Neuroscience, Psychology, an� Religion Templeton Science and Religion Series In our fast-paced and high-tech era, when visual information seems so dominant, the need for short and compelling books has increased This conciseness and convenience is the goal of the Templeton Science and Religion Series We have commissioned scientists in a range of fields to distill their experience and knowledge into a brief tour of their specialties They are writing for a general audience, readers with interests in the sciences or the humanities, which includes religion and theology The relationship between science and religion has been likened to four types of doorways The first two enter a realm of “conflict” or “separation” between these two views of life and the world The next two doorways, however, open to a world of “interaction” or “harmony” between science and religion We have asked our authors to enter these latter doorways to judge the possibilities They begin with their sciences and, in aiming to address religion, return with a wide variety of critical viewpoints We hope these short books open intellectual doors of every kind to readers of all backgrounds Series Editors: J Wentzel van Huyssteen & Khalil Chamcham Project Editor : Larry Witham Neuroscience, Psychology, an� Religion Il lus ions, De lu sions, a n d R e a lit ie s a bou t Hu ma n Nat ur e Malcolm Jeeves and Warren S Brown Templeton Foundation Press West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania Templeton Foundation Press 300 Conshohocken State Road, Suite 550 West Conshohocken, PA 19428 www.templetonpress.org © 2009 by Malcolm Jeeves and Warren S Brown All rights reserved No part of this book may be used or reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of Templeton Foundation Press Designed and typeset by Gopa &Ted2, Inc Templeton Foundation Press helps intellectual leaders and others learn about science research on aspects of realities, invisible and intangible Spiritual realities include unlimited love, accelerating creativity, worship, and the benefits of purpose in persons and in the cosmos Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Jeeves, Malcolm A., 1926– Neuroscience, psychology, and religion / Malcolm Jeeves and Warren S Brown p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-1-59947-147-1 (alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-59947-147-7 (alk paper) Psychology and religion Psychology, Religious Neurosciences Religion I Brown, Warren S., 1944- II Title BL53.J5 2009 201'.615—dc22 2008031787 Printed in the United States of America 09 10 11 12 13 14 10 • Contents Preface vii Chapter 1: Neuroscience and Psychology Today Chapter 2: Warfare versus Partnership 12 Chapter 3: From Soul to Mind: A Brief History 24 Chapter 4: Principles of Brain Function 41 Chapter 5: Linking Mind and Brain 54 Chapter 6: The Human Animal: Evolutionary Psychology 68 Chapter 7: The Neuroscience of Religiousness 91 Chapter 8: Science, Religion, and Human Nature 108 Chapter 9: Getting Our Bearings: Looking Back and Looking Forward 128 Notes 137 Further Reading 147 Name Index 151 Subject Index 155 • Preface At times, science develops very fast Neuroscience and psychology are in one of those periods, with research at the interface of these fields moving at a breathless pace We have progressed from the “Decade of the Brain” in the 1990s, to the “Decade of the Mind” at the beginning of the twenty-first century It seems as though we are now looking forward to the “Decade of the Mind/Brain.” All this development has been fueled by new research technologies, notably developments in brain-imaging techniques The result: no area of our existence seems safe from the probing eyes of the brain scanners Even our religious experiences have come within the scrutiny of “neurotheologists.” The research findings seem so critical to the understanding of our selves as human beings that they are frequently given wide publicity outside of the academy What are we to make of it all? How much of our understanding of human nature are we being called upon to rethink? Do we have a soul? Are we apes on the way up or angels on the way down? Is the human mind, including religion and religious experiences, to be reduced to nothing other than the outcome of the rules governing the functioning of neurons and their molecular structures? This book attempts to help you, the reader, gain understanding and perspective on what is currently happening in research in neuroscience and psychology Throughout these chapters, you will encounter thought-provoking material, such as descriptions of brain systems and processes involved in the most sophisticated aspects of mental life and comparisons of the neuropsychology viii • pr eface of humans and nonhuman primates You will also find accounts of studies of brain function and religious beliefs and experiences In all of these areas of research, we have attempted to provide you with relevant contexts and perspectives—historical, philosophical, and theological—for rethinking your concepts of human nature Neuropsychology is a specialist scientific field that works at the junction between neuroscience and psychology We are both neuropsychologists We also share a common research interest in parts of the brain that connect the two cerebral hemispheres, primarily the corpus callosum One of us, Warren Brown, continues actively researching in this area (at the Fuller Graduate School of Psychology in California), working with collaborators at California Institute of Technology, University of California San Francisco, and Brigham Young University The other, Malcolm Jeeves, though supposedly retired, continues to interact with scientists and laboratories with international reputations in both neuroscience and evolutionary psychology (at the University of St Andrews in Â�Scotland) As well as enthusiastic scientists, we are also both active Christians, sharing the challenges that scientific discoveries pose for some traditional Christian beliefs In what follows, we invite you to look at our responses to some of these challenges, see where we have got to in our thinking, and decide what you make of it all At the end, we give an extensive index and a list of further reading for those who may wish to follow up in greater depth some of the ideas raised by what we have written We hope you enjoy reading it as much as we have writing it Neuroscience, Psychology, an� Religion • Further Reading Albright, Carol, and James Ashbrook Where God Lives in the Human Brain Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2001 Allport, Gordon W The Individual and His Religion: A Psychological Interpretation London: Constable, 1951 Bartlett, Frederic C Religion as Experience, Belief and Action Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950 Brown, Warren S., Nancey Murphy, and Newton H Malony, eds Whatever Happened to the Soul? Scientific and Theological Portraits of Human Nature Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998 Byrne, Richard W., and Andrew Whiten, eds Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes and Humans Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988 Clayton, Philip, and Jeffery Schloss, eds Evolution and Ethics Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004 Crick, Francis Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul New York: Touchstone, 1994 Damasio, Antonio Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain New York: Penguin Putnam, 1994 Dawkins, Richard The God Delusion London: Bantam Press, 2006 Dennett, Daniel C Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books, 1984 de Waal, Frans Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997 ——— Good Natured: The Origin of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997 Edelman, Gerald M Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind London: Penguin, 1982 Edelman, Gerald M., and Giulio Tononi A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination New York: Basic Books, 2000 148 • further r e a ding Flanagan, Owen The Problem of the Soul: Two Visions of Mind and How to Reconcile Them New York: Basic Books, 2002 Fuster, Joquín M Cortex and Mind: Unifying Cognition Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003 Gallese, Vittorio “Before and Below ‘Theory of Mind’: Embodied Simulation and the Neural Correlates of Social Cognition.” Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 362, no 1480 (2007): 659–69 Gould, Stephen Jay Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life New York: Ballantine, 1999 Hofstadter, Douglas I Am a Strange Loop New York: Basic Books, 2007 James, William The Varieties of Religious Experience London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1902 Jeeves, Malcolm A., ed From Cells to Souls—and Beyond: Changing Portraits of Human Nature Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004 ———., ed Human Nature Edinburgh: The Royal Society of Edinburgh, 2006 Jeeves, Malcolm A., and R J Berry Science, Life, and Christian Belief Leicester, UK: Intervarsity Press and Baker: 1997 Juarrero, Alicia Dynamics in Action Chicago: Bradford Books, 1999 MacKay, Donald M Behind the Eye: The Gifford Lectures Edited by Valerie MacKay Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991 ——— Brains, Machines and Persons London: Collins and Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1980 ——— Human Science and Human Dignity Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1979 McNamara, Patrick, ed Where God and Science Meet: How Brain and Evolutionary Studies Alter Our Understanding of Religion vols Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006 Murphy, Nancey Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies? New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006 Murphy, Nancey, and Warren S Brown Did My Neurons Make Me Do It? Philosophical and Neurobiological Perspectives on Moral Responsibility and Free Will Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007 Pasternak, Charles, ed What Makes Us Human London: One World, 2008 Penrose, Roger The Emperor’s New Mind Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989 Polkinghorne, John The Way the World Is London: SPCK, 1983 Quartz, Steven R., and Terrence J Sejnowski, Liars, Lovers, and Heroes: What the New Brain Science Reveals About How We Become Who We Are New York: HarperCollins, 2002 further r e a ding • 149 Russell, Robert John, Nancey Murphy, Theo C Meyering, and Michael A Arbib, eds Neuroscience and the Person Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000 Salzman, Mark Lying Awake New York: Alfred A Knopf, 2000 Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, and Roger Levin Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994 Skinner, B F Beyond Freedom and Dignity New York, Knopf: 1971 Sperry, Roger W Science and Moral Priority: Merging Mind, Brain, and Human Values New York: Columbia University Press, 1983 Spinks, G S Psychology and Religion London: Methuen, 1963 Thouless, Robert H An Introduction to the Psychology of Religion 1923 3rd ed London: Cambridge University Press, 1971 Van Huyssteen, J Wentzel Alone in the World? Human Uniqueness in Science and Theology Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006 Whiten, Andrew and Richard W Byrne Machiavellian Intelligence II: Extensions and Evaluations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 Wilson, David Sloan Darwin’s Cathedral Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003 Young, Robert M Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and Its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970 • Name Index Alcmaeon of Croton, 25 Albright, Carol, 37, 139, 147 Aldini, Giovanni, 28 Allman, John, 81, 141 Allport, Gordon W., 5, 15, 17–19, 137, 147 Arbib, Michael, 149 Argyle, Michael, 15 Aristotle, 9, 25–26 Ashbrook, James, 37, 139, 147 Augustine, Saint, 34, 109, 128 Ayala, Francisco, 125, 144 Baron-Cohen, Simon, 77, 141, 143 Barrett, Justin, 21–22, 138 Barth, Karl, 123 Bartlett, Sir Frederick, 17, 18, 19, 137, 147 Beauregard, Mario, 38, 139 Berkouwer, Gerrit, 123 Bodmer, Walter, 120, 144 Bouillard, Jean Baptiste, 28–29 Britton, Willoughby, 37 Broca, Paul, 29 Brooks, Alison, 118 Brown, Warren, 101, 123, 142–44, 147, 148 Byrne, Richard, 69, 74–76, 79–80, 85, 140–41, 147, 149 Castelli, Fulvia, 105, 143 Clarke, Henry, 35–37 Clayton, Philip, 144, 147 Coakley, Sarah, 133, 145 Combe, George, 31–36, 38, 40 Cosmides, Leda, 69, 140 Cowan, Charles, 36, 40 Crick, Francis, 4–5, 22, 129, 138, 147 Damasio, Antonio, 102–4, 147 Darwin, Charles, 9–10, 32, 47, 119, 125 Dawkins, Richard, 4, 19–20, 82, 129, 138, 147 Dax, Marc, 29 Dennett, Daniel, 19, 147 Descartes, René, 27, 109, 111, 112, 121 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 3–4, 10, 94, 137 Easton, Scot W., 36, 138 Eaves, Lindon, 97, 142 Eccles, Sir John, 5, 110, 143 Edelman, Gerald, 51, 110, 116–17, 139, 143, 147 Edwards, Jonathan, 124, 144 Empedocles, 25 Ferrier, David, 29, 32, 138, 149 Flanagan, Owen, 148 Flourens, Pierre, 27, 28 Fowler, Orson, 34–36, 38, 40 Fraser, Sir James, 13 Freud, Sigmund, 5, 12–15, 19, 129 Frith, Uta, 105, 143 Fritsch, Gustav, 29 Gage, Phineas, 65, 102 Galen, 25–26 152 • na me inde x Galileo, 26 Gall, Franz Joseph, 30–34, 39–40, 138 Gallese, Vittorio, 78, 141, 148 Galvani, Luigi, 28 Galton, Fancis, 13 Gardner, Howard, 7–8, 137 Garol, Hugh, 59, 139 Gensch, C B., 66, 140 Gintis, H., 144 Goodall, Jane, 84 Gould, Steven, 21, 138, 148 Granqvist, Pehr, 96, 142 Green, Joel, 126, 143, 145 Greene, Joshua, 104, 142 Groopman, Jerome, 38–39, 139 Gross, Charles, 61 Hallahmi, Beit, 15 Harvey, William, 26 Hearnshaw, Laurence, 13, 137 Hebb, Donald, 39 Hippocrates, 25 Hitzig, Eduard, 29 Hof, Partick, 81 Hofstadter, Douglas, 148 Hubel, David, 56, 139 Hughlings, Jackson, 29 Inge, William R., 13 James, William, 5, 7, 13, 20, 98–99, 138, 148 Jeeves, Malcolm, 137–38, 140–45, 148 Jesus Christ, 90, 124 Johnson, Dr Samuel, 28 Juarrero, Alicia, 148 Jung, Carl, 5, 14–15 Kanwisher, Nancy, 62, 140 Keller, Julia, 37, 139 Keysers, Christine, 63, 140 Lancisi, Giovanni, 27, 59 Lashley, Karl, 28 Levin, Roger, 71, 149 Lewontin, Richard, 21 Lorenz, Conrad, 69 MacKay, Donald, 108, 127, 143, 145, 148 Malinowski, B., 137 Malony, H Newton, 143, 144, 147 Matsui, N., 141 McCulloch, Warren, 59, 139 McNamara, Patrick, 148 Meltzoff, Andrew, 61, 139 Meyering, Theo, 149 Milner, Brenda, 56, 139 Moltmann, Jurgen, 124 Morgan, Lloyd, 68, 140 Muramoto, Osamu, 37, 139 Murphy, Nancey, 143, 144, 147–48 Myers, Ronald, 58 Myshkin, Prince, 3, 94 Nagel, Thomas, 131, 145 Naito, H., 141 Nemesius, Bishop of Emesa, 26 Newberg, Andrew, 96, 99, 142 Newton, Isaac, Norman, Wayne, 35, 138 Osler, Sir William, 56 Pannenberg, Wolfhart, 107, 124, 143 Pascal, Blaise, 87, 141 Pasternak, Charles, 148 Penrose, Sir Roger, 110, 143, 148 Perrett, David, 61–63, 139–40 Persinger, Michael, 95, 96, 98–99, 142 Plato, 25, 109 Plotnik, J M., 144 Polkinghorne, John, 88, 141, 148 Pollick, Amy, 72, 140 Premack, David, 74, 140 Quartz, Steven, 148 Rabin, John, 95, 98, 142 na me inde x • 153 Ramachandran, V S., 78, 79, 95, 97–98, 141–42 Reiss, Diana, 144 Rieber, Robert, 33, 40, 138 Rizzolatti, Giacomo, 78, 141 Robbins, Trevor, 65, 140 Russell, Robert John, 149 Salzman, Mark, 94, 149 Sanfey, Alan, 106, 143 Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 71, 144, 149 Saver, Jeffery, 95, 98, 142 Scott, William, 36, 38, 40, 138 Schloss, Jeffery, 144, 147 Shanker, Stuart G., 144 Singer, Tania, 107, 143 Skinner, B F., 5, 7, 15–16, 22, 137, 149 Sperry, Roger, 16–17, 22–23, 57–59, 110, 137–38, 143, 149 Spezio, Michael, 46, 96, 139, 142 Spinks, G S., 14, 137, 149 Spurzheim, Johann Casper, 30–34, 138 Starbuck, Edwin G., 13 Stawski, Christopher, 139 Tertullian, 25 Thouless, Robert H., 149 Tinbergen, Nikolaas, 69 Tomasello, Michael, 76, 141, 145 Tononi, Giulio, 51, 110, 116–17, 139, 143, 147 Tooby, John, 69, 140 Van Huyssteen, J Wentzel, 149 Vande Kemp, Hendrika, 19, 137 Vesalius, 26 Vieussens, 27 Von Rad, Gerhard, 122, 144 de Waal, Frans, 65, 70–72, 80, 82, 122, 131, 140, 141, 144, 147 Wallace, Alfred Russell, 32, 138 Ward, Thomas W., Wernicke, Carl, 29 Westermann, Claus, 123, 144 Whiten, Andrew, 74–76, 79–80, 119– 20, 123, 140, 141, 144, 147, 149 Wiesel, Thorsten, 56, 139 Willis, Thomas, 27 Wilson, David Sloan, 125, 144, 149 Winn, Philip, 66, 139, 140 Woodruff, Guy, 74, 140 Young, Robert M., 31–62, 138, 149 • Subject Index action loops, 41–42 hierarchy of, 42–43, 52 adolescence, 49, 63 agape love, 90 agency, 15, 108, 112, 123 moral agency, 107, 109, 112, 124, 127, 144 altruism (in animals), 83–84, 125, 131 amnesia, 44 amygdala (and fear), 44–46 “animal electricity,” 28 “animal spirits,” 26 ants and ant colonies, 69, 83, 113–15 anterior cingulate cortex, 81, 141 anticipation of consequences, 64, 67, 103 anticipatory evaluative responses, 103 antisocial behavior, 66, 140 anthropology Christian, 26, 121, 132 paleo, 118 religious/secular, 121 anthropomorphism, 69–70 of the gene, 82 apes and great apes, 67, 73, 85, 87, 122, 140–41, 144 language, 70–73 sociality, 76, 81–82 Asperger’s syndrome, 77–78, 105, 143 Astonishing Hypothesis, The, (Crick), 4, 22, 129 autism, 62–63, 77–78, 89, 105, 141, 143 automaticity of behavior, 51–52, 101–3 autonomic response, 81, 103 awareness, 50–51, 59, 84, 134, 138 axon pathways, 48–49, 81, 116 baboons, 75 basal ganglia, 44–45 bees, 69, 83 body–soul dualism See dualism bonobo (pygmy chimpanzee), 71, 72, 122, 144, 147 bottom-up, 114 brain and body, 5, 101, 107 imaging, 6, 20, 27, 37, 40, 56–57, 60, 79, 81, 92, 99, 103, 133 midbrain, 42, 44, 45–46, 50, 92–93 brain stem, 46, 50 general purpose systems, 60, 98 systems/modules, 41–45, 64, 66, 69, 92–95, 98–99, 100–104 Capgras syndrome, 105 cardiovascular theory of mind, 25–26 Cartesian view of mind, 110–12, 130 caudate nucleus, 97 cerebellum, 44–45 cerebral cortex, 6, 28–29, 42–52, 59, 81, 92–93, 106, 112–13, 116–17 volume, 75–76 cerebral dominance, 29 cerebral hemispheres, 58–60 left, 29, 46, 59, 73 right, 47, 81 156 • subject inde x character, 18, 34, 101–2 child/child development, 34, 40, 49, 61, 63, 73–75, 77, 81, 83, 89, 121, 122 chimpanzee, 43, 49, 87, 132 language, 71–73, 122 sociality, 74, 76–77, 79–80, 84, 122 church, 26, 33, 40 attendance, 97 cingulate cortex See anterior cingulate clever-looking, 75–76 cognitive capacities, 21, 43, 46–47, 69, 73, 76, 80, 82, 88, 100, 109, 113–14, 117–18, 120–21, 123, 135 functioning/processes, 6, 57, 58, 62, 99–100, 101, 134 psychology, 56, 58 revolution, 7, 18, 56, 129 science/neuroscience, 5, 16, 56, 129 comparative psychology See evolutionary psychology compassion, 89, 104 complexity of human beings, 23 of the nervous system, 21, 43, 48–49, 69 and emergence, 82, 117, 118, 122 and dynamical systems, 113, 116 consciousness, 16, 25, 50, 57, 110, 115–17 and brain, 50–52, 60, 116–17 and top-down agency, 110, 123 higher-order (primary), 51–52 unconscious, 50, 102–3 constraints (as top-down), 114 control hierarchy, 42, 45, 52 corpus callosum, 27, 58–59, 67 corpus striatum, 27, 106 cortical excitability, 92 creativity/innovation, 73, 76, 118 culture, 9, 18, 52, 65, 86, 87, 118, 125, 130, 132, 134, 136 “Decade of the Brain,” deception, 74–78 decision-making, 81, 101–4, 109, 132 rational choice, 101, 123 “deep social mind,” 80, 81, 120, 123 dendrites, 49, 116 determinism, 110–12 deviant behavior, 64 domain specific/general, 60, 62, 67 dopamine, 93 dorsal striatum, 106 drugs, 92–94 dual-aspect monism, 111, 130 dualism, 107–11, 135 body–soul, 101, 107–9, 129 mind–body, 10, 24, 26, 33, 40, 52, 91, 108–9, 122, 130–31 emergent dualism, 111 dynamic core hypothesis, 50–52, 116–17 dynamical systems, theory of, 112–17 economic games/decision-making, 106, 132 eliminative materialism, 110–11 embedded/embeddedness, 52, 133–36 embodiment, 10, 24, 52, 65, 67, 85, 100, 104, 108–12, 114, 123, 129–30, 133–36 emergence, 8, 57, 73, 89, 111–16, 118, 124, 130 emergent dualism, 111 emotions/emotional, 32, 44–45, 47, 60, 63, 71, 71, 81–82, 85, 87, 95, 102–3, 105–7, 123 empathy, 81, 104, 106–7, 118 emulations, 43, 66 encephalic theory of mind, 25–27, 30 epilepsy/seizures See temporal lobe, epilepsy epiphenomenalism, 110 ethics capacity for, 102 aspects of human behavior, 85, 125 evolution, 9, 10, 19–22, 32–33, 68–90, 100, 117, 119, 128, 131 subject inde x • 157 evolutionary psychology, 4, 8, 10, 67, 68–90, 109–10, 119, 123–24, 131–32 executive processes, 64 eyes, 46, 59 importance in human interaction, 61–62 face perception/processing, 46, 61–63, 67, 77, 91, 130–36 development of, 63 fairness, 104, 106, 132 fear, 44–45 feedback, 41–42, 53, 81, 130 feelings, 18, 25, 70, 85, 93, 98, 103–5 of familiarity/love, 105 of presence, 99 freedom/free will, 9, 33, 40, 64, 104, 108 and responsibility, 33, 67, 108, 112 frontal lobes/cortex, 47, 64–66, 78, 96–97, 102–4, 106 orbital frontal, 103 prefrontal cortex, 37, 43, 49, 52, 79 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 6, 46, 57, 79, 92, 103, 106 functional networks, 49, 52, 130 functionalist view, 122, 126 Fusiform Face Area, 62–63 future orientation, 51–52, 114, 123 gaze, direction of, 61 genes/genetic, 48, 49, 62–63, 69, 73, 76, 78, 80, 82–84, 97, 124 anthropomorphism of, 82 Genesis 1:8, 123 Genesis 2:7, 126 gestures/gesturing, 70–73 glossolalia, 96–97, 99, 142 glutamate, 93 goal-directed behavior, 78, 84 God Delusion, The (Dawkins), 19 “God module,” 37, 67, 95, 97–98, 101 “God spot,” 20, 27, 37, 130 group selection, 125 habit/habitual, 17, 98, 101 hallucinogenic drugs, 92–93, 133, 141 heart, 24–25 Hebrews 11:1, 3, 127 hemispheric lateralization, 58–60 hippocampus (and memory), 44–45, 50, 56 Homo religio, 91 human distinctiveness/uniqueness, 26, 49–50, 52, 67–70, 79, 81, 85–90, 98, 101, 108–9, 117–26, 131 human nature, 4, 10, 16, 23, 31, 34, 57, 68, 70, 101, 108–11, 119, 125, 127–31 Huntington’s disease, 44 Hyperreligiosity, 37 Idiot, The (Dostoyevsky), 3, 94 Imago dei/image of God, 11, 89, 108, 118–27 imagination, 26, 49, 88 “immaterial spirits,” 28 imitation, 71, 79 inner speech, 44, 66 insula/insular cortex, 81 intentions, 41, 43, 60, 74, 79, 85, 105–6 interpersonal relatedness, 105, 107, 123, 131 intuitions, 54–55, 66, 70, 103 Kanzi, 71–73 kin selection, 83, 124–25 language, 6, 29–30, 52, 67, 70–74, 82, 86–87, 99–100, 120–23, 131 language in apes, 71–73, 123 learning, 49–50, 52, 62, 69, 76, 80, 130 limbic cortex/system, 45, 81, 95, 103–4, 106–7 limbic marker hypothesis, 95 localization of function, 27–32, 45–47, 58, 62–63, 67 locus coeruleus, 93 Lying Awake (Salzman), 94 158 • subject inde x “Machiavellian intelligence,” 74, 75, 79 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 6, 57, 64 meaning, 23, 98, 114 of facial expressions/gestures, 72 meditation, 47, 96–97, 99 memory, 7, 28, 44, 45, 50, 56, 93, 114, 123 mentalizing, 123 See also theory of mind Mesmerism, 30, 32 midbrain, 42, 44–46, 50, 92–93 mind, 7, 21, 24–27, 39–40, 52, 54–56, 66, 80–81, 91, 108–9, 111–12, 122, 130 and brain, 24, 27, 30, 34, 48, 59-60, 67, 130 mind–body dualism See dualism “mind reading.” See theory of mind mirror neurons, 70, 78–79 moral/morality agency, 67, 106, 109, 112, 124 behavior, 33, 58, 63–67, 82, 85, 101, 104, 106, 112, 131 decision-making, 46, 81, 91, 101–4, 107, 109 and frontal lobes, 102 norms, 125 responsibility, 108 sense, 85, 124, 127 motor behavior, 41–45, 100 motor cortex/centers, 29, 32, 43, 46, 48 myelinization, 49 natural selection, 21, 32, 69, 86 nested control hierarchy, 42–43, 67, 114 neural networks, 30, 49, 50 neural plasticity, 55, 62, 116 neuropsychology, 8, 10, 55–58, 119 neuroscience, definition of, 3–6 “neurotheology,” 38–40, 101, 130 nonreductive physicalism, 111, 130 “nothing but”/“nothing buttery,” 12, 14, 17, 22–23, 85–86, 108, 130 novelty, in dynamical systems, 115 off-line processing/ emulations, 43–44 over-beliefs, 98 Parkinson’s disease, 44, 91 parietal lobes/cortex, 47 left parietal lobe, 97 posterior parietal lobe, 43 right parietal lobe, 96–97 pedophilia, 64 personal relatedness, 105, 107, 123 phase change, 86, 88 phenethylamines, 92 phenomenological evidence, 54 phrenology/phrenologist, 27, 30–36, 39–40, 129–30 phrenology, new, 37–39 poly-modal sensory cortex/ processing, 43, 52 positron emission tomography (PET), 6, 57, 96 prefrontal cortex See frontal cortex primates, 49, 60, 68, 70–71, 73–81, 84–91, 109, 122, 124–25, 127, 132 See also great apes, chimpanzee, bonobo Prince Myshkin, 3, 94 problem-solving, 118, 121 progressive supranuclear palsy, 66 protocadhedrinXY, 73 psychedelic experiences, 93, 94 raphé nucleus, 92 rationality, 88, 109, 118, 121, 126, 132 decision making, 101, 102 reason, 34–35, 109, 122, 126 capacity for, 121–22 reasoning, 6, 21, 88, 89, 91 reciprocal altruism, 83, 124–25 reductionism, 39, 85, 111–12, 130 subject inde x • 159 relational/relationality, 123, 126 religion, 5, 8–11, 12–23, 35–38, 91, 128 baseball metaphor, 99–101 neurology of, 95, 96, 133–35 psychology of, 15, 16, 20, 70 religious anthropology, 117, 121 beliefs, 5, 8, 12–14, 17, 22–23, 40, 85, 128–29 religious experiences/states, 13, 117, 134–35 brain, 20, 21, 27, 37–39, 67, 97–99, 101, 107, 129, 133 brain stimulation, 95, 98–99 ecstatic states /drugs, 91–94, 96 genetics, 97 meditation, 96, 99 seizures, 4, 10, 94–95, 97–98, 133 religiosity, 37 responsibility, 67, 108, 112 reticular nucleus, 93 reverence, 118 “sacred disease,” 25, 94 scenarios (as mental emulations), 66 scriptures, 24, 35–36, 40 self, 16, 36, 47, 52, 54, 66, 104 “myself,” 54 sense of, 51, 96 self-awareness/self-consciousness, 3, 51, 84, 118, 125 self-limiting, 84, 89 self-recognition, 122 self-sacrificing /self-giving, 83–84, 89–90, 125, 127 self-transcendent experiences, 124 self-organizing, 48–49, 114–15, 117 selfish, 82–83, 86 Selfish Gene, The (Dawkins), 82 sensory-motor loops/interactions, 42, 43 serotonin, 92–93 shame, 81 signaling systems (in apes), 71 Single Proton Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), 96 social behavior of apes, 76, 80, 88, 120, 122–23, 131–32 behavior/functioning, 6, 30, 52, 61, 63, 69, 73, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 86, 89, 104 cognition, 63, 78, 82 context/environment, 49, 117, 135 See also “deep social mind” deficits, 14, 66, 77, 102, 105, 106 emotions, 81, 105 ethics, 125 experiences, 49 inclusion/exclusion, 106 information/perception, 60–63, 113 insects, 83, 113 intelligence, 70, 79–82, 118 neuroscience, 104–7 and religion, 99–101, 133–35 scaffolding, 52 sociobiology, 68, 82 somatic marker theory, 103–4 soul, 24–27, 33, 36, 39, 55, 59, 66, 101, 107, 109, 111–12, 126, 129 speech, 43–44, 52, 66, 70, 72 disorders of, 28–29, 59 spirituality, 38, 91, 118, 133–35 split brain, 58–59 splitting of consciousness, 67 Stoic philosophy, 25 stroke, 55, 60 subjective experience, 4, 17, 50, 66, 111, 131, 134 associated with drugs, 92–93 mental life 42, 66 superior colloculi, 46 symbols as language/gesture, 70–72 symbolic representation, 51–52 symbolic thinking, 59, 118 synapses, 48–50, 116 systems theory See dynamical systems 160 • subject inde x temporal lobe/cortex anterior temporal lobe, 44 and Capgras syndrome, 105 left temporal pole, 97 electromagnetic stimulation of, 95–96, 133 epilepsy/seizures, 4, 10, 29, 37, 94–95, 98, 133 and face area, 62–63 inferior temporal gyrus/cortex, 43, 62 medial temporal lobe/cortex, 44–45 and religious experience, 4, 10, 37, 94–96, 97–98 thalamus, 45, 93 theory of mind, 21, 73–78, 105–6, 118, 131 in apes, 75–76, 122 defined, 74 inference of intentions, 74, 105–6 “mind reading,” 74–76, 78–79, 86, 88, 91 mindblindness in autism/ Asperger’s, 77, 105 understanding false beliefs, 75 thinking/thought, 8, 17, 26, 122 and brain, 42–43 and consciousness See consciousness and evolution, 69, 88–89 symbolic/abstract thought, 118 “thinking about thinking,” 122–23 tool use cortical volume, 76 top-down causation, 110, 114–17, 122, 123, 134 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 6, 57, 95–96 trust, 81, 104, 106 tryptamines, 92 twins, 97 “ultimatum game,” 106 vampire bats, altruism in, 84 ventral tegmental area, 93 ventricular theory of mind–body, 26 violence, 64 virtue, 101–2 visceral/autonomic feedback, 81, 103 vision color vision, 65 and patterns/faces, 62 visual cortex, 29, 42, 65 “vital spirits,” 26 Von Economo neurons, 81 “warfare metaphor,” 10, 12–23 worldview, 4–5, 33, 99, 101, 133 Download more eBooks here: http://avaxhome.cc/blogs/ChrisRedfield .. .Neuroscience, Psychology, an� Religion Templeton Science and Religion Series In our fast-paced and high-tech era, when visual information seems so dominant, the need for short and compelling... between science and religion By the end of this book, readers will have a greater sense of the puzzles that neuroscience and psychology have produced in regard to human nature and the religious nature. .. The Human Animal: Evolutionary Psychology 68 Chapter 7: The Neuroscience of Religiousness 91 Chapter 8: Science, Religion, and Human Nature 108 Chapter 9: Getting Our Bearings: Looking Back and