small in size Therefore, the retrieval of information from the long-term memory must be triggered by information received externally through the sensory memory and the working memory Another point is that when new information is stored in the long-term memory, if it is not linked to (one) available schema network(s), it will be very difficult to be retrieved for future use Cognitive Load Theory While cognitive psychologists mainly focused their studies on the human cognitive architecture (including the structure of the working memory), Professor John Sweller focuses his research just on the working memory and devises the Cognitive Load Theory However, the research of John Sweller and his colleagues around the world does not focus on the structure of the working memory itself, which has been thoroughly analyzed by Baddeley (1992), either For 25 years, Sweller and his team of scientists from different countries have concentrated on determining how the processing of information affects the working memory and the load of different specific tasks imposes on this very limited-in-capacity memory The findings show that depending on the difficulty of the tasks, the cognitive load imposed on the working memory varies and brings different information processing results Sweller then came to propose three different types of cognitive load: intrinsic load, germane load, and extraneous load Like many other studies and theories on human cognitive architecture, the cognitive load theory aims to find out what hinders and what facilitates learning to make adjustments for learning to take place in the most effective fashion Of the three types of cognitive load imposed on the working memory, not all facilitates learning Therefore, the point is to minimize the load that obstructs learning and increases the load that supports learning As mentioned, the three types of load imposed on the working memory are intrinsic load, germane load, and extraneous load The intrinsic load is caused by the level of difficulty of the task imposed on the working memory This load is not adjustable in that it depends on the task; therefore, as soon as receiving a task, part of the working memory is immediately consumed However, adjusting the level of difficulty of the task (a lesson in the case of teaching), making it easier to follow with appropriate steps in the teaching process, will result in smaller intrinsic load, and in turn create the germane load on the working memory At the other extreme, extraneous load will be created in the working memory when the person has to process information irrelevant to the content of the task (in case of learning, the learner has to deal with redundant and unsuitable information in the lesson) In that case, the working memory is consumed excessively by irrelevant information, affecting information processing, turning out learning results that not live up to expectation For learning to best occur, it is essential to maximize the germane cognitive load and minimize the extraneous cognitive load This can be done by designing lessons with appropriate levels of difficulty, reducing irrelevant information in the lessons, creating less learning pressure on learners, etc It can be seen that how learners take in new knowledge is related directly to the human cognitive architecture in general and types of cognitive load in particular Understanding the cognitive architecture and cognitive loads imposed on the working memory, teachers can design lessons in a way learners can receive new information/knowledge more easily and effectively and remember it longer Educational implications First, as the working memory can only work effectively when storing 7+/-2 units of information, if a lesson plan requires learners to process too many units of information at the same time, it will surely fails to make learning occur (Sweller, 1994) When planning a lesson, teachers need to choose contents with sufficient information for each period (not to exceed units of information to be processed at the same time) One of the important points is that emotions like anxiety or fear are also considered units of information (irrelevant information) Therefore, teachers should avoid making learners anxious and create no fears for them during the lesson to avoid creating extraneous cognitive load in the working memory of learners Second, teachers need to design lessons in a way that the units of information are related to one another so that they create a new schema in the working memory before being stored in the longterm memory of the learners A well-designed lesson not only requires a reasonable number of units of information, but also should have those units of information designed interrelated, helping learning occur more easily Third, from the fact that learners only take in new contents when they focus their attention, new contents to be taught should not be insufficient, too easy, nor too difficult That is because learners may easily lose their attention not only in case the contents are difficult, but also in case the contents are too easy or boring In both cases, learning does not occur and learners fail to acquire the designated knowledge Fourth, as new information can only be stored in the long-term memory and retrieved most easily later when the information has been integrated with available schema networks in memory Thus, in order for learners to master and be able to use the new knowledge with ease, the contents of the lessons should be linked to practical experiences or introduced with information that learners already know For example, when teaching the content of How to make phone calls in English, teachers should design the teaching content in a way that it elicits learners little by little so that they can retrieve their available schemas related to this content from their long-term memory Questions like What is the make of the cellphone that you use? How often you make phone calls? Who you often call? What are the steps in making a phone call?, etc or practicing roleplay among learners in the classroom may be used Those techniques trigger the information (schemas) available in learners’ long-term memory When new information is introduced (grammatical content, for example), learners connect the new information into the available information that they have retrieved to answer previous questions The new information is now processed and integrated into existing schemas before being encoded and stored back in the longterm memory That is when learning really occurs and learners really acquire new knowledge Fifth, when new information is encoded and stored in the long-term memory, retrieval of that new information to the working memory helps learners to remember the information better To make the most of this feature and help more learning occur, at the end of each lesson, before shifting to new contents, teachers should design some activities to review and reinforce the learned contents This can be done in a number of ways, including listening to songs, requiring learners to write assignments about the learned topics, and more However, one of the most popular ways is repetition Repetition when conducted regularly will lead to automation, in which learners things (making phone calls in English in this case) at ease, without having to pay much attention to the things, reducing the load imposed on the working memory Below is simple sample lesson plan for teaching the content “Making phone calls” and the interpretation of cognitive process in accordance with the cognitive load theory Lesson plan and interpretation of cognitive process Teacher: …/…/… Class: …/ Date: …/…/… Unit: …/ ESL Standard: …/ Lesson topic: How to make phone calls Content Standard: …/ Lesson aim: to enable students to make phone calls in English fluently with steps and in different situations Key concepts and Content: smartphone, caller ID, contact(s), busy, greetings when making phone calls, conversation development, parts of a telephone in general and a smartphone in particular Learning outcomes: At the end of the lesson, learners will be able to follow steps to make a phone call and make different phone calls to different people and places Strategies: Using materials and activities with consideration of cognitive architecture and cognitive load in a way that facilitates learning Materials: board, markers, handouts, cellphone Evidence of learning: Learners are able to make phone calls in English with ease and with fun Steps Activities Cognitive process Warm up Teacher tells a joke about a conversation via the telephone at a hotel and then asks several questions to lead to the topic Model joke: One morning, the receptionist at the front desk of a hotel received a phone call from Room 223 He picked up the receiver, said: - Hello, how can I help you? From the other end of the line, there was only some sounds: Warm up activities should arouse learners’ attention and connect the lesson contents to learners’ learnt knowledge, skills, experiences (schemas) One important thing that warm up activities benefit learners is that it helps learners feel at ease, thus removing anxiety or fear of learning (acting as extraneous load and occupying part of the working memory) - /Too tees too too too tee…/ Not quite understanding, the receptionist asked: - Sorry, would you mind speaking again? The person repeated and the receptionist again heard the sounds: - /Too tees too too too tee…/ Still unable to make out what the caller meant, he rushed to Room 223 and learnt that the people in that room wanted to order “2 teas to (room) 223.” Instruction (mini-lesson) - The teacher hands out a telephone conversation model to learners and note important sentences (greetings, introducing names, asking for information of callers, etc.) - The teacher uses his/her cellphone to introduce parts of the telephone to learners - Learners are to note down the vocabulary and structures - The teacher calls two learners to play the roles of caller and receiver and let them read out loud the conversation model In this part, the teacher introduces the contents of the lesson with connection with the information that he/she triggers learners to retrieve to the working memory during the warm up part Now, learners’ attention has been focused on the topic of the lesson, they may learn better The teacher is to keep them excited about the contents by using activities that require learners to engage in or directly conduct mock-up phone calls that look like real Now, it is important that the teacher does not give input of too much information for learners Otherwise, the teacher may create a huge intrinsic cognitive load, occupying much of the working memory, resulting in little learning The teacher may need to break this part into the “Grammar,” “Structure,” and “Vocabulary” contents Practice - Role play (teacher - learner): The teacher uses his/her cellphone, asks for a learner’s number and makes a direct phone call to the learner At this time, the conversation model is used for the role-play - Role play (learner – learner): The teacher asks the learners to set pairs If the number of learners is odd, the teacher will join the activity This is the part that the teacher helps learners process the new information (grammar, vocabulary, structures…) and integrate that information into existing schemas (how to use smartphone, how to dial a number, how to answer a phone call, etc.) in learners’ long-term Then, he/she asks the pairs to move their chairs so that the pairs sit back-to-back (making sure that they don’t see each other’s face) The learners are now to make phone calls, using the conversation model After some time, the teacher set themes for the pairs to practice (call to the airport, hospital, hotel, etc.) memory Follow-up Activities/ Independent practice For more learning to occur, the teacher is to help learners retrieve the newly-learnt information by giving them chance to use the information This can be done by different activities like asking questions, telling stories, etc - Tell a story about a special phone call that a learner once made (calling the wrong number, for example) Homework: Learners learn by heart words related to telephone and phone calls Automation (repeat and repeat and repeat) to consolidate the newly-learnt information Reflection: (If possible) learners are to make a phone call each to the teacher when they get home that day For more learning to occur (retrieval of the newly-learnt information) Conclusion As the human cognitive architecture has been carefully studied and proven to be limited in capacity and the working memory, where learning occurs, can be imposed with extraneous cognitive load that hinders learning effectiveness, designing lessons could be a problem to any teachers if without taking into account these features On the other hand, fully grasping these cognitive features may help teachers develop their suitable teaching styles and plan their lessons in a way that best facilitate learning REFERENCES Atkinson, R C., & Shiffin, R M (1968) Human Memory: A proposed system and its control processes The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, New York: Academic Press Baddeley, A (1992) Working Memory Science, 255(5044), 556-559 Ayres, P (2010) Human Cognitive Architecture, Lecture notes University of New South Wales Miller, G A (1956) The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information Psychology Review, 63, 81-97 Sweller, J (1994) Cognitive Load Theory, Learning Difficulty, And Instructional Design Learning and Instruction, 4, 293-312, Pergamon Press Sweller, J (1999) Instructional Design in Technical Areas Melbourne: ACER Press ... human cognitive architecture in general and types of cognitive load in particular Understanding the cognitive architecture and cognitive loads imposed on the working memory, teachers can design lessons... intrinsic load, germane load, and extraneous load Like many other studies and theories on human cognitive architecture, the cognitive load theory aims to find out what hinders and what facilitates... cognitive load theory Lesson plan and interpretation of cognitive process Teacher: …/…/… Class: …/ Date: …/…/… Unit: …/ ESL Standard: …/ Lesson topic: How to make phone calls Content Standard: …/ Lesson