Cognitive psychology, a students handbook, 6th edition michael w eysenck

Mick Power, Professor of Clinical Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK “The new edition of this book improves a text that was already a leader The authors have injected more information about the neuroscientific bases of the cognitive phenomena they discuss, in line with recent trends in the field Students will greatly profit from this text, and professors will enjoy reading it, too.” Henry L Roediger III, James S McDonnell Professor of Psychology, Washington University in St Louis, USA “I have recommended Eysenck and Keane from the very first version, and will continue to so with this exciting new edition The text is among the very best for the breadth and depth of material, and is written in a clear, approachable style that students value in an area that they often find to be one of the more difficult parts of psychology.” Trevor Harley, Dean and Chair of Cognitive Psychology, University of Dundee, UK “This excellent new edition has reinforced my view that this is the best textbook on advanced undergraduate cognitive psychology available to support student learning I very much welcome the increase in cognitive neuroscience elements throughout the chapters.” Robert H Logie, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK “Eysenck and Keane present a fresh look at cutting-edge issues in psychology, at a level that can engage even beginning students With the authority of experts well-known in their fields they organize a welter of studies into a coherent story that is bound to capture everyone’s interest.” Bruce Bridgeman, Professor of Psychology and Psychobiology, University of California at Santa Cruz, USA Previous editions have established this as the cognitive psychology textbook of choice, both for its academic rigour and its accessibility This substantially updated and revised sixth edition combines traditional approaches with cuttingedge cognitive neuroscience to create a comprehensive, coherent, and totally up-to-date overview of all the main fields in cognitive psychology New to this edition: • Increased emphasis on cognitive neuroscience • A new chapter on cognition and emotion • A whole chapter on consciousness • Increased coverage of applied topics such as recovered memories, medical expertise, and informal reasoning • More focus on individual differences throughout Written by leading textbook authors in psychology, this thorough and user-friendly textbook will continue to be essential reading for all undergraduate students of psychology Those taking courses in computer science, education, linguistics, physiology, and medicine will also find it an invaluable resource This edition is accompanied by a rich array of online multimedia materials, which will be made available to qualifying adopters and their students completely free of charge See inside front cover for more details www.psypress.com/ek6 Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology “Top of the premier league of textbooks on cognition, each edition of this classic improves on the previous one Whether you are a keen student or an active researcher, keep this book close at hand.” Eysenck Keane Cognitive Psychology A Student’s Handbook SIXTH EDITION SIXTH EDITION an informa business 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex, BN3 2FA 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 www.psypress.com Michael W Eysenck and Mark T Keane COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Dedication To Christine with love (M.W.E.) Doubt everything Find your own light (Buddha) COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY A Student’s Handbook Sixth Edition M I C H A E L W E Y S E N C K Royal Holloway University of London, UK MARK T KEANE University College Dublin, Ireland This edition published 2010 By Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada By Psychology Press 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 (8th floor) UNITED STATES Psychology Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis group, an Informa business © 2010 Psychology Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Eysenck, Michael W Cognitive psychology : a student’s handbook / Michael W Eysenck, Mark T Keane —6th ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-84169-540-2 (soft cover)—ISBN 978-1-84169-539-6 (hbk) Cognition—Textbooks Cognitive psychology—Textbooks I Keane, Mark T., 1961– II Title BF311.E935 2010 153—dc22 2010017103 ISBN: 978-1-84169-539-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-84169-540-2 (pbk) Typeset in China by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Cover design by Aubergine Design 9781841695402_1_prelims.indd iv 9/23/10 1:26:48 PM CONTENTS Preface viii Approaches to human cognition Introduction Experimental cognitive psychology Cognitive neuroscience: the brain in action Cognitive neuropsychology Computational cognitive science Comparison of major approaches Outline of this book Chapter summary Further reading 16 20 28 29 30 31 PART I: VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ATTENTION 33 Basic processes in visual perception 35 Introduction Brain systems Two visual systems: perception and action Colour vision Perception without awareness Depth and size perception Chapter summary Further reading 35 35 47 56 62 68 77 78 Object and face recognition 79 Introduction Perceptual organisation Theories of object recognition Cognitive neuroscience approach to object recognition Cognitive neuropsychology of object recognition Face recognition Visual imagery Chapter summary Further reading 79 80 85 96 100 110 117 118 Perception, motion, and action 121 Introduction Direct perception Visually guided action Planning–control model Perception of human motion Change blindness Chapter summary Further reading 121 121 125 133 137 143 149 150 Attention and performance 153 Introduction Focused auditory attention Focused visual attention Disorders of visual attention Visual search Cross-modal effects 153 154 158 170 176 182 92 vi COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Divided attention: dual-task performance Automatic processing Chapter summary Further reading 185 193 199 201 PART II: MEMORY 203 Learning, memory, and forgetting 205 Introduction Architecture of memory Working memory Levels of processing Implicit learning Theories of forgetting Chapter summary Further reading 205 205 211 223 227 233 247 249 Long-term memory systems 251 Introduction Episodic vs semantic memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Non-declarative memory Beyond declarative and non-declarative memory: amnesia Long-term memory and the brain Chapter summary Further reading 251 256 259 263 272 278 281 285 286 Everyday memory 289 Introduction Autobiographical memory Eyewitness testimony Prospective memory Chapter summary Further reading 289 291 305 315 323 324 PART III: LANGUAGE Is language innate? Whorfian hypothesis Language chapters 327 327 329 331 Reading and speech perception 333 Introduction Reading: introduction 333 334 Word recognition Reading aloud Reading: eye-movement research Listening to speech Theories of spoken word recognition Cognitive neuropsychology Chapter summary Further reading 336 340 349 353 360 369 373 374 10 Language comprehension 375 Introduction Parsing Theories of parsing Pragmatics Individual differences: working memory capacity Discourse processing Story processing Chapter summary Further reading 375 376 377 386 11 Language production 417 Introduction Speech as communication Planning of speech Basic aspects of spoken language Speech errors Theories of speech production Cognitive neuropsychology: speech production Writing: the main processes Spelling Chapter summary Further reading 417 418 422 424 426 427 391 394 400 413 415 436 442 449 453 455 PART IV: THINKING AND REASONING 457 12 Problem solving and expertise Introduction Problem solving Transfer of training and analogical reasoning Expertise Deliberate practice Chapter summary Further reading 459 459 460 477 483 492 496 498 CONTENTS 15 Cognition and emotion 571 499 499 513 514 525 531 532 Introduction Appraisal theories Emotion regulation Multi-level theories Mood and cognition Anxiety, depression, and cognitive biases Chapter summary Further reading 571 572 577 580 584 533 16 Consciousness 607 533 534 539 546 Introduction Measuring conscious experience Brain areas associated with consciousness Theories of consciousness Is consciousness unitary? Chapter summary Further reading 607 612 615 619 624 627 628 Glossary References Author index Subject index 629 643 711 733 13 Judgement and decision making 499 Introduction Judgement research Decision making Basic decision making Complex decision making Chapter summary Further reading 14 Inductive and deductive reasoning Introduction Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Theories of deductive reasoning Brain systems in thinking and reasoning Informal reasoning Are humans rational? Chapter summary Further reading PART V: BROADENING HORIZONS Cognition and emotion Consciousness 553 558 562 566 568 569 569 569 595 604 605 vii PREFACE In the five years since the fifth edition of this textbook was published, there have been numerous exciting developments in our understanding of human cognition Of greatest importance, large numbers of brain-imaging studies are revolutionising our knowledge rather than just providing us with pretty coloured pictures of the brain in action As a consequence, the leading contemporary approach to human cognition involves studying the brain as well as behaviour We have used the term “cognitive psychology” in the title of this book to refer to this approach, which forms the basis for our coverage of human cognition Note, however, that the term “cognitive neuroscience” is often used to describe this approach The approaches to human cognition covered in this book are more varied than has been suggested so far For example, one approach involves mainly laboratory studies on healthy individuals, and another approach (cognitive neuropsychology) involves focusing on the effects of brain damage on cognition There is also computational cognitive science, which involves developing computational models of human cognition We have done our level best in this book to identify and discuss the most significant research and theorising stemming from the above approaches and to integrate all of this information Whether we have succeeded is up to our readers to decide As was the case with previous editions of this textbook, both authors have had to work hard to keep pace with developments in theory and research For example, the first author wrote parts of the book in far-flung places including Macau, Iceland, Istanbul, Hong Kong, Southern India, and the Dominican Republic Sadly, there have been several occasions on which book writing has had to take precedence over sightseeing! I (Michael Eysenck) would like to express my continuing profound gratitude to my wife Christine, to whom this book (in common with the previous three editions) is appropriately dedicated What she and our three children (Fleur, William, and Juliet) have added to my life is too immense to be captured by mere words I (Mark Keane) would like to thank everyone at the Psychology Press for their extremely friendly and efficient contributions to the production of this book, including Mike Forster, Lucy Kennedy, Tara Stebnicky, Sharla Plant, Mandy Collison, and Becci Edmondson We would also like to thank Tony Ward, Alejandro Lleras, Elizabeth Styles, Nazanin Derakhshan, Elizabeth Kensinger, Mick Power, Max Velmans, William Banks, Bruce Bridgeman, Annukka Lindell, Alan Kennedy, Trevor Harley, Nick Lund, Keith Rayner, Gill Cohen, Bob Logie, Patrick Dolan, Michael Doherty, David Lagnado, Ken Gilhooly, Ken Manktelow, Charles L Folk who commented on various chapters Their comments proved extremely useful when it came to the business of revising the first draft of the entire manuscript Michael Eysenck and Mark Keane CHAPTER APPROACHES TO HUMAN COGNITION INTRODUCTION We are now several years into the third millennium, and there is more interest than ever in unravelling the mysteries of the human brain and mind This interest is reflected in the recent upsurge of scientific research within cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience We will start with cognitive psychology It is concerned with the internal processes involved in making sense of the environment, and deciding what action might be appropriate These processes include attention, perception, learning, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and thinking We can define cognitive psychology as involving the attempt to understand human cognition by observing the behaviour of people performing various cognitive tasks The aims of cognitive neuroscientists are often similar to those of cognitive psychologists However, there is one important difference – cognitive neuroscientists argue convincingly that we need to study the brain as well as behaviour while people engage in cognitive tasks After all, the internal processes involved in human cognition occur in the brain, and we have increasingly sophisticated ways of studying the brain in action We can define cognitive neuroscience as involving the attempt to use information about behaviour and about the brain to understand human cognition As is well known, cognitive neuroscientists use brainimaging techniques Note that the distinction between cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience is often blurred – the term “cognitive psychology” can be used in a broader sense to include cognitive neuroscience Indeed, it is in that broader sense that it is used in the title of this book There are several ways in which cognitive neuroscientists explore human cognition First, there are brain-imaging techniques, of which PET (positron emission tomography) and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) (both discussed in detail later) are probably the best known Second, there are electrophysiological techniques involving the recording of electrical KEY TERMS cognitive psychology: an approach that aims to understand human cognition by the study of behaviour cognitive neuroscience: an approach that aims to understand human cognition by combining information from behaviour and the brain positron emission tomography (PET): a brain-scanning technique based on the detection of positrons; it has reasonable spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): a technique based on imaging blood oxygenation using an MRI machine; it provides information about the location and time course of brain processes 738 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Direct retrieval, 301, 632 Directed forgetting see Forgetting, directed Directed retrospection, 442– 443, 632 Directed visual processing, 107 Disconfirmation testing, 535–538 Discourse, 394, 632 markers, 424, 632 processing, 394 – 400, 414 representation, levels of, 410 Discriminability, 179 –180 Disgust, 583 Disparity, absolute and relative, 72 Dissociation, 18, 632 Dissociative identity disorder, 587–589, 632 Distancing, 579 –580 Distraction, and negative affect, 578 Distractors and analogical problem solving, 482– 483 and high perceptual load, 168 –170 real-world heterogeneity of, 182 similarity among, 178 task-relevant, 161 Distributed connectionist approach, 341, 344, 346 –349 Distributed-plus-hub theory, 269 –272 Divided attention, 153, 185–193, 200, 632 Domain specificity, 17, 632 Dominance principle, 516, 632 Dopamine, 161 Dorsal, 6, 632 Dorsal medial superior temporal cortex, 126, 128 Dorsal network, attentional system, 159 –160 Dorsal parietal cortex, 284 Dorsal pathway, 54 Dorsal prefrontal cortex, 217, 580 Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), 13 –14, 191, 408, 578 and conscious perception, 617– 618, 620 and facial recognition, 96 and memory, 219, 231, 262, 283, 322 and perception, 137 and problem solving, 474, 476 and reasoning, 554 –556 Dot-probe task, 598 –599, 602 Double dissociation, 18 –19, 45, 49, 56, 232, 632 in aphasia, 436, 438 in face recognition, 103 –104, 108 in long-term memory, 253, 258 in priming, 274 –276 in schema-based knowledge, 405 in word perception, 370 Dripping candle problem, 466 Driving, and thinking, 186 Dual attentional processes hypothesis, 284 Dual system theories of reasoning, 550 –553 Dual-process approach, 47– 48 Dual-process model, 511–513 Dual-process theory, 47– 48, 58 –59, 553 Dual-route cascaded (DRC) model, 341–345 computational model of, 344 –345 Route (grapheme–phoneme conversion), 342–343 Route (lexicon + semantic knowledge), 343 Route (lexicon), 343 Dual-task condition, 185 Dual-task performance, 185–193, 200 factors determining, 185–187 practice, 185–187 task difficulty, 185, 187 task similarity, 185, 187 interference, 185, 197–198 task types, 185, 212 Duchaine and Nakayama’s face recognition model, 108 Duration, of speech, 377 Dysexecutive syndrome, 218, 220 –221, 632 Dysfunctional Attitude Scale, 602 Dysfunctional attitudes, 602– 603 Dysgraphia, 452 deep, 451, 452, 631 phonological, 450, 452 surface, 450, 452 Dyslexia, 452 deep, 343 –344, 347, 632 phonological, 336, 343 –345, 347–349 surface, 342–343, 345, 347–349 Dysphasia, deep, 372, 632 E-Z Reader model, 350 –353 Ebbinghaus illusion, 51, 134 Echoic memory, 157 Echoic store, 206, 632 Ecological validity, 4, 16, 290 –291, 616, 632 Ectopic pregnancy, 503 Edge extraction, 86 Edge grouping, 97 Edges, invariant properties of, 86 Egocentric heuristic, 389 –391, 632 Einstellung, 467, 632 Elaborative inferences, 392–393, 395, 397–399, 632 Electroencephalogram (EEG), – 9, 68, 167, 632 and masking, 614 and phase synchrony, 622– 623 and PRP effect, 198 Elimination-by-aspects theory, 528 Emmert’s law, 64, 632 Emotion generation of, 583 judgements and appraisal judgements, 575–576 process model of regulation, 578 regulation, 577–580, 604, 632 and social interaction, 576 see also Cognition, and emotion Emotion-focused coping, 573 Emotional factors, and decision making, 519 –524 Emotional processing, 304 non-conscious, 581–582 Emotional Stroop task, 598 Emotions categorical approach to, 571 dimensional approach to, 571 arousal–sleep, 571–572 misery–pleasure, 571–572 negative affect, 571–572 positive affect, 571–572 SUBJECT INDEX 739 Encoding, 316, 323 Encoding specificity principle, 242, 244 –245, 314, 586, 633 Endogenous attentional systems, 159 Endogenous spatial attention, 182, 183 –184, 633 Energisation, 220 –221 Enhanced cognitive interview, 314 Entorhinal cortex, 246 –247, 257–258 Envy, 577 Epilepsy, 252, 624 Epinephrine see Adrenaline Episodic buffer, 212, 217, 221–223, 633 Episodic memory see Memory, episodic Evaluation, 316, 323 Event-based prospective memory see Memory, prospective Event-indexing model, 397, 410 – 412 Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (efMRI), 7, 10, 633 Event-related potentials (ERPs), 7– 9, 67, 146, 157, 167, 633 and cross-modal attention, 184 and driving, 186 and insight, 464 and lexical access, 340 and parsing, 384 –386, 388 and phonological processing, 336 and phonology/orthography, 368 and pronoun processing, 396 –397 and readiness potential, 610 and semantic processing, 616 and speech production, 433 – 434 strengths and limitations of, 28 and syntactic ambiguity, 377 and uniqueness point, 362–363 and ventriloquist illusion, 183 waveform peaks in, and word frequency, 351 and word processing, 364, 380 Event-specific knowledge, 301 Everyday memory see Memory, everyday Exchange errors, 429 Executing, in far transfer, 479 Execution, 316, 323 Executive cognitive control functions, 168 Executive deficit hypothesis, 240 –241 Executive functioning, 190 –192 Executive processes (or functions), 218 –220, 633 Exemplar-based strategy, 490, 492 Exogenous attentional systems, 159 Exogenous spatial attention, 182, 184, 633 Expectations, 401 Experiential-simulations approach, 397, 412– 413 Experimental cognitive psychology, 2–5, 30 approaches to, founding of, information-processing approach, 2–3 limitations of, –5, 28 strengths of, 28 Expertise, 459, 483 – 492, 497, 633 adaptive, 488 chess, 484 – 489, 492 face recognition theory, 106 medical, 489 – 492 routine, 488 Explicit learning see Learning, explicit Explicit memory see Memory, explicit Expression analysis, 107 Expressive suppression, 580 Extinction, 28, 171–172, 618, 622, 633 elimination of, 173 stimulus competition in, 172–173 Extrastriate cortex, 254 Eye movement of, 334, 349 –353, 378 –379 to cortex, 35–37 Eyewitness identification, 312–313 and closed-circuit television (CCTV), 312 Eyewitness testimony, 203, 305–315, 324 effect of age on, 307–308 effects of anxiety and stress on, 306 –307 effects of violence on, 306 –307 and face recognition, 308 –310 from laboratory to courtroom, 311–312 misinformation acceptance, 308 post- and pre-event information, 310 –311 Face recognition, 79 –119 models of, 107–110 Face recognition nodes, 107 Faces remembering of, 308 –310 specialness of, 105–107 Faces–goblet illusion, 81 Facial expressions, and emotional categories, 110 Facial speech analysis, 107 Facilitation effects, 112–113, 267, 435 Falsification, 534, 537–538, 633 Familiar size, 70, 132 Familiarity, 260 –262 Far transfer, 477– 480, 633 Fast and frugal heuristics, 505–507 Fear, 524, 577, 583 emotion circuits in, 581 Feature binding, 97 Feature and conjunction search, fMRI studies of, 180 –181 Feature integration theory, 177–179 Feature-based theories, 267 Features, selection by, 178 Feedforward sweep, 614 – 615 Feeling-of-rightness monitoring, 305 Figurative language, 386 –387, 633 Figure–ground segregation, 81, 83 – 85, 633 Finger maze, 277 Flashbulb memories, 292, 294 –295, 633 Flexibility, of speech planning, 423 740 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Focal search, 489 Focus of expansion, 122–123, 633 Focused attention, 153, 619, 633 Focused auditory attention, 154 –158, 199 Focused visual attention, 158 –170, 199 Forgetting, 205–249 cue-dependent, 242–245 directed, 240 –242, 632 importance of context, 243 –244 and inhibition, 240 –241 Jost’s law of, 233, 246 motivated, 238, 240 –245 over time, 208, 234 rate of, 208 Ribot’s law of, 246 theories of, 233 –248 Form processing, 41– 42 Formants, 354, 633 Fornix, 256, 282 Forward inferences, 395 Fovea, 57, 349 FOXP2 gene, 328 –329 Frame and fill theory, 55 Frames, 401 Framing effect, 517–520, 633 Free recall see Recall, free Frequencies, and judgement performance, 507–509 Freudian slip, 426, 633 Fright, 577 Frontal cortex, 473 Frontal eye field (FEF), 160 Frontal lobes, 5, 436, 554 Frontal operculum, 439 Fronto-temporal dementia, 405, 633 Frontopolar cortex, 263 Frustration, 574 Functional architecture, uniformity of, 18 Functional fixedness, 466, 477 Functional imaging, of declarative/nondeclarative memory, 254 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 1, 7, 10 –11, 143, 634 and ACT-R, 476 and apraxia, 269 and attended stimuli, 165 and autobiographical memory, 304 and automatic processing, 196 and brain activation, 611, 616 – 617 and brain/mind reading, 11 and directed forgetting, 240 and dual-tasks, 219 and emotional nodes, 590 and episodic memory, 284 and insight, 464 limitations of, 10 –11 and PRP effect, 198 and semantic memory, 272 and skill learning/priming, 273 and vegetative state, 613 and ventriloquist illusion, 183 and visual attention/ perception, 43 – 44, 67, 93, 114, 161–162, 172 and visuo-spatial sketchpad, 217 Functional neuroimaging, 231, 233, 439, 476 and episodic/semantic memory, 258 –259 and perceptual–functional theories, 268 and reappraisal, 579 –580 and recognition memory, 260 –261 strengths and limitations of, 28 Functional specialisation, 14 –15, 634 Functional specialisation theory, 40 – 42, 46 Fusiform face area, 94, 104 –106, 165, 167 and face processing, 616, 620 Fusiform gyrus, 254 Future expectancy, 573 Future path heading and steering, 125–133 planning of, 129 Fuzzy-trace theory, 490 Gambling and happiness, 520 and substance dependence, 521 Gambling task, 521 Gap-contingent change, 144 Garden-path model of parsing, 378 –380, 383 Gastroenteritis, 503 Gateway hypothesis, 322, 634 Gaze rotation, 128 General factor of intelligence (g), 554 General Problem Solver model (Newell and Simon), 2, 470 – 473 Generalisability, 291 Generalised anxiety disorder, 598, 601 Generative processing strategy, 542 Generative retrieval, 301, 634 Geniculate nucleus, 63 Geons (geometric ions), 85– 90 Gestalt approach, 467– 469 Gestalt laws, 80 Gestaltists, 80 – 85, 462, 464, 468 Gesture, when speaking, 425 Gist-based processing, 490 – 492 Global impression, 489 – 490 Global inferences, 399 Global workspace theory, 619 – 624 Goal module, 475– 476 Goal obstacles, 574 Gollin picture test, 97 Graded salience hypothesis, 387–388 Grammar, 229, 232–233, 375–376 Grapheme–phoneme conversion, 342–345 Grapheme–phoneme correspondence, 225 Graphemes, 342, 346 and spelling, 449 Graphemic buffer, 450 – 451, 634 Graphemic tests, 224 Grasping, 51–52, 54 –55, 131 and planning, 135 Greebles, 87– 88, 106 Grounded cognition, 269 –272 Grounding see Common ground Group studies, 19 –20 Guided search theory, 179 Guilt, 573, 576 Gyri (sing gyrus), 6, 634 Habituation, 256 Hallucinations, 111 Happiness, 583 –584, 586 and gambling, 520 Haptic, 634 Haptic cues, 73 SUBJECT INDEX 741 Hawaiian Creole language, 328 Heading judgements of, 126 –129 processing direction of, 126 Heading and steering future path, 125–133 optic flow approach, 125–130 Hemispheres of brain, and consciousness, 624–627 Heuristic processing, 592–595 Heuristic–analytic theory of reasoning, 550 –551 Heuristics, 384, 462, 470 – 471, 473, 501–507, 551, 634 availability, 502–504 fast and frugal, 505–507 recognition, 505–507, 562 representativeness, 501–502, 504, 562, 638 satisficing, 527 take-the-best, 505–507 Hill climbing, 471, 473, 634 Hippocampus, 10, 209 –211, 222–223 and amnesia, 256 –258, 279 and consolidation, 246 –247 extended system of, 282 and memory, 241, 253, 260 –262, 297 Hobbits and orcs problem, 471 Holistic processing, 101, 106, 490, 634 Hollow-face illusion, 52–53, 73 Homographs, 381–382, 603 Homophones, 335–336, 340, 452, 599, 634 Horizon ratio relation, 123 Hubs, 270 –271 Hue, 56 Human cognition, approaches to, 1–31 Human motion, perception of, 137–143, 150 Human papillomavirus, 491 Human rationality, 561–566, 568 Hypothesis testing, 534 –539 Iconic memory, 157, 206 Iconic store, 206 Identical-pictures task, 188 Ideomotor apraxia, 136, 634 Idiots savants, 494, 634 Ill-defined problems, 460, 634 Illusory inferences, 548 –549 Imaginal module, 475– 476 Imitation, and mirror neuron system, 140 –142 Impact bias, 520 Implicit learning see Learning, implicit Implicit memory see Memory, implicit Impression, global, 489 Inattention, 172 Inattentional blindness, 144, 186, 616, 634 Incubation, 469 – 470, 634 Indicative rules, 543 –544 Individual differences, 391–394, 400, 414, 447, 563 Inductive reasoning see Reasoning, inductive Infantile amnesia, 297–299, 634 Inferences drawing of, 395, 539 –540 local coherence of, 398 major rules of, 539 and readers’ goals, 399 – 400 and reading skills, 400 storage of, 398 types of, 395, 398, 548 Inferior frontal cortex, 215 Inferior frontal gyrus, 215, 263, 276 Inferior frontal region, 394 Inferior occipital region, 394 Inferior parietal gyrus, 192, 215 Inferior parietal lobe, 55, 134, 136, 215 Inferior prefrontal cortex, 254 Inferior temporal cortex, 276 Inferotemporal cortex, 42, 93 – 95 Informal reasoning see Reasoning, informal Information access to, 607– 608 explicitness of, 503 –504 Information processing, 2, 622 Inhibition, and forgetting, 240 –241 Inhibition function, 218 –219 Inhibition of return, 166, 176, 634 object and location based, 166 –167 Inhibitory processing strategy, 541 Initial design model, 419 – 420 Inner scribe, 216 –217, 634 Insight, 463 – 466, 634 Instance representation, 197 Instance theory, 196 –197 Instrumental inference, 398 –399 Insular cortex, 521 Integration, 354 process, 406 Integrative agnosia, 98, 634 Intellectualisation, 574 Intelligence and analogical reasoning, 480 and chess expertise, 486, 488, 496 and dual-process model, 512 general factor of (g), 554 and judgement, 504, 507 and logical reasoning, 540 –541, 553 –554, 563 –564 and narrow expertise, 494 – 495 and occupational success, 495– 496 and problem solving, 554 and socio-economic status, 495 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 469, 494 – 495 Inter-identity amnesia, 587– 589, 634 Interaction, during conversations, 420 Interactive activation model, 337–339 Interactive alignment model, 422 Interference effects, 112, 390, 393, 435 Interference theory, 234 –237 Intermediate phonemic task, 224 Interpolated task, 207 Interposition, 69 Interpreter, 624, 626 Interpretive bias, 596, 599 – 603, 634 Intonation, in speech, 377 Intraparietal sulcus (IPs), 160 Introspection, 464, 570, 634 Invariant properties of edges, 86 of objects, 87 Invariants, 635 of optic array, 123 Inversion effect, 101–102, 635 Involuntary spatial attention see Exogenous spatial attention Iraq war, 503 Iris, 36 Item recognition see Recognition, of items 742 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Jargon aphasia, 440 – 442, 635 Jealousy, 577 Judgement, 458, 499 –513 accuracy of, 499 error framework for, 565–566 and intelligence, 504 research on, 499 –513, 531 Kanizsa’s illusory square, 69 –70, 173 Kintsch’s construction– integration model, 387, 397, 406 – 410 Knowledge causal, 509 distributed representation of, 25 effect, 445, 635 event-specific, 301 local representation of, 25 relevant to writing, 443 telling and transforming strategies, 444 – 445 Knowledge-crafting, 445– 446 Knowledge-lean problems, 460 – 462, 635 Knowledge-rich problems, 460, 462, 635 Korsakoff’s syndrome, 253, 280 –282, 635 see also Alcohol abuse Kosslyn’s theory of mental imagery, 111–114 Language, 327–332 acquisition device, 327–328 bioprogramme hypothesis, 328 Chomsky’s theory of, 2, 327–328 and cognition, 331 comprehension, 375– 415 definition of, 327, 411 figurative, 386 –387 innateness of, 327–329 pidgin, 328 production, 417– 455 role of FOXP2 in, 328 –329 speed of, 355 spoken, basic aspects of, 424 – 425, 454 and thinking, 329 Late closure, principle of, 378 –380 Latent semantic analysis, 387 Latent-variable analysis, Lateral, 6, 635 Lateral Lateral Lateral Lateral fissure, 5, 554 frontal cortex, 468 fusiform gyrus, 104 geniculate nucleus, 92– 93 Lateral inhibition, 39, 635 Lateral prefrontal cortex, 555 Law of closure, 80 Law of common fate, 81 Law of good continuation, 80 Law of Prägnanz, 80 Law of proximity, 80, 165 Law of similarity, 80, 165 Leakage, 157 Learning, 205–249 complex, 229 –231 explicit, 227, 231–233 implicit, 227–233, 248, 279, 634 characteristics of, 228 criteria for, 229 and implicit memory, 228 studies of, 228 –229 and memory, 227, 252 and mood states, 586 procedural, 282 Lemmas, 431–435, 437–438, 635 Lens, of eye, 36 Lesions, 7, 16, 635 Letter processing, 337 Levels-of-processing approach, 223 –227 Levelt’s theoretical approach see WEAVER++ Lexical access, 340, 350 –352, 635 Lexical bias effect, 429, 435, 635 Lexical cues, 357–358 Lexical decision performance, 168 Lexical decision task, 157, 317, 320 –321, 334, 364, 368, 616, 635 Lexical identification shift, 359 –360, 367–368, 635 Lexicalisation, 432, 635 Lexicon, 340, 343, 428, 635 orthographic, 343, 450 – 453 Lexicon only reading route, 343 Lexicon plus semantic knowledge reading route, 343 Life scripts, 299 –300, 635 Life-and-death problem, 518 Lifetime memories, 296 –300 Limited capacity, and attentional blink, 192–193 Linda problem, 501–502, 504, 508, 512 Linear flow, 126 Linear perspective, 69 Lingual gyri, 394 Lip-reading, 356 Listeners, problems faced by, 355–356 Listening, to speech, 353 –360 Literacy, and thinking, 442 Local inferences, 399 Location, selection by, 178 Location-based attention, 164 –167 Locations, object-defined selection by, 178 Logical inferences, 395, 635 Long-term memory see Memory, long-term Loss, 585 Loss aversion, 515–516, 518 –519, 612, 635 and emotional factors, 520 –522 Love, unique mental network of, 11 Macaque monkeys, visualsystem studies of, 39, 41– 42, 61, 93 – 95 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 10 –11 functional see Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Magneto-encephalography (MEG), 7, 11–12, 44, 140, 635 Magnocellular (M) pathway, 37–38 Maintenance rehearsal, 224, 635 Major depressive disorder, 598 Mamillary bodies, 281–282 Mammograms, 490, 509 –510 Manners, speech maxim of, 419 Manual task, 188 Mapping, in far transfer, 479 Mapping manipulation, 194 Marr’s theory of object recognition, 85 Masking, 614 – 615, 635 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, critical meeting at, Massive modularity hypothesis, 17 Matching, 51–52 SUBJECT INDEX 743 Matching bias, 543, 551–553, 635 Matching performance, 168 Matchstick problems, 468 Mathematical models, 21 Maximisers, 527 Maze task, 471– 472 McGurk effect, 356 Means–ends analysis, 470 – 471, 473, 635 MED rule, 535–536 Medial, 6, 635 Medial cerebellum, 617 Medial diencephalon, 281–282 Medial frontal gyrus, 240 Medial mystery parietal area (MMPA), 16 Medial prefrontal cortex, 304, 580 Medial superior temporal (MST) area, 44 – 45, 127 Medial temporal lobe, 254, 277, 281–282 Medial temporal (MT) area, 127 Medical expertise, 489 – 492 Memory, 203 –325 across lifetime, 296 –300 and ageing, 307–308 architecture of, 205–211, 247 autobiographical, 203, 233, 255, 258, 282, 291– 305, 323, 630 accuracy of, 296 cognitive neuroscience of, 303 –305 knowledge base of, 300–302 retrieval network, 304 –305 role of olfaction in, 292–293 and the self, 300 –303 correspondence metaphor for, 289 declarative, 233, 253 –256, 283 –284, 286, 631 and amnesia, 278 –281 three forms of, 292 episodic, 241, 251, 253, 255, 259 –263, 285, 291, 633 as constructive process, 262–263 text, 407 vs semantic, 256 –259, 285 everyday, 289 –325 evaluation of research, 289 –291 explicit, 226 –227, 233 –234, 253, 256, 633 and amnesia, 278 –281 bias, 596, 600 – 601, 633 flashbulb, 292, 294 –295 implicit, 226, 233 –234, 253, 256, 634 and amnesia, 278 –281 bias, 596, 600 – 601, 634 and implicit learning, 228 and learning, 227 limitations, 613, 616 long-term, 205, 209, 221, 227 and the brain, 281–286 and consolidation, 245–246 and distraction, 211 and elaboration, 224 –225 and fixated objects, 147 increased storage in, 197 main forms of, 254 and propositions, 406 scene storage in, 210 systems, 251–287 visual, 112 working, 492– 493, 495, 635 loss and alcohol abuse, 247 see also Amnesia mood-state-dependent, 243 –244, 585–589, 636 multi-store model of, 205–206, 209 non-declarative, 253 –256, 272–278, 286, 636 and amnesia, 278 –281 performance, 226 procedural, 251, 253, 256, 276 –278, 282, 638 compared to repetition priming, 272–273 prospective, 315–323, 324, 638 cognitive neuroscience of, 321–322 event-based, 316 –317, 633 in everyday life, 317–319 stages of, 316 time-based, 316 –317, 640 two PAM processes of, 319 –320 and working memory, 319 recall, 262 recognition, 260 –262, 280, 408, 586 relational, 210 –211 retrieval, multi-step, 197 retrospective, 315–316, 323, 639 schema-based, 403 – 406 screen, 298 script, 404 self-system, 300 –303 semantic, 251, 253, 255, 263 –272, 286, 404, 639 damage to, 99 –100 network models of, 264 –267 organisation of, 266 vs episodic, 256 –259, 285 short-term, 205, 209 and amnesia, 252 capacity of, 207 decay in, 208 and distraction, 211 duration of, 208 and number seven, scene storage in, 210 visual, 110 span, 213 –214 storehouse metaphor for, 289 stores differences in, 209 long-term, 205–209 sensory, 205–206 short-term, 205–209 types of, 205–206 systems identification criteria for, 251 long-term, 251–287 tests, 225–227, 397– 400 threatening, 298 traces, 314 traditional research, 289 –291 unitary-store models of, 205, 209 –211 working, 168, 211–223, 248 capacity, 156, 241, 375–376, 391–394, 414, 492, 541, 552–553 and Chess, 212–213 components of, 211–212 and distraction, 578 long-term, 492– 493, 495, 635 and mental models, 547–548 and parsing, 389 and prospective memory, 319 visual and spatial systems in, 216 –217 and writing, 444, 446 – 448 744 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Mental model, 546 –550, 635 Mental model theory, 546, 548 –551, 553 Mental set see Einstellung Metacognition, 477, 635 and far transfer, 479 – 480 Metaphor, 386 –387 meanings of, 388 non-reversibility of, 388 predication model of, 387 Metrical prosody, 357–358 Microspectrophotometry, 57, 635 Midazolam, 279 –280 Midbrain, 176 Middle frontal gyrus (Mfg), 160 Middle frontal region, 394 Middle temporal (MT) area, 44 – 45, 620 Mind reading of, 11 wandering of, 392 Minimal attachment, principle of, 378 –380, 383 Minimalist hypothesis, 398 – 400 Mirror neuron system, 140 –142, 635 and imitation, 140 –142 Mirror reading, 277–278 Mirror tracing, 277–278 Missionaries and cannibals problem, 471, 473 Mixed-error effect, 428 – 430, 435, 636 Mobile phones, use by drivers, 186 Modality, and word recall, 214 Models computational, 431– 432 reading, 25 speech production, 25 word recognition (TRACE), 25 Modularity, 17, 636 anatomical, 17–18 Module, 17, 475 Modus ponens, 539 –541, 553 Modus tollens, 539 –542, 553 Mondrian stimuli, 61 Monitoring, 220 –221 Monitoring and adjustment model, 419 – 420 Monocular cues, 69, 69 –70, 636 Monolinguals, 435 Monty Hall problem, 461– 462 Mood, and cognition, 584 –595, 604 Mood congruity, 585–586, 589 –590, 593, 597, 636 Mood intensity, 585, 591–592 Mood state, and learning/recall, 586 –587 Mood-state-dependent memory see Memory, mood-state-dependent Morpheme-exchange errors, 427 Morphemes, 428, 431, 636 Moses illusion, 384 Motion cues, 73 parallax, 70 –71, 636 and size constancy, 75 perception of, 121–151, 620 first and second order, 45 processing, 42, 44 – 45 Motion-blindness, 139 Motivated forgetting see Forgetting, motivated Motivated processing strategy, 592 Motivational congruence, 573 Motivational relevance, 573 Motor cortex, 270 Motor skill learning, 277 Motor theory (of speech perception), 360 –361 Moving window technique, 349 Müller–Lyer illusion, 50 –52, 135 Multi-attribute utility theory, 525, 527–528 Multi-level theories, of cognition and emotion, 580 –584, 604 Multi-process theory, 320 –321 Multi-sensory interplay, 184 Multiple personality disorder see Dissociative identity disorder Multiple resources, vs central capacity, 187–190 Multiple trace theory, 258 Multiple-property approach, 269 Multiple-target visual search, 181 Multi-tasking, 153, 185 Mutilated draughtboard problem, 467– 468 Name generation, 107 Naming task, 334, 636 Natural frequency hypothesis, 507–509 Natural sampling, 507, 509 Near transfer, 477, 480, 636 Negative affect, 520, 522, 571–572, 580 and distraction, 578 Negative after-effect, in blindsight, 64 Negative afterimages, 58, 636 Negative testing see Disconfirmation testing Negative transfer, 477, 480, 636 Neglect, 168, 170 –171, 618, 622, 636 brain areas involved in, 171 and copying task, 170 and copying tasks, 170 –171 and goal-directed system, 712 and object-based attention, 165 reducing symptoms of, 174 and stimulus-driven processing, 173 and unattended stimuli, 161, 167 Neocortex, 27, 246, 258 Neologisms, 440 – 441, 636 NETalk, 25 Network models see Semantic network models Network theory (Bower), 57, 584 –593 six assumptions of, 584 –585 Neural activity, synchronisation of, 46 Neural priming, 276 Neuroeconomics, 519, 636 Neuroimaging, 137 and lexical studies, 434 and motion detection, 139 –140 and perceptual load, 168 –169 and reasoning, 557 and sentence comprehension, 393 –394 Neuronal invariance (tolerance), 93 – 94 Neuronal selectivity, 93 – 94 Neurons, 39 feature selectivity of, 95 interconnectivity of, 20 object specificity of, 94 Neuroscience and cross-modal attention, 184 SUBJECT INDEX 745 and informal reasoning, 559 Neuroticism, 520, 522 Newborns, innate movement detection of, 138 Nicaraguan Sign Language, 328 Nine-dot problem, 469, 472– 473 Nodes, 23, 366, 428, 431, 584 –586, 590 Non-accidental principle, 87 Non-conscious emotional processing, 581–582 Non-fluent aphasia see Agrammatism Nonwords, 344, 354, 362, 366, 368, 371–372 pronunciation of, 340, 345–348 and speech errors, 429 – 430 spelling of, 449 – 451 Noradrenaline, 161 Norepinephrine see Noradrenaline Nostalgia, 584 Noun-phrase attachment, 382 Nucleus accumbens, 579 Number-agreement errors, 427 Object file, 178 Object knowledge, problems with, 16 –17 Object recognition, 33, 79 –119 Biederman’s theory of, 85– 90 case studies DJ, 99 –100 HJA, 98 – 99 SA, 99 SM, 98 – 99 cognitive neuropsychology of, 96 –100, 118 cognitive neuroscience approach to, 92– 96, 117 context dependence of, 89 dependent theories, 87– 88, 90 – 92 hierarchical model of, 97– 98, 100 theories of, 85– 92, 117 invariant, 87– 88, 90 – 92 Marr’s, 85 top-down processes in, 95– 96 viewpoint dependence of, 87– 90 Object selectivity, 42 Object-based attention, 165–167 Objective threshold, 66, 613 Obligatory encoding, 196 Obligatory retrieval, 196 Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 601 Occipital cortex, 35, 64, 617, 622 Occipital face area, 105 Occipital lobes, 5, 276, 554 Occipital region, 394 Oculomotor cues, 69 –72, 636 Olfaction, 292–293, 636 Omission bias, 522–523, 524, 636 Operant conditioning, 256 Operation span, 392, 636 Opponent-process theory (Hering), 58 Optic array, 122, 636 Optic ataxia, 49, 54 –56, 136 –137, 636 Optic chiasma, 37 Optic flow, 122–123, 636 and heading, 126 heading and steering, 125–130 Optic nerve, 37 Optimisation, 526, 636 Orbitofrontal cortex, 11, 95– 96, 293, 520 –521 Orientation illusion, 135 Orienting, and far transfer, 479 Orthographic neighbours, 338, 636 Orthography, 334, 346 –348, 368, 636 Osteoarthritis, 525, 528 Other accountability, 574 Overt face recognition, 103 Oxyhaemoglobin, 10 Paired-associate learning, 54, 236 –237 Panbanisha (chimp), language capabilities of, 327 Panic disorder, 598, 601– 602 Paper-folding task, 188 Paradigm specificity, 5, 636 Parafoveal processing, 349, 351 Parafoveal-on-foveal effects, 352–353, 636 Parahippocampal cortex, 257–258, 260 –261 Parahippocampal place area, 165, 616 Parallel, 86 Parallel distributed processing (PDP), 23, 25, 367 Parallel processing, 3, 179, 181–182, 350, 352, 513, 636 Parietal cortex, 611 and consciousness, 623 and visual awareness, 618 – 619 Parietal lobes, 5, 35, 190, 284, 554 Parietal region, 394 Parieto-frontal integration theory, 554 Parieto-occipital sulcus, Parkinson’s disease, 232, 282, 637 Parsing, 375–377, 413, 637 cognitive neuroscience of, 384 –386 constraint-based theories of, 381–383 flexibility in, 382 garden-path model of, 378 –380, 383 good enough representations, 384 theories of, 377–386 unrestricted race model, 382–384 Part–whole effect, 101–102, 637 Parvocellular (P) pathway, 37–38 Past experience, 466 – 467 Path judgements, 129 Paths, curved, 129 Pattern playback, 354 –355 Pendulum problem, 463 Percentages, and judgement performance, 507–508 Perception, 33 –34, 121–151 conscious, 615 ecological approach to, 122, 124 of human motion, 137–143, 150 of motion by newborns, 138 without awareness, 62– 68, 77 Perception–action model, 47– 48, 55 Perceptual anticipation theory, 111–114 Perceptual fluency, 276 Perceptual load theory, and unattended stimuli, 167–168 Perceptual organisation, 80 – 85, 117 746 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Perceptual priming, 273 –274, 276, 279, 637 Perceptual processing, of complex scenes, 36 Perceptual representation system, 251, 256, 637 Perceptual segregation, 80, 637 Perceptual simulations, 412– 413 Perceptual skill learning, 277 Perceptual span, 349, 637 Perceptual–functional theories, 267–268 Performance accuracy, 180 and attention, 153 –201 and practice, 193 Perirhinal cortex, 257–258, 260 –261 Permastore, 260 Perseveration errors, 430 – 431 Person identity nodes, 107 Personality types, and recalled memories, 301–302 Perspective adjustment model, 389 –390 Phase desynchrony, 623 Phase synchrony, 622– 623 Phenomenal consciousness, 621 Phobias, 580 –581, 583, 598, 600, 602 Phoneme response buffer, 369, 371 Phoneme–grapheme conversion, 450 Phonemes, 86, 342, 346, 354 –355, 431, 637 ambiguous, 359, 367–368 in neologisms, 441 and speech, 358, 428 and spelling, 449 and word recognition, 360, 366 –368 Phonemic restoration effect, 359 –360, 637 Phonemic tasks, 224 Phonological dysgraphia, 450, 637 Phonological dyslexia, 336, 343 –345, 347–349, 637 Phonological impairment hypothesis, 372 Phonological loop, 112, 190, 211–216, 446 – 448, 637 and analogical problem solving, 482– 483 and language learning, 555 and processing, 221–223 value of, 215 and vocabulary development, 215 Phonological similarity effect, 213, 637 Phonological store, 215 Phonology, 334, 346 –348, 368, 637 neighbourhood of, 335 processes in reading, 335–336 Phrase, 422– 423, 637 Phrenology, 14 –15, 637 Pictorial cues see Monocular cues Pilot error, and prospective memory, 318 –319 Planning of speech, 422– 423 system, 133 –134 of writing, 442– 443 Planning–control model, 133 –137, 150 Point of expansion, 126 Point-light displays, 137–138 masked, 139 Pointing, 51–52, 54 –55 Pole, 122 Positive affect, 571–572, 579 Positive testing see Confirmation testing Positive transfer, 477, 480, 637 Positron emission tomography (PET), 1, 7, –10, 44, 637 and associative learning, 617 and executive processes, 219 and semantic memory, 272 and Tower of London task, 474 Post-decision wagering, 612 Post-retrieval monitoring, 283 Post-traumatic stress disorder, 598, 601 Postcentral sulcus (PoCes), 160 Posteriolateral orbitofrontal cortex, 590 –591 Posterior, 6, 637 Posterior cingulate, 322 cortex, 304, 611 Posterior intraparietal sulcus (pIPs), 160 Posterior occipito-temporal region, 344 Posterior parietal cortex, 94, 262, 476, 612 Posterior superior temporal cortex, 356 Posterior superior temporal gyrus, 139, 439 – 440 Posterior superior temporal sulcus, 139, 439 – 440 Posterior temporal lobe, 436 Posteroventral pallidotomy, 282 Practice absence of, 197 deliberate, 492– 496 and performance, 193 Pragmatic processing strategy, 541 Pragmatics, 375, 386 –391, 414, 637 common ground, 389 –391 standard model of, 387 theoretical approaches to, 387–389 Pre-occipital notch, Pre-supplementary motor area, 137 Precentral sulcus (PrCes), 160 Preconscious state, 620 Precuneus, 611 Predication model (Kintsch), 388 –389 Predictive inferences, 399 – 400 Preformulation, 424, 637 Prefrontal cortex, 10, 14, 55, 196, 215, 233, 579 –580 and autobiographical/ episodic memory, 291–292, 303 –304 and central executive, 217–219, 241 and consciousness, 611, 617, 623 and declarative/nondeclarative memory, 254 and divided attention, 190 –191 and episodic/semantic memory, 258 –259 in infancy, 298 and inhibitory executive processes, 482 and long-term memory, 283 –284 and problem solving, 474, 554, 620 and prospective memory, 322–323 and reasoning, 554 –558, 620 and skill learning, 282–283 and visual awareness, 618 – 619, 622 Premise integration, 557 SUBJECT INDEX 747 Premise processing, 557 Premotor cortex, 136, 270, 283, 361 Preparatory attentional and memory processes (PAM) theory, 319 –321 Preparedness, 583, 637 Primal sketch, 85 Primary appraisal, 572 Priming see Repetition priming Principle of truth, 547–548, 637 Prisms, use in neglect correction, 174 Proactive interference, 234 –237, 310 Probabilistic classification learning, 277 Probabilities, and judgement performance, 508 –509 Probability estimate, of accidental deaths, 503 Probe auditory, 446 – 447 rapid-response, 162 Problem solving, 458 – 477, 496 analogical, 480 – 483 and brain systems, 473 – 474 vs decision making, 499 Gestalt approach to, 462– 464 and intelligence, 554 major aspects to, 460 and past experience, 466 – 467 Problem space, 470, 637 Problem-focused coping, 573 Problems congruent vs incongruent, 512–513 ill-defined, 460 knowledge-lean, 460 – 462, 483 knowledge-rich, 460, 462, 484 similarities between, 480 well-defined, 460 Procedural knowledge, 256, 637 Procedural memory see Memory, procedural Procedural module, 475– 476 Procedural similarity, between problems, 480 – 481, 483 Proceduralisation, 575 Processing bottom-up, 620 cascade, human resources, 188 –189 implicit, 513 levels of, 223 –227, 248 parallel, serial, of stories, 400 – 413 strategies, 541–542 top-down, 620 Processing streams see Visual pathways Processing theory, transferappropriate, 225 Processors, unconscious special-purpose, 622 Production paradigm, 481 Production rules, 21, 637 Production systems, 21–22, 637 characteristics of, 22 vs connectionism, 25–26 Productive thinking, 463, 637 Progress monitoring, 472, 638 Proposition, 406, 638 Propositional level of SPAARS model, 582 Propositional logic, 539 Propositional net, 406 elaborated, 406 Propositional representations, 407– 410 Propositional theory of mental imagery (Pylyshyn), 112 Prosodic cues, 333, 377, 424 – 425, 638 Prosopagnosia, 103 –104, 622, 638 Prospect theory, 514 –519, 524 Prospective memory see Memory, prospective Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ), 316 Protanomaly, 57 Prototype, 188 Proust phenomenon, 292–293, 638 Proximity, 81– 83 conflict with similarity, 82 Pseudohomophones, 347 Pseudoword superiority effect, 337–338 Pseudowords, 337, 344, 638 Psychoanalysis, 534 Psychological refractory period (PRP) effect, 198 –199, 638 Psychology, cognitive see Cognitive psychology Pulvinar, 581 Pupil, of eye, 36 Pure word deafness, 370 –372, 638 Pursuit rotor task, 277 Quality, speech maxim of, 419 Quantity, speech maxim of, 419 Radiation problem, 480 – 484 Random generation, 188 Rare events, probability of, 519 Rational–emotional model (Anderson), 523 –524 Rationalisation, 401– 402, 638 Rationality human, 562–566, 568 two types of, 564 Raven’s Progressive Matrices, 554 Re-entrant processing see Recurrent processing Reaction time, to probes, 162 Reaction time (RT), 182 serial task, 229 –230, 232–233 Reader, focus on the, 445– 446 Readiness potential, 610 Reading, 333 –374 aloud, 340 –349, 373 cognitive neuropsychology of, 369 –372 eye-movement studies of, 334, 349 –353, 373 latencies, 348 phonological processes in, 335–336 research methods for, 334 –335 silent, 377 skills, and inference formation, 400 span, 391–394, 638 Real research environments, 536 –539 Reappraisal, 572 Reasoning, 457– 458, 573 analogical, 477– 483, 534 analytic strategies, 489, 550 brain systems in, 553 –558, 567 conditional, 539 –542 context effects, 540 deductive, 458, 533, 539 –546, 567, 631 theories of, 546 –553, 567 error framework for, 565–566 748 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK explicit, 489 implicit, 489 inductive, 458, 533 –568, 566, 634 informal, 558 –561, 567 fallacies of, 560 and neuroscience, 559 non-analytic strategies, 489 three principles of, 550 –551 Recall, 242–243, 585 cued, 242–243, 260, 587, 600 free, 207, 242–243, 260, 262, 586 –588, 590, 600 influence of context on, 244, 315 memory see Memory, recall and mood state, 587 and retrieval perspectives, 403 – 404 serial, 260 and templates in chess, 486 – 487 tests, 260, 278 Recency effect, 207–208, 638 Recent Probes task, 236 Reception, 36 Reception paradigm, 481 Receptive field, 39, 638 Recognition, 244, 261–262 associative, 262 heuristic, 505–507, 562, 638 of items, 262 memory see Memory, recognition of objects and faces, 79 –119 tests, 225, 260, 280 Recollection, 260, 304 Recovered memories, 238 –239 Recurrent processing, 614 – 615 Reduplicative paramnesia, 626, 638 Referent, 419 Reflective self-attention, 591 Regularisation, 342 Regulatory system, 27 Rehearsal, 209, 317 maintenance, 224 verbal, 213 Reinterpretation, 579 –580 Relation, speech maxim of, 419 Relative disparity, 72 Relevance principle of reasoning, 550, 553 Relevance theory, 544 Religion, 534 Remember/know task, 260 Reminiscence bump, 297, 299 –300, 638 Reminiscing styles, 298 –299 Remote Associates Test, 464, 470 Repetition priming, 253, 256, 273 –276, 334, 637– 638 compared to skill learning, 272–273 phonological, 335–336 syntactic, 422 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), 12–13, 217, 638 Representation, three types of, 407– 410 Representational change theory, 467– 469 key assumptions of, 467 Representations internal, 412 primal sketch, 85 3-D model, 85 2.5-D sketch, 85 Representativeness, 290 –291 heuristic, 501–502, 504, 562, 638 Repression, 237–239, 638 Reproductive thinking, 463, 638 Resonance, 124, 639 Resources, defined, 189 Response bias, 590, 599 – 600 explanation, 311 Responsibility personal, 576 shared, and common ground, 421 Retention, 316, 323 interval, 208 Retina, of eye, 35–36 receptor cells of, 36 Retina-geniculate-striate pathway, 37 Retinal flow, 128 Retinal flow field, 126, 638 Retinex theory of Land, 60 Retinotopic map, 40, 638 Retrieval, 316, 323, 586 of autobiographical memories, 301–303 cues, 314, 586 direct, 301, 303 generative, 301, 303 network, 304 Retrieval module, 475– 476 Retroactive interference, 234 –237, 246, 310 Retrograde amnesia see Amnesia, retrograde Retrospective memory see Memory, retrospective Revision process, of writing, 442– 443, 447 Rhetorical problem space, 444 Risk, and self-esteem, 516 Risk assessment, of terrorist threat, 503 Rods, 36 Rostral prefrontal cortex, 322 Rotary flow, 126 Routine expertise, 488, 638 Rules of thumb see Heuristics Ruminative self-attention, 591 Russian language, 330 Saccade-contingent change, 144 Saccade-generation With Inhibition by Foveal Targets (SWIFT) model, 350, 352 Saccades, 349, 638 Sadness, 573, 583 –586 Satisficing, 527, 550, 639 principle of reasoning, 551, 553 Saturation, 56 Savings method, 233 –234, 639 Scenarios, hypothetical, 575 Schemas, 305–306, 401, 639 Bartlett’s theory of, 401– 403 Beck’s theory of, 596 –597, 601 and memory, 403 – 406 and retrieval processes, 403 theories of, 401– 406 Schematic level of SPAARS model, 582–583 Schematic, Propositional, Analogical, and Associative Representation System (SPAARS) model, 582–584 Scholastic Aptitude Test, 566 Scrabble players, deliberate practice by, 494 Scripts, 401, 404 – 405 Search, 304 focal, 489 Search rule, 505 Secondary appraisal, 572 Seductive details effect, 393 Segmentation problem (in speech comprehension), 355–358, 639 hierarchical approach to, 357–358 SUBJECT INDEX 749 Selection, 72 Selective attention see Focused attention Self-attention, 591 Self-awareness, 626 – 627 Self-esteem and gambling risk, 516 –517 threats to, 574 Self-judging, and far transfer, 479 Self-knowledge, 607 Self-memory system, 300 –303 Self-recognition, 298, 627 Self-referential processes, 304 Semantic analysis, 376 Semantic dementia, 272, 343, 347, 379, 404, 639 Semantic information, 379 –380 Semantic knowledge, 343 Semantic memory see Memory, semantic Semantic network models, 264 –267 Semantic network theory see Network theory (Bower) Semantic priming effect, 267, 339, 639 Semantic processing strategy, 541 Semantic reading errors, 344 Semantic relatedness, 266 Semantic substitution errors, 426 – 427 Semantic system, 97, 369, 371–372 Semantic tasks, 224 Semantics, 334, 346 –348, 639 Sensitisation, 256 Sensori-motor skills, 434 Sensory modalities, independence of, 182 Sentence-generation process, 442– 443 Sentences ambiguous, 376, 378 –383, 425 comprehension of and cognitive neuroscience, 384 –386 and word meaning /world knowledge, 385 meaning of, 375 mystifying, 464 processing of, 375, 379 –383 good enough representations, 384 types of, 382–383 Sentience, 607– 608 Sequence learning, 277 Serial processing, 3, 181, 350, 352, 513, 639 Serial reaction time task, 229 –230, 232–233, 277–278, 588 –589 Serial recall see Recall, serial Seven, in short-term memory, Sex judgements, 138 Sexual abuse, in childhood, 238 –239 Sexually transmitted infections, 490 – 491 Shading, 69 Shadowing task, 154 –155, 157, 187 Shadows, 60 Shallow graphemic task, 224 Shapes, 97 Shifting function, 218 –219 Short-term memory see Memory, short-term Similarity, 81– 83 conflict with proximity, 82 Simple cells, 40 Simulated research environments, 536 –539 Simultanagnosia, 175, 639 Single-case studies, 19 –20 Single-cell recording see Single-unit recording Single-task condition, 185 Single-unit recording (of brain), 7– 8, 639 Singularity principle of reasoning, 550, 553 Situation model five aspects of, 410 here-and-now view, 411 resonance view, 411 updating of, 410 – 411 Situation representations, 407– 410 Size constancy, 74 –76, 639 illusory, 135 judgements, accuracy of, 76 perception, 68 –76, 78 and memory, 75–76 Size–distance invariance hypothesis, 74 –75 Skill acquisition, 483, 639 Skill learning see Memory, procedural Slippage, 157 Slots, of templates, 485 Smoking cessation, 519 Snake phobia, 581, 583 Social contract theory, 543 –544 Social functionalist approach, 524 –525 Social phobia, 598, 601– 602 Social–cultural–developmental theory, 298 –299 Somatosensory cortex, 521 Sound identification, context effects, 358 –360 Sound-exchange errors, 426, 435 Source misattribution, 311 Span measures, 207 Spatial systems, separate from visual systems, 216 –217 Speaking differences from writing, 418 four maxims of, 418 – 419 similarities to writing, 417– 418 Spectrogram, 354 –356 Spectrograph, 354, 639 Speech basic aspects of, 424 – 425 co-articulation in, 355–358 as communication, 418 – 422, 453 comprehension, 354 degraded, 356 digitised, 380 duration of, 377 errors of, 426 – 427, 435, 454 grammatical, 438 – 440 flexibility in, 423 gesture during, 425 interaction during, 420 intonation in, 377 listening to, 353 –360, 373 maxims of, 418 – 419 output lexicon, 369, 371 perception of, 333 –374 cognitive neuropsychology in, 369 –372 main processes in, 353 motor theory, 360 –361 uniqueness point in, 362–363 planning of, 422– 423, 454 production, 424 categorical rules of, 428 cognitive neuropsychology of, 436 – 442, 454 insertion rules for, 428 theories of, 427– 436, 454 and writing, 417– 418 segmentation, 356 –358 hierarchical approach to, 357–358 problem, 355, 639 750 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK signal, 354 –355 stress in, 357–358, 377 Spelling, 449 – 454 lexical route, 449 – 452 non-lexical route, 449 – 452 unexpectedly poor, 453 Spider phobia, 580–581, 583, 599 Spillover effect, 349, 351, 639 Split attention, 163, 639 Split-brain patients, 624–627, 639 Spoken language, basic aspects of, 424 – 425, 454 Spoken word recognition, theories of, 360 –369, 374 Spoonerism, 426, 639 Spotlight(s), focused visual attention as, 161–164 Spreading activation, 428, 430, 639 Spreading activation theory, 266 –267, 427– 431, 434 – 436 four levels of, 428 Statue problem, 478 – 479 Status quo bias, 523, 639 Steering, visual information used in, 128 Stereopsis, 71, 639 Stereotypes, 501, 512 Stimuli emotional significance of, 580 –581 task-relevant, 161 unattended, 15, 157 Stop-signal task, Stopping rule, 505 Storage capacity, 392 Story processing, 400 – 414 Strategic inferences, 398 – 400 Stress reduction, 574 in speech, 357–358, 377 Striatum, 27, 231–232, 282–283, 640 Stroke, 418, 436, 452– 453 bilateral, 252 Stroop effect, 195, 337, 639 Stroop task, 4, 195, 218, 639 emotional, 598 Structural description, 97 Structural encoding, 107 Structural similarity, between problems, 480, 483 Subgenual cingulate, 590 –591 Subjective probability, for explicit events, 503 –504 Subjective threshold, 66, 613 Subliminal perception, 62, 68, 613, 639 Subliminal state, 620 Substance dependence, and gambling, 521 Substantive processing, 593 –595 Subtractivity, 18 Sulcus, 5, 44, 639 central, Sunk-cost effect, 516–517, 519–520, 522, 524, 639 Super conducting quantum interference device (SQUID), 11–12 Superficial similarity, between problems, 480, 483 Superior colliculus, 176, 581 Superior frontal sulcus (SFs), 160 Superior parietal cortex, 356, 617 Superior parietal lobe, 129, 136 Superior parietal lobule (SPL), 160 Superior temporal cortex, 622 Superior temporal gyrus, 171 Superior temporal sulcus, 94, 105, 109 Support theory, 503 –504 Suppression, and attentional blink, 192–193 Supranuclear palsy, 175 Surface dysgraphia, 450, 639 Surface dyslexia, 342–343, 345, 347–349, 640 Surface representations, 407–410 Syllables, 354, 369 identification of, 354 Syllogism, 545, 549, 640 Syllogistic reasoning, 545–546 Symmetry, 86 Synchrony hypothesis, 46 Syndromes, 19, 640 Syntactic ambiguity, 376 –377, 425 and ERPs, 377 Syntactic analysis, 376 Syntactic priming, 422, 640 Syntactic processing, 439 – 440 Syntactical structures, 378, 381–382 Syntax, 376 Synthesis, of central capacity and multiple resources, 189 –190 System and processing, 511–513, 541–542, 550, 553 Tactile stimuli, 184 Take-the-best strategy, 505–507 Talent, innate, 493, 496 Tangent point, 129 –130, 640 Targets, moving, 137 Task performance, dual, 13 Task setting, 220 –221 Task similarity, and transfer, 477 Tau hypothesis, 130 –133 Tau–dot hypothesis (Lee), 130 –133 Taxi-cab problem, 500, 510 –511 Template, 485, 640 Template theory, 485– 489 Temporal cortex, 95, 258, 263 Temporal gyri, 408 Temporal lobes, 5, 35, 190, 268, 554 Temporal region, 394 Temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), 160 –161, 171 Terrorist threat risk assessment, 503 Text representation, 407 Texture, 69 gradient, 69, 122–123, 640 Texture cues, 73 Thalamus, 580 –581 nuclei of, 281–282 anterior, 282 lateral geniculate, 37 pulvinar, 176 Therapy, and memories of abuse, 238 –239 Thiamine, 253 Think/no-think paradigm, 240 –242 Thinking, 457– 458 brain systems in, 553 –558, 567 and driving, 186 forms of, 458 and language, 329 and literacy, 442 productive, 463 reproductive, 463 visually guided, 334 writing as a form of, 42 Thought, conscious and unconscious, 529 –531 Thought congruity, 585–586, 590 –591 Three-route framework for word processing and repetition, 370 –372 SUBJECT INDEX 751 3-D model representation, 85 Time interval, and transfer, 477, 479 Time to contact, 130 –133 Time-based prospective memory see Memory, prospective Tip-of-the-tongue state, 433, 438 Tolerance, 42 Tone test, 188, 617 Top-down processing, 2–3, 640 Tower of Hanoi problem, 470 – 471, 473 – 474, 476, 554 Tower of London problem, 473 – 474, 554 TRACE model of word recognition, 360, 366 –369 Training, transfer of, 477– 483, 497 Transcortical sensory aphasia, 372, 640 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 7, 12–14, 580, 640 and blindsight, 582 and dual-task performance, 191–192 evaluation of, 13 –14 and motion perception, 620 and motor system, 270 –271, 610 and motor theory, 361 and perception and attention, 44 – 45, 136 –137, 161, 171, 177–178 and priming, 276 and proactive interference, 236 repetitive (rTMS), 12–13, 95– 96, 114 strengths and limitations of, 28 and visual consciousness, 614 – 615, 618 Transcription, 446 – 447 Transduction, 36 Transfer, 459 distance, 477 of training, 477– 483, 497 Transfer-appropriate processing theory, 225, 242, 244 –245, 586 Transitive inference, 555 Treisman’s attenuation theory, 155–157 Trial-and-error learning, 462, 640 Triangle model of word recognition, 341, 346, 348 Trichromacy theory, 56 –58 Tritanopia, 57 2.5-D sketch, 85 2-4-6 task, 534 –536 Two-string problem, 463 Typicality effect, 265, 640 Unattended visual stimuli, 167–170 Unbounded rationality, 526 Unconscious perception, 62, 66 – 68, 640 Unconscious thought theory, 529 –531 Unconscious transference, 308, 640 Underadditivity, 190, 192, 640 Underspecification, 424, 640 Unfairness, 574 Uniform connectedness, 82– 83, 640 Unilateral visual neglect see Neglect Uniqueness point (in speech recognition), 362–363 Units, 23 inputs from, 24 Updating function, 219 Utility theory, 514, 516, 518 –519, 524 multi-attribute, 525, 527–528 Vacant slot explanation, 311 Validation, 557 Validity, ecological see Ecological validity Value function, 519 Vegetative state, 613, 640 Ventral, 6, 640 Ventral intraparietal area, 126, 129 Ventral network, attentional system, 159 –161 Ventral parietal cortex, 284 Ventral pathway, 54 –55 Ventral prefrontal cortex, 217 Ventriloquist illusion, 183, 641 Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, 236, 262, 283 –284, 476, 579 Ventromedial frontal lobe, 528 Ventromedial prefrontal cortex, 304, 522 Verb bias, 381, 640 Verb-phrase attachment, 382 Verbal intelligence, 394 Verbal overshadowing, 308 –310, 640 View normalisation, 97 Viewpoint-dependent theory, 87– 88, 90 – 92 Viewpoint-invariant theory, 87– 88, 90 – 92 Violence, and anxiety, 306 –307 Violinists, deliberate practice by, 493 – 494 Virtual environment, and size constancy, 75 Virtual reality, 73 Vision-for-action system, 47–56, 125, 134 Vision-for-perception system, 47–56, 125, 134 Visual agnosia, 49 –50, 55–56, 96, 98, 640 Visual attention, 182–184 disorders of, 170 –176, 200 focused, 158 –170 Visual awareness, Lamme’s theory of, 620 – 621 Visual buffer, 111–113, 640 Visual cache, 216 –217, 641 Visual context, 133 Visual cortex, 12–13, 35, 37, 113 –114, 615– 616 main areas of, 39, 47 primary (V1), 37– 40, 42, 62– 64, 66, 111, 614 – 615 secondary (V2), 37– 40, 42, 111 V3, 38, 40, 42 V4, 38, 42– 43, 61– 62 V5, 38, 42, 44 – 45, 63, 66 Visual cues, 68 –76 integration of, 72–74 Visual direction, 128 –129, 641 Visual illusions, 50 –52, 56, 133 –134 Visual imagery, 15, 110 –118, 304 generation process in, 116, 211 impairments of, 116 and visual perception, 112–116 Visual judgements, 184 Visual pathways, 37–38 dorsal, 38, 47– 48, 56, 72 ventral, 38, 47– 48, 56, 72, 92– 93 752 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A STUDENT’S HANDBOOK Visual perception, 15, 33 –201 basic processes in, 35–78 and visual imagery, 112–116 Visual processing, 615, 617 conscious and subconscious, 64 – 65 Visual search, 176 –182, 177, 200, 280, 641 multiple-target, 181 Visual signals, route of, 37 Visual stimuli, unattended, 167–170 Visual store, 206 Visual systems action, 47–56, 77 perception, 47–56, 77 separate from spatial systems, 216 –217 Visual thalamus, 615 Visually guided action, 125– 133, 149 –150 Visually guided movement, factors influencing, 130 Visuo-spatial sketchpad, 112, 190, 212, 446, 448, 641 and analogical problem solving, 482– 483 and working memory, 216 –217, 221–223 Vocabulary development, and phonological loop, 215 Vocoder, 354 –355 Voluntary spatial attention see Endogenous spatial attention Voodoo curses, 609 Voxels, 103, 105, 641 Wallpaper illusion, 72, 641 Wason selection task, 542–545, 565 Water-jar problems, 466 – 467, 472– 474 Weapon focus, 306 –307, 641 WEAVER++ model, 427, 431– 437 processing stages of, 435 Weigh-the-elephant problem, 478 – 479, 481– 482 Well-defined problems, 460, 641 Wernicke’s aphasia, 436 – 437, 641 Wernicke’s area, 436 – 437, 440 What, When, Whether (WWW) model, 611 Whorfian hypothesis, 329 –331, 641 Williams et al.’s theory of anxiety/depression, 597–598, 601 Word frequency, 351–353, 368 Word identification, 337, 354 effect of context, 339 –340 Word meaning deafness, 371–372, 641 and sentence comprehension, 385 Word predictability, 351–353 Word processing, 337, 370, 447– 448 by Eric Sotto, 417 effects of context on, 364 –366 three-route framework for, 370 –372 Word recall, and presentation modality, 214 Word recognition, 336 –340, 357–358, 373 automatic, 337 spoken, theories of, 360 –369 visual, 337–339 Word repetition, 370 three-route framework for, 370 –372 Word span, 392 Word superiority effect, 337–338, 368, 641 Word-exchange errors, 426, 435 Word-form Encoding by Activation and VERification see WEAVER++ Word-initial cohort, 361–363 Word-length effect, 213 –214, 215, 641 Working memory see Memory, working Working self, 301 World knowledge, and sentence comprehension, 385, 409 Worry, 601 Writing differences from speaking, 418 expertise, 444 – 446 as a form of thinking, 442 the main processes of, 442– 448, 454 similarities to speaking, 417– 418 three key processes of, 442 three-stage theory of skill development, 444 – 445 and working memory, 444, 446 – 448 Zoom-lens focused visual attention as, 161–164 model (Eriksen and St James), 161 UPLOADED BY [STORMRG] ... certain input patterns One such learning rule is “backward propagation of errors” or BackProp Back-propagation is a mechanism allowing a network to learn to associate a particular input pattern with... ventral pathway or stream are more than twice as large as the brain areas forming part of the dorsal pathway Third, the figure shows that cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus respond fastest when... example, Cracco, Cracco, Maccabee, and Amassian (1999) gave participants the task of detecting letters Performance was maximally impaired when TMS was applied to occipital cortex 80–100 ms after