Elements of social and applied psychology

Elements of social and applied psychology J.E Stockdale, A.E.M Seaborne and B Franks 2790079 2009 Undergraduate study in Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences This guide was prepared for the University of London External System by: Dr Jan Stockdale, BSc, PhD, CPsychol, AFBPsS, Senior Lecturer in Social Psychology, The London School of Economics and Political Science Dr Ric Seaborne, BSc, MSc, PhD, formerly Lecturer in Psychology, The London School of Economics and Political Science Dr Bradley Franks, BSc, MSc, PhD, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, The London School of Economics and Political Science This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University We regret that due to pressure of work the authors are unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or arising from, the guide If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide This subject guide is for the use of University of London External students registered for programmes in the fields of Economics, Management, Finance and the Social Sciences (as applicable) The programmes currently available in these subject areas are: Access route Diploma in Economics Diploma in Social Sciences Diplomas for Graduates BSc Accounting and Finance BSc Accounting with Law/Law with Accounting BSc Banking and Finance BSc Business BSc Development and Economics BSc Economics BSc Economics and Finance BSc Economics and Management BSc Geography and Environment BSc Information Systems and Management BSc International Relations BSc Management BSc Management with Law/Law with Management BSc Mathematics and Economics BSc Politics BSc Politics and International Relations BSc Sociology BSc Sociology with Law Publications Office The External System University of London Stewart House 32 Russell Square London WC1B 5DN United Kingdom www.londonexternal.ac.uk Published by: University of London Press © University of London 2009 Printed by: Central Printing Service, University of London, England Contents Contents Chapter 1: Introduction What this unit is about Why study social and applied psychology? Introducing social and applied psychology Aims of the unit Learning outcomes The structure of the guide The subject guide Key terms Reading The examination Key steps to improvement Overview Syllabus Part A: What is social psychology? 1 3 7 12 14 16 16 19 Chapter 2: The scope and development of social psychology Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 2.1 What is psychology? 2.2 What is social psychology? 2.3 The origins and current scope of social psychology 2.4 The role of theory 2.5 Different emphases in social psychology 2.6 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 3: Research in social psychology Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 3.1 Investigating social psychological phenomena 3.2 Experimental studies 3.3 Field research 3.4 Survey studies 3.5 Quantitative and qualitative data 3.6 Investigating people and investigating society 3.7 Validity and realism 3.8 Reliability and replication 3.9 Ethical issues 3.10 The use of deception in social psychological studies 3.11 Overview 21 21 21 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 29 32 32 33 33 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 38 41 42 43 45 45 47 48 49 51 i 79 Elements of social and applied psychology Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 4: Applying social psychology Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 4.1 Applications of social psychology 4.2 Example 1: stereotypes 4.3 Example 2: pro-social behaviour 4.4 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 5: Social psychology in action Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 5.1 Scenario 1: health and illness 5.2 Scenario 2: workplace experiences 5.3 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Part B: Understanding the social world Chapter 6: Self, identity and impression management Aims and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 6.1 Self and identity – components and distinctions 6.2 Functions of the self 6.3 Self-presentation: Goffman – impressions and expressions 6.4 Impression management and embarrassment 6.5 Self-monitoring 6.6 Self-esteem 6.7 Self, culture and diversity 6.8 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Feedback to Activity 6.5 Chapter 7: Social perception and cognition Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction ii 51 53 54 55 55 55 55 56 56 57 57 61 64 65 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 69 69 77 82 82 84 85 87 89 89 89 89 90 90 91 92 94 95 98 98 99 101 101 102 102 102 103 103 103 103 103 104 Contents 7.1 Social information processing 7.2 Configural and primacy effects in impression formation 7.3 Conscious and non-conscious judgements 7.4 Self-fulfilling beliefs 7.5 Implicit personality theory 7.6 Impression formation and culture 7.7 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Feedback to Activity 7.2 Chapter 8: Attribution Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 8.1 Attributions and causes 8.2 Person and situation attributions 8.3 Attribution theories 8.4 Biases and errors in attributions 8.5 What attribution theories explain? 8.6 Applications of attribution 8.7 Attribution and culture 8.8 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 9: Attitudes Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 9.1 Attitudes and their importance in social psychology 9.2 Nature and structure of attitudes 9.3 Formation and function of attitudes 9.4 Cognitive consistency and dissonance 9.5 Attitude measurement 9.6 Can attitudes predict behaviour? 9.7 Recent models of the attitude-behaviour link 9.8 Culture and attitudes 9.9 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Part C: Social influence 104 108 109 110 110 111 112 112 114 114 115 117 117 117 117 117 118 119 119 120 123 125 126 127 127 128 129 129 131 131 131 131 131 132 133 133 135 135 137 138 140 142 144 145 146 147 149 Chapter 10: Groups and group performance Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 151 151 151 151 151 153 iii 79 Elements of social and applied psychology 10.1 Definitions of groups 10.2 Formation and structure of groups 10.3 Minimal group experiments 10.4 Explanations for the minimal group effects 10.5 Group norms 10.6 Social facilitation, social loafing and social labouring 10.7 Group performance and the nature of the task 10.8 Group membership and group decision-making 10.9 Causes of polarisation 10.10 Which groups show polarisation and which not? 10.11 Groupthink: a failing of real-life policy-making groups 10.12 Self-categorisation and acceptance of group norms 10.13 The operation of juries 10.14 The effect of crowds on individual members 10.15 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 11: Majority and minority influence and obedience Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 11.1 Is conformity a good thing? 11.2 Majority influence 11.3 Sherif and the autokinetic effect 11.4 Asch’s findings 11.5 When people conform in majority situations? 11.6 Why people conform in majority situations? Normative and informational social influence 11.7 Minority influence 11.8 Processes operating in minority influence 11.9 Referent informational influence 11.10 Obedience 11.11 Acquiescence to requests from another person 11.12 Conformity, obedience and culture 11.13 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 12: Attitude change and persuasive communications Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 12.1 Persuasion and attitude change 12.2 Attitude change and the consistency assumption 12.3 Dual-process models of attitude change 12.4 Changing attitudes 12.5 Resistance to attitude change 12.6 Advertising, persuasive communications and attitude change 12.7 Mass media impacts on audiences 12.8 Overview iv 153 154 156 157 157 158 160 161 161 163 163 164 164 165 167 168 169 170 171 171 171 171 171 172 173 173 174 175 176 177 178 178 180 181 184 186 186 187 188 188 189 189 189 189 189 191 191 192 192 194 197 198 200 202 Contents Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 13: Strategic interaction, negotiation and conflict resolution Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 13.1 Social dilemmas and competition 13.2 Negotiation strategies and their impact 13.3 Conflict behaviour, escalation and de-escalation 13.4 Mediation, contact and co-operation 13.5 International conflict and negotiations 13.6 Societal and cultural aspects of negotiations 13.7 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Part D: Social relations 203 204 204 205 205 205 205 205 206 207 209 213 214 215 216 217 217 218 218 219 Chapter 14: Language and non-verbal communication Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 14.1 Interpersonal communication 14.2 Verbal communication 14.3 Paralinguistic communication 14.4 Non-verbal communication 14.5 Deception and self-presentation in communication 14.6 Diversity and communication 14.7 Electronic communication 14.8 Social skills and communication skills training 14.9 Social skills and communication in the workplace 14.10 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 15: Diversity and relationships Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 15.1 Sources of diversity 15.2 Cultural diversity 15.3 Gender diversity 15.4 Attraction and friendship choices 15.5 Theories of attraction 15.6 Diversity and relationships 15.7 Understanding relationships and their significance 15.8 Overview Key terms 221 221 221 221 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 228 229 229 230 230 232 232 233 233 233 233 234 234 234 235 236 240 241 245 245 245 245 v 79 Elements of social and applied psychology A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 16: Prejudice and discrimination Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 16.1 Prejudice and discrimination 16.2 What causes prejudice? 16.3 Person-centred theories 16.4 Cognitive analyses of prejudice 16.5 Intergroup explanations of prejudice 16.6 Social identity and prejudice 16.7 Societal sources of prejudice 16.8 Targets of prejudice and discrimination 16.9 Reduction of prejudice and discrimination 16.10 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 17: Organisational behaviour and leadership Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading Further reading References cited Introduction 17.1 Organisations and the work environment 17.2 Conflict and power at work 17.3 Group dynamics and interpersonal relationships at work 17.4 Organisational culture 17.5 Diversity in organisations 17.6 Leaders and leadership 17.7 Leadership traits and behavioural style 17.8 Transactional and transformational leadership 17.9 Contingency theories 17.10 Leadership as a group process 17.11 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Sample examination questions Chapter 18: Review and prospect Aim and learning outcomes Essential reading References cited Introduction 18.1 Social psychology and its applications 18.2 Applying social psychology: benefits and challenges 18.3 Social psychology: future prospects 18.4 Overview Key terms A reminder of your learning outcomes Appendix 1: Sample examination paper vi 248 248 249 249 249 249 249 250 251 253 253 255 257 258 261 262 263 265 265 268 268 269 269 269 269 270 271 271 272 273 274 275 276 278 280 281 282 283 284 286 286 287 287 287 287 287 287 289 290 293 294 294 295 Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1: Introduction What this unit is about This unit, Elements of social and applied psychology, provides an overview of key areas of social psychology and their application Social and applied psychology are wide-ranging subjects and the unit is necessarily selective in its coverage However, it aims to address issues of both theoretical interest and practical importance, thereby aiding our understanding of how people behave, think, interact and communicate in social settings There are no formal prerequisites to take this unit but some of the concepts to which you will be introduced will resonate with those you may have encountered in courses in statistics and sociology The syllabus is designed to introduce you to some of the major theories and research findings in social and applied psychology It comprises four elements: What is social psychology? Understanding the social world Social influence Social relations Part A, ‘What is social psychology?’, provides an overview of the scope and development of social psychology and outlines its major research methods This section then draws on selected examples to examine how social psychology can be used to understand real-world issues and to illustrate social psychology in action Part B, ‘Understanding the social world’, focuses on how we see both ourselves and others, how we present ourselves to others, how we acquire and organise social knowledge, and how we interpret our own and others’ behaviour This section also introduces the notion of attitudes and explores how they relate to behaviour Part C, ‘Social influence’, considers the nature of groups and how they affect task performance and decision-making and examines various forms of social influence, including majority and minority influence and obedience This section then considers the processes involved in attitude change and persuasion It also examines the nature of strategic interaction, focusing especially on what happens when people are faced with a conflict of interest with others Part D, ‘Social relations’, examines various aspects of social interaction It begins by considering the role of language and non-verbal communication in our interactions with others It then considers diversity, with special reference to gender, the nature of attraction and the formation and maintenance of relationships The section then examines the nature and impact of prejudice and discrimination It concludes with an examination of how people behave in organisations and the nature and significance of leadership The logic of this division into four elements is simple – the subject guide begins with an introduction to some of the key principles of social psychology, supported by illustrative examples of how some of these principles can be applied; this is followed by an exploration of how we 79 Elements of social and applied psychology acquire, organise and use knowledge about our social world; then we consider how other people influence how we feel, think and respond in social situations; and, finally, we look at various aspects of how we communicate, form relationships, react negatively to others and behave in organisational settings However, any division is to some extent arbitrary and it is important to recognise that many, if not all, of the various aspects of social and applied psychology covered in this unit are interlinked This means that some topics are mentioned in more than one section, but often with a different slant reflecting the particular emphases of the chapters in which they are discussed Why study social and applied psychology? Have you ever wondered how you form an impression of someone you are meeting for the first time? Or contemplated what kind of impression you give others? Or why you behave in one way when you are with a group of your friends and another way when you are with members of your family? Have you ever speculated about why someone reacted in what you considered to be an unexpected way? What about whether groups perform tasks better than people working alone or whether the decisions made by committees are different from those made by individuals? Or, what about the qualities needed to be a leader or the sources of satisfaction and stress that organisations provide to their employees? Have you considered whether we can apply what we know about human social behaviour to help understand people’s decisions about diet and exercise, consumer behaviour or friendship choices? If you have ever asked yourself questions such as these, or any other questions about the vagaries of human social behaviour, then you should enjoy studying social and applied psychology Social psychologists study a wide diversity of phenomena; they are interested in all aspects of thought and behaviour that are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people Social psychologists want to understand the processes that influence the way in which we construe social situations and behave within them The fact that we are inherently social beings means that virtually all aspects of our lives, whether private or public, are affected by our dealings and relationships with others At one level we are all naïve or intuitive psychologists – we all have ideas about how people respond to social settings, why people things and how we are influenced by the presence of others But, although common sense may give us some insight into human social behaviour, social psychologists use scientific methods to gather information about behaviour in a systematic and unbiased way An appreciation of the principles and processes which underlie our social interactions can help us both to understand why people act in the way that they and to address some of the issues which concern us in today’s world One word of warning Do not expect that studying social psychology will give you total insight into either your own behaviour or that of other people People are very complex organisms and social settings often merely serve to accentuate this complexity There may be several competing, and apparently equally valid, explanations for people’s behaviour or, on certain occasions, someone’s behaviour may defy explanation Social psychology is still a young and developing discipline and there are numerous gaps in our knowledge and many unanswered questions But that is part of the fun and fascination of studying social psychology 79 Elements of social and applied psychology Research questions in social psychology Social psychological research methods Experimental studies Independent variable Dependent variable Field research Survey studies Interviews/focus groups Quantitative data Qualitative data External validity Internal validity Mundane realism 52 Chapter 3: Research in social psychology Experimental realism Psychological realism Demand characteristics Experimenter effect Double-bind procedure Reliability Replication Research ethics Deception Informed consent A reminder of your learning outcomes On completing this chapter and the relevant reading and activities, you should be able to: • outline the data-collection methods and research techniques available to social psychologists • list the key features, advantages and disadvantages of the various research methods • discuss problems commonly encountered in conducting research • describe the ethical issues facing social psychologists 53 79 Elements of social and applied psychology Sample examination questions Short answer questions When might ethical considerations hamper social psychological research? What are internal and external validity and how are they related? What factors need to be considered when designing and conducting a survey? Outline the major research methods used in social psychology 54 Chapter 4: Applying social psychology Chapter 4: Applying social psychology Aim and learning outcomes The aim of this chapter is to illustrate, using two examples, how theories, concepts and findings from social psychology can be used to help understand current real-world issues On completing this chapter and the relevant reading and activities you should be able to: • outline the nature and functions of stereotypes • provide examples of stereotypes • describe the impact of stereotyping on the way we see and respond to others • describe the key features and major theories of pro-social behaviour • identify those factors which affect whether or not people help others Essential reading Stereotypes Hogg, M.A and G.M Vaughan Social Psychology (Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2008) fifth edition pp.54–6, 353–67, 372–73, 407–14, 414–18 Matsumoto, D and L Juang Culture and Psychology (London: Thomson Wadsworth, 2008) fourth edition pp.373–89 Myers, D Social Psychology (Boston/London: McGraw–Hill, 2008) ninth edition Chapter Pro-social behaviour Hogg, M.A and G.M Vaughan Social Psychology (Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2008) fifth edition Chapter 14 Myers, D Social Psychology (Boston/London: McGraw-Hill, 2008) ninth edition Chapter 12 Further reading Stereotypes Aronson, E The Social Animal (New York: Worth, 2008) tenth edition Chapter Brannon, L Gender: Psychological Perspectives (Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 2002) third edition Chapter 7, especially pp.152–67 Fiske, S.T ‘Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination’ in Gilbert, D.T., S.T Fiske and G Lindzey (eds) The Handbook of Social Psychology Volume (New York: McGraw Hill, 1998) fourth edition Moghaddam, F.M Social Psychology: Exploring Universals Across Cultures (New York: W.H Freeman and Company, 1998) Chapters and 12 Smith, E.R and D.M Mackie Social Psychology (New York: Worth, 2007) Chapter 5, especially pp.524–39, 160–75 and Chapter 14 Stangor, C (ed.) Stereotypes and Prejudice: Essential Readings (Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 2000) 55 79 Elements of social and applied psychology Pro-social behaviour, helping behaviour and altruism Aronson, E The Social Animal (New York: Worth Publishers, 2008) tenth edition Chapter pp.38–45 Barrett, L., R Dunbar and J Lycett Human Evolutionary Psychology (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002) Chapter Batson, C.D ‘Altruism and Prosocial Behaviour’ in Gilbert, D.T., S.T Fiske and G Lindzey (eds) The Handbook of Social Psychology Volume (New York: McGraw Hill, 1998) fourth edition Fraser, C and B Burchell Introducing Social Psychology (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001) Chapter 9, pp.162–78 Moghaddam, F.M Social Psychology: Exploring Universals Across Cultures (New York: WH Freeman and Company, 1998) Chapters and 12 Pinker, S How the Mind Works (New York: Norton, 1997) Chapter Smith, E.R and D.M Mackie Social Psychology (New York: Worth, 1995) Chapter 12, especially pp.501–27 References cited Stereotypes Mackie, D.M., D.L Hamilton, J Susskind and F Rosselli ‘Social Psychological Foundations of Stereotype Formation’ in Macrae, C.N., C Stangor and M Hewstone (eds) Stereotypes and Stereotyping (New York: Guilford Press, 1996) [ISBN 1572300531] Williams, J.E and D.L Best Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Thirty-Nation Study (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1982) revised edition [ISBN 0803918372] Pro-social behaviour, helping behaviour and altruism Darley, J.M and B Latane ‘Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (8), 1968, pp.377–83 Piliavin, J.A., J.F Dovidio, S.L Gaertner and R.D Clark III Emergency Intervention (New York: Academic Press, 1981) [ISBN 0125564503] Introduction This chapter uses two examples to illustrate how theories, concepts and findings from social psychology can be used to try to understand current real-world issues The first example introduces the notion of stereotypes and examines how they affect the way people see and respond to others Stereotypes are a very important and pervasive feature of how we make sense of the world around us These simplified ideas about groups – men, women, the British, students, bank managers and so on – have both advantages and disadvantages On the one hand, stereotypes help to make the world more manageable and understandable but, on the other, they provide an oversimplified, and sometimes misleading, picture An appreciation of how people stereotype others can help us to understand prejudice and discrimination and other aspects of intergroup relations The second example focuses on pro-social or helping behaviour Why people choose to help others and what circumstances encourage such behaviour? What are the barriers to intervention? Who is likely to help and who is likely to receive help? Answers to these questions involve a number of important social psychological concepts – such as norms, conformity and empathy Knowledge of pro-social behaviour and its associated costs and rewards can help us to understand who is likely to help and when It can also help us to appreciate the social dynamics of 56 Chapter 4: Applying social psychology emergencies and the phenomena of non-intervention and bystander apathy 4.1 Applications of social psychology We use two examples to demonstrate how social psychology can help to understand real-world issues These examples have been chosen for particular reasons The first example, stereotypes, takes a key aspect of the way in which we process information about the world around us and outlines how it has been used to aid our understanding of our attitudes and behaviour to different groups in our society The starting point in this first example is therefore a concept (stereotypes) and a process (stereotyping) and the focus of the analysis is the role that stereotypes and stereotyping play in generating negative attitudes and discriminatory behaviour The second example looks at forms of helping behaviour and the conditions under which they are observed (and not observed) and identifies what social psychological concepts and processes might help us to understand whether or not people choose to help others and their motives for doing so The starting point in this second example is therefore a phenomenon (helping behaviour) and the focus of the analysis is the underlying social psychological determinants of helping behaviour Both of these approaches – starting with concepts and processes and starting with phenomena – are useful in appreciating the origins and impact of behaviour in social settings 4.2 Example 1: stereotypes 4.2.1 What are stereotypes? People are very ready to characterise groups of people on the basis of a small number of basic attributes, such as whether they are male or female, young or old, British, American, Singaporean or another nationality These simplified evaluations of social groups and their members may be positive or negative and they are widely shared The content of stereotypes often includes such characteristics as physical appearance, personality traits, typical interests and aspirations, and preferred activities and occupations Some may be based on fact – often in exaggerated form – although others are unfounded Because stereotypes are generalisations about the supposed characteristics of groups, they are not necessarily predictive of the characteristics or behaviour of any member of those groups Stereotypes are often acquired at an early age, before the child has direct knowledge of the target groups to which they refer They are relatively stable and slow to change and any changes that occur often reflect wider, social, political and economic changes Stereotypes become more prominent and more hostile when there are social tensions and conflict between groups Stereotypes can be thought of as shared schemas about social groups which guide our processing of information about members of those groups Stereotypes contribute to cognitive economy – they simplify the world around us – but may be misleading and can contribute to prejudice and discrimination Stereotyping is the process by which we assign identical characteristics to any member of a social group, regardless of the actual variation among 57 79 Elements of social and applied psychology members of that group Stereotyping is not an intentional act of abuse but it is important to recognise that stereotypes held about a subordinate or minority group are commonly negative.1 Activity 4.1 Identify two groups, one of which is a minority group (group X) and one of which a majority group (group Y) For each of these two groups (X and Y) ask three of your friends the following questions: What people in this group look like? What are their three main identifying personality traits? What other attributes or behaviours you associate with them? How you feel about people in this group? Now, summarise the image or mental picture of each of the two groups, X and Y How the stereotypes of the two groups differ? Do they differ in their negativity? What about the accuracy of their content? 4.2.2 How are stereotypes acquired? Stereotypes can be learned through personal experience with group members Such stereotypes may be biased because of inaccurate perceptions or undue influence of extreme instances For example, because a minority of group members behave in a radical or otherwise immoderate manner, all of the group may be perceived in the same way The content of stereotypes can be affected by the emotions generated by interaction with members of a group For example, interacting with someone from an ethnic group other than your own may generate uncertainty, apprehension and anxiety – these feelings will feed into your stereotype of this group Also, the behaviour of group members is often influenced by their social roles but is attributed to the inner characteristics – this process is known as correspondence bias For example, in many societies, the lowest socioeconomic group, irrespective of its nationality or ethnicity, is seen as lazy, dirty, ill-educated and so on These characteristics reflect the social role rather than the dispositions of the group members Stereotypes can also be acquired indirectly through interactions with family or friends and via the media Many stereotypes are deeply ingrained in the social norms of a culture – that is, they reflect the generally accepted ways of thinking, feeling or behaviour in a society This means that as people grow up, they are exposed to derogatory group labels, jokes about particular groups and other simplified overgeneralisations They therefore learn the stereotypes which underlie such words and actions and the associated prejudices The media (television, newsprint, magazines, film and drama) also reflect and reinforce prevalent stereotypes Stereotypes are frequently formed in situations where not much is known about the target group So, we have stereotypes about a group of which we are not members (i.e out-group) not about a group to which we belong (i.e in-group) One feature of stereotyping is the accentuation effect This is the process by which categorisation of people (or objects) into different categories results in the accentuation or overestimation of certain perceptual similarities and dissimilarities on the dimensions associated with the categorisation The accentuation effect involves both an overestimation of perceptual similarities among people in the same category and an overestimation of differences between people from different categories on those dimensions seen to be related to the categorisation i.e stereotypical dimensions For example, the classification of people into young and old 58 See Moghaddam (1998) pp.345–50 and Myers (2008) pp.324–26 for discussion of the nature of stereotypes and stereotyping Chapter 4: Applying social psychology may lead to an overstatement of the degree to which the young are seen as interesting, noisy and up-to-date and the degree to which the old are seen as boring, quiet and out-of-touch At the same time, the extent of the differences between the two groups on these stereotypical dimensions will be inflated This exaggeration of stereotypical similarities within groups and differences between groups is one consequence of the process of social categorisation (i.e the classification of people as members of different social groups) Social categorisation has been shown to play a fundamental role in intergroup behaviour and has led to the development of social identity theory This theory of intergroup-relations argues that our membership of social groups provides us with a social identity and that we seek a positive social identity by comparing the group to which we belong (in-group) with the group of which we are not members (out-group) (see Chapter 10) Members of the out-group are typically perceived as ‘the same’ or more homogeneous than is actually the case, while in-group members are seen as more differentiated This is known as the ‘relative homogeneity effect’ One explanation for its occurrence is in terms of the degree of familiarity of the two groups: we are less familiar with the out-group and so are less able to differentiate among the group members However, the effect also appears to be affected by the majority–minority status of the in-group There is some evidence that while majorities display the usual out-group homogeneity effect (i.e they rate the out-group as more homogeneous than the in-group) minorities the reverse and display an in-group homogeneity effect 4.2.3 Common stereotypes Research suggests that sex, race and age are the most prevalent bases for stereotyping (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind and Rosselli, 1996) But, other attributes (such as ethnicity, nationality, religion, socio-economic class, sexual preference and physical and mental health) also generate stereotypes.5 Groups that are commonly targets of negative stereotyping frequently experience ‘stereotype threat’ This is the feeling that you will be judged and treated in terms of the stereotypes that apply to your group and you will therefore confirm these stereotypes through your behaviour For example, if you are female then you may have the feeling that you will seen as gullible, yielding and illogical and therefore will behave in ways that are congruent with this expectation, with the result that you are judged unsuitable for a senior management position.6 The stereotypes which are widespread in a society often serve to justify existing economic and social inequalities, by portraying groups as deserving their positions and roles on the basis of their assumed characteristics See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp 407–14 and Myers (2008) pp.317–22 for outlines of social identity theory See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp.54–56, 414–18 for descriptions of the cognitive and perceptual processes involved in stereotyping See also Matsumoto and Juang (2008) pp.373–89 and Smith and Mackie (1995) pp.177–94 See Matsumoto and Juang (2008) pp.381–87 for discussion of the content of stereotypes especially those relating to racial and national groups See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp.353–67 for discussion of stereotypes and their contribution to common targets of prejudice and discrimination Also see Myers (2008) pp.308–11 for a discussion of gender stereotypes and gender prejudice See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp.372–73 Although there is considerable social pressure against the expression of stereotypical beliefs about national, ethnic or religious groups, such beliefs have not disappeared and continue to influence our behaviour The fact that we may have a stereotypical view of the English as reserved and difficult to get to know may influence the way in which you respond to an English person when you meet them Similarly, you are likely to have a mental image of the ‘typical’ professor or student which will affect your expectations of and interaction with members of these two groups Gender stereotypes are particularly confidently held and are deeply embedded in most cultures Most people describe women as warm, sensitive, emotional, dependent and people-oriented, while men are considered dominant, independent, task-oriented and aggressive These 59 79 Elements of social and applied psychology stereotypes are found in similar forms in Europe, North and South America, Asia, Africa and Australia (Williams and Best, 1982) However, there are subtle differences with some cultures being less traditional in their views than others In these cultures, the liberated women stereotype, incorporating such stereotypically masculine traits as aggressiveness, ambition and self-confidence, is more likely to emerge Research suggests that less traditional gender stereotypes are held by societies with a higher proportion of women working outside the home and in the universityeducated population.7 Activity 4.2 See Brannon (2002) Chapter 7, pp.152–67 for discussion of gender stereotypes See also Moghaddam (1998) pp.415–33 Interview two men and two women and ask them to answer the following questions: In their experience, what are men like and what are women like? How should men behave and how should women behave? How should men not behave and how should women not behave? Examine the two sets of responses and then consider the following issues: a) What the responses tell you about the stereotypes about females? b) What the responses tell you about the stereotypes about males? c) How the stereotypes about males and females differ in your society? d) How the stereotypes about males differ between men and women? e) How the stereotypes about females differ between men and women? f) How traditional are the stereotypes of males and females in your society? 4.2.4 The impact of stereotyping Once established, stereotypes are activated by obvious cues (e.g skin colour), use of group labels (e.g students), or the presence of a group member, especially as a minority in a social situation or work setting (e.g the only female at a company meeting) But, some stereotypes are used so often that they come to mind automatically Stereotypes can lead to snap judgments or quick decisions about group members, especially when we feel under pressure because of time constraints or the complexity of the information we have to process We are also more likely to rely on stereotypes when we are affected by strong emotions, such as anger or anxiety Even when we put time and effort into our decisions, we are influenced by stereotypes People tend to look for evidence to support their stereotypical views, rather than for evidence that is not consistent with these views Also, they tend to interpret ambiguous evidence to fit the stereotypes they hold – we tend to see what we want or expect to see So, people tend to feel confident that their stereotypes are correct because the information they collect produces apparent consistency and because socially shared stereotypes are seen as validating our views Stereotypes can also become self-fulfilling prophecies, by leading people to act in ways that confirm their expectations For example, when we ask a man about soccer or his job and a woman about fashion or her family we are eliciting stereotype-confirming behaviour Self-fulfilling prophecies operate in education, the workplace and social settings Stereotyping can have both psychological and practical consequences Some of these outcomes are beneficial, while others may be harmful By simplifying our social environment – through contributing to cognitive parsimony and the reduction of uncertainty – stereotyping can be a valuable aid in processing and interpreting information about the world 60 See Smith and Mackie (1995) pp.194–203 for discussion of how stereotypes influence people’s thinking and behaviour See Myers (2008) pp.344–45 for a discussion of the self-fulfilling nature of stereotypes Chapter 4: Applying social psychology around us Equally, stereotyping can lead to exaggerated uniformity and rigid expectations The translation of those cognitions can be prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviour.9 It is not only negative stereotypes that can be damaging Positive stereotypes – people who live in Hollywood are rich, women are good listeners and are emotionally supportive, men are protective of women – can set unrealistic high standards and inappropriate expectations Whatever their content – positive or negative characteristics, accurate or inaccurate descriptions – and irrespective of whether they apply to our own group or to other groups, stereotypes play a major role in our daily lives See Myers (2008) Chapter 9, especially pp.311–42 for an overview of the relation between stereotypes and prejudice/ discrimination See also Fiske (1998) and Stangor (2000) Stereotypes are introduced here as an example of a how a key concept in social psychology can help us to understand how we see and respond to others in our everyday lives Here we expect you to have grasped the nature and function of stereotypes, be able to provide common examples of stereotypes and be aware of the positive and negative consequences of stereotyping We shall encounter stereotypes again later in the subject guide In Chapter 7, stereotypes are cited as a type of schema i.e a set of beliefs about a social group (see Section 7.1.1) Here the emphasis is on the role of stereotypes in the way we process information about our social world In Chapter 15 we consider how gender stereotypes – that is, beliefs about the characteristics of men and women – affect our notions of masculinity and femininity (see Section 15.3.1) In this case, we want you to appreciate the significance of gender stereotypes in various facets of our lives but especially in the workplace (see Section 15.3.3) In Chapter 16, we consider, in more detail, the role of stereotypes in generating prejudice (see Section 16.4) Here we want you to recognise that, although stereotypes can be valuable aids to dealing with the wealth of information in our social world, they can also contribute to negative attitudes to particular groups and discriminatory behaviour toward the group members Activity 4.3 Identify six sets of stereotypes which you use or with which you are familiar: A positive stereotype (e.g Americans are rich) A negative stereotype (e.g the British are unfriendly) What you consider to be an accurate stereotype What you consider to be an inaccurate stereotype A stereotype which applies to a group to which you belong A stereotype about a group to which you not belong Now record when and how you use each of these stereotypes and list the potential beneficial and harmful consequences of their use 4.3 Example 2: pro-social behaviour 4.3.1 What is pro-social behaviour? Although the terms pro-social behaviour, helping behaviour and altruism are often used interchangeably, there are some subtle differences in meaning Pro-social behaviour refers to behaviour that is valued positively by society A common example of pro-social behaviour is helping behaviour – acts that intentionally help others, such as aiding a stranger in need or providing emotional or practical support to a friend Altruism is a particular kind of helping behaviour in which the actions performed are motivated solely by the desire to benefit the recipient and without any expectation of personal gain 61 79 Elements of social and applied psychology Helping behaviour became a concern of social psychologists following the murder of a young woman, Kitty Genovese, in New York City in 1964 Despite a number of neighbours hearing her screams for help and turning on their lights, nobody called the police until some considerable time had elapsed and the victim of the attack was dead An obvious question is whether this apparent indifference or apathy and failure to intervene is unusual or whether it is typical in such circumstances Research by Darley and Latane (1968) suggested that bystanders will intervene only if they notice an incident, interpret it as an emergency, assume responsibility for taking action, know the appropriate action to take, and decide to take action At each stage, the presence of other people can deter an individual from making a decision that will lead to them helping People in groups are less likely than a solitary individual to notice an unusual situation or to define it as an emergency Moreover, when people believe that others are aware of someone’s distress – as was the case in the Kitty Genovese murder – responsibility is distributed or diffused across the group and any single individual is less likely to help than when they believe they bear sole responsibility for taking action This bystander effect – the fact that any particular bystander is less likely to give help with other bystanders present – has been shown to emerge in a range of situations, including making an emergency phone call, picking up dropped money or other items, aiding a stranded motorist, helping someone having an epileptic seizure, donating blood, and contributing money or time The effect appears to involve two separate processes: pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility Pluralistic ignorance is the state of affairs that obtains when bystanders assume nothing is wrong because other people present seem to see nothing amiss Its occurrence highlights the social and shared nature of much of our behaviour – we rely on the actions of others to decide what is appropriate behaviour in a particular setting This is as true of emergency situations as any other, more mundane contexts Diffusion of responsibility refers to decrease in the degree of responsibility felt by each person in association with the number of people present When people believe responsibility to act is shared with 10 others (i.e diffused), then they feel less personal responsibility to act Activity 4.4 Think of two situations where you have helped a person who looked as if they needed help or where you have seen someone else help a person in need of assistance Now think of two situations where you have not helped a person who looked as if they needed help or where you have seen someone else failing to help a person in need of assistance Analyse the four situations in terms of what the problem appeared to be, whether the incidents were noticed and interpreted as an emergency, and the action taken by you (or the person you observed) How many other people were present? What role, if any, you think the bystander effect played in determining your response or that of others in the four scenarios? 4.3.2 Why we help others? One reason for helping others is altruism – an unselfish regard for others’ welfare Under certain circumstances, human beings appear to behave in an altruistic manner – for example, donating blood, pulling an injured person from a derailed train or providing support for someone with a prolonged terminal illness can all be seen as purely altruistic acts People 62 10 See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp.528–30 and pp.541–46 and Moghadddam (1998) p.296–303 for discussion of the nature of helping behaviour and analysis of the bystander effect See also Aronson (2004) pp.38–45 and Fraser and Burchell (2001) pp.162–70 Chapter 4: Applying social psychology display altruism in different ways and a common distinction is between heroic altruism, which is short-term, requires a visible, often physical action to help individual strangers, and nurturant altruism, which requires a longerterm commitment, is private rather than public and often involves helping family or friends by listening or otherwise providing support Altruism may be linked to empathy – feeling pain when you see someone in distress and relief when suffering is alleviated – which can also motivate helping Evolutionary psychology proposes that some forms of altruism – such as caring for and protecting our children – promotes survival and thereby helps to perpetuate our genes This evolutionary perspective on altruism is supported, for example, both by evidence that children whose mother has died are most likely to be cared for by those who share the children’s genes – such as grandmothers, aunts and other relatives – and by the fact that, when faced by danger, people seek to save those who bear the closest relationship to them.11 However, altruism may not be the only explanation of helping behaviour Another reason is self-interest According to social exchange theory, we seek to maximise the rewards of any interaction and to minimise its costs (See Section 15.5.2) So, if we are trying to decide whether or not to become a blood donor, we may weigh up the costs of so doing (discomfort, time, anxiety) against the associated benefits (approval from others, feeling worthy, reduced guilt) If the perceived rewards of helping exceed the anticipated costs you are likely to help by giving blood Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner and Clark III (1981) apply this cost-benefit approach to understand bystander behaviour in emergency situations According to the bystandercalculus model, the bystander becomes physiologically aroused by the sight of someone in distress, labels this arousal as emotion and then calculates the perceived costs and benefits of providing help, compared with those associated with not helping Social expectations also influence helping behaviour Through the process of socialisation, we adopt the reciprocity norm whereby we are expected to help, not harm, those who have helped us We also learn the social responsibility norm – that we should help people who need our help, even if the costs outweigh the benefits Although many of the popular explanations for prosocial behaviour suggest we are guided by self-interest, this pessimistic view may reflect, at least in part, the emphasis on individualism and self-centred motives in Western societies However, the more optimistic alternative that true altruism exists remains a real possibility and the motives for helping 12 others continue to be a matter of considerable interest and debate Activity 4.5 This activity involves two tasks: Go to a local historical building or beauty spot wearing one arm in a sling or bandage Take a camera Ask five people to assist you in taking a photograph, explaining that your injured arm prevents you from doing so When each person has responded – either helped you or refused – ask them the reason for their response Record how many of the people were willing to assist you and assess their co-operativeness (5 = very co-operative; = not at all co-operative) Also, record the reported reason for their response 11 See Barrett, Dunbar and Lycett (2002) Chapter and Pinker (1997) Chapter for discussions of altruism from an evolutionary standpoint 12 See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp.530–41, Moghaddam (1998) pp.303–13 and Myers (2008) pp.429–56 for discussion of explanations for helping behaviour See also Smith and Mackie (1995) pp.501–27 Go to a shopping centre (where you are not known) again with one arm in a sling or bandaged and wearing shoes or trainers with laces, with one lace undone Ask five people to help you by re-tying your shoe lace When each person has responded – either helped you or refused – ask them the reason for their response A word of advice, make sure that people not see you untying your shoe lace and asking for it be re-tied – they may get suspicious! Again, record 63 79 Elements of social and applied psychology how many of the people were willing to assist you and assess their cooperativeness (5 = very co-operative; = not at all co-operative) Also record the reported reason for their response Now consider the outcomes from the two settings Were there any differences in the numbers willing to help in the two situations or in the co-operativeness of the two groups of people? What about their reported reasons for their responses? Thinking of what you have learned about helping behaviour, how would you explain your findings? 4.3.3 When people help others and when they not? Research into helping behaviour suggests that we are most likely to help someone when: • the victim appears to need and deserve help • the victim is similar to us in some way • the emergency situation is in a small town or rural area • we have just observed someone else being helpful • we are not in a hurry • we are not preoccupied with our own concerns • we are feeling guilty • we are in a good mood and are feeling happy However, helping behaviour does appear to vary across different cultures and the pattern of such behaviour seems to be associated with socialisation practices Looking at helping behaviour from a cultural perspective highlights the need both to recognise how the meaning of help is dependent upon the cultural context and to see helping behaviour as part of the wider moral system that links individuals in social relationships Culture establishes the implicit and explicit rules that guide both those 13 who seek help and those who receive it Activity 4.6 Consider each of the situations below You see a broken-down car by the side of a busy road with the female driver crying You are asked to have your bone marrow typed to see if you are a match for a close relative needing a bone marrow transplant You see an elderly gentleman trip over on the other side of the street – there is nobody in the street but you You see a young boy, aged about years, wandering in a shopping centre apparently without any adult looking after him For each one, assess: a) Would you help? b) If yes, why? c) If no, why not? To what extent the theoretical explanations of helping behaviour account for your decision? 4.4 Overview Stereotypes shape the information we seek out and use to make judgments about social groups They play a fundamental role in the way we see the world and behave within it Stereotypes are pervasive and powerful both at the individual level and within society where they reflect the social roles 64 13 See Hogg and Vaughan (2008) pp.547–59, Moghaddam (1998) pp 314–21 and Myers (2008) pp.455–65 for discussion of personal and cultural aspects of helping behaviour and other forms of pro-social behaviour See also Fraser and Burchell (2001) pp.170–78 Chapter 4: Applying social psychology that groups fulfil Stereotypes are often a useful heuristic when making judgments of others but they can be misleading and can lead to prejudice and discrimination Helping behaviour is influenced by a multiplicity of factors and there is a variety of theories about the motivations for helping Some models focus on the situation – in particular the presence of other potential helpers which is seen as leading to diffusion of responsibility – others look at the costs and benefits associated with helping or not helping Some people argue that helping is motivated by altruism – the desire to benefit others with no expectation of personal gain or reward Analysis of these two areas of social psychology highlights the interplay between the theoretical concepts and models and the research findings in understanding behaviour that is part of our daily repertoire Key terms These key terms will be useful as index entries or search terms if you choose to consult titles suggested as Further reading or other relevant texts or online sources After completing the chapter and relevant reading, we suggest you try to outline the essential features of each of the key terms listed below in order to check that you have understood the material If you are unclear about any of the key terms listed, we suggest you go over the material again Stereotypes Gender stereotypes Social categorisation Social identity theory In-group Out-group Relative homogeneity effect Stereotype threat 65 79 Elements of social and applied psychology Prejudice Discrimination Pro-social behaviour Helping behaviour Altruism Bystander effect Reciprocity norm A reminder of your learning outcomes On completing this chapter and the relevant reading and activities you should be able to: • outline the nature and functions of stereotypes • provide examples of stereotypes • describe the impact of stereotyping on the way we see and respond to others • describe the key features and major theories of pro-social behaviour • identify those factors which affect whether or not people help others Sample examination questions Short answer questions What are stereotypes and why are they important? What is pro-social behaviour? Essay questions Evaluate the role that common stereotypes play in people’s lives Why we help others? 66 ... This unit, Elements of social and applied psychology, provides an overview of key areas of social psychology and their application Social and applied psychology are wide-ranging subjects and the... the major theories and research findings in social and applied psychology It comprises four elements: What is social psychology? Understanding the social world Social influence Social relations... examples of how some of these principles can be applied; this is followed by an exploration of how we 79 Elements of social and applied psychology acquire, organise and use knowledge about our social