This page intentionally left blank INDUSTRIAL /ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Understanding the Workplace Senior Publisher: Catherine Woods Senior Acquisitions Editor: Charles Linsmeier Marketing Manager: Amy Shefferd Development Editor: Cheri Dellelo Associate Managing Editor: Tracey Kuehn Project Editor: Vivien Weiss Media & Supplements Editor: Peter Twickler Photo Editor: Ted Szczepanski Photo Researcher: Rae Grant Interior & Cover Designer: Kevin Kall Illustration Coordinator: Bill Page Illustrations: Macmillan Publishing Solutions Production Manager: Sarah Segal Composition: Macmillan Publishing Solutions Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley Library of Congress Control Number: 2009925796 ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-2370-6 ISBN-10: 1-4292-2370-7 © 2010 by Worth Publishers All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First printing 2009 Worth Publishers 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 www.worthpublishers.com INDUSTRIAL /ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Understanding the Workplace THIRD EDITION Paul E Levy UNIVERSITY OF AKRON Worth Publishers—New York Dedication To all of my students, both undergraduate and graduate, who have given me a reason to be a teacher, mentor, and advisor.They have proven beyond a doubt that the educational experience is reciprocal! P.E.L About the Author Paul E Levy was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland, the youngest of his family’s five children He received his BA in psychology and economics from Washington & Lee University and earned his MA and PhD in industrial/ organizational (I/O) psychology from Virginia Tech A faculty member at The University of Akron since 1989 and Chair of the Department of Psychology since 2005, Dr Levy has been very involved in the development and training of hundreds of graduate students there During his tenure, he has also provided many undergraduates with their first exposure to the field of I/O psychology through his Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology course Dr Levy’s consulting and research interests include performance appraisal, feedback, recruitment, organizational justice, and organizational surveys/attitudes He has published his scholarly work in many psychology and management journals, including the Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Organizational and Human Decision Processes, and Academy of Management Journal Dr Levy is married to Sylvia Chinn-Levy and has three boys (Christopher, Sean, and Jared) who are, amazingly, more interested in sports, music, and reading than they are in psychology Dr Levy is an avid baseball and basketball fan, youth sports coach, basketball player, and a lifelong fan of the Baltimore Orioles This page intentionally left blank Brief Contents Preface xvii Chapter I/O Psychology: Then and Now Chapter Research Methods in I/O Psychology Chapter Job Analysis 57 Chapter Criterion Measurement Chapter Performance Appraisal Chapter Predictors 19 81 103 131 Chapter Selection Decisions and Personnel Law Chapter Training and Development Chapter Motivation 159 195 227 Chapter 10 Job Attitudes: Antecedents and Consequences Chapter 11 Stress and Worker Well-Being 289 Chapter 12 Group Processes and Work Teams Chapter 13 Leadership 323 351 Chapter 14 Organizational Theory and Development Glossary 257 379 413 References 423 Name Index Subject Index 461 471 | vii This page intentionally left blank Subject Index Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; those followed by t indicate tables ABC model, 247 Absenteeism job satisfaction and, 270–272 organizational commitment and, 281–282 work–family conflict and, 305 Absenteeism rate, 94 Action research model, 395–396 Active learning, 202 Actual criterion, 85, 86f Adams v City of Chicago, 71 Adjourning stage, of group development, 329t, 330 Adverse impact, 181–182, 181t Advisory teams, 341t, 342 See also Work teams Aetna Insurance, 10 Affective commitment, 276, 277f, 278–279 Affective disposition, job satisfaction and, 263 Affective reactions, 222 Affirmative action (AA), 182–185 Age discrimination, 189 See also Discrimination issues in performance appraisal, 127–128 training and, 201 Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), 185t, 189 Age 60 Rule, 189 Aggression See Workplace violence Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, 12 Alderfer’s ERG theory, 231–232, 233f Alfred P Sloan Award for Business Excellence in Workplace Flexibility, 302 Alpha tests, American Express, 310, 406 American Psychological Association (APA), 9, 12 code of ethics of, 26–27 Americans with Disabilities Act, 185t, 189–191 America’s Job Bank, 63 Amplification, in emotion regulation, 284 Apple Computer, 340, 391 Application blanks, 150 Applied behavior analysis, 247 Appraising and Developing Performance Training (ADEPT), 214 Appreciative inquiry (AI), 405–406 Archival research, 36–37 Army Alpha/Beta tests, Army Research Institute, 12 Assessment centers, 146–149, 155t AT&T, 12, 122 Attendance job satisfaction and, 270–272 organizational commitment and, 281–282 Attendance motivation, 272 Attitude See also Job attitudes definition of, 259 Attributes, measurement of, 40 Audiovisual training programs, 211–212 Backup behavior, 345–346 Base rate, 177 Becton Dickinson, 340 Behavior modeling, 215 Behavior theories, of leadership, 356–360 Behavioral criteria, 221–222, 223t Behavioral flexibility, leadership and, 356 Behavioral observation training (BOT), 117–118 Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS), 107–108, 108f, 111t Bell-shaped curve, 48, 49f Benevolents, 239 Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test, 138, 139f Beta tests, Bethlehem Steel, 382–383 Bias in criterion measurement, 88 in interviewing, 153 in job analysis, 68–69 in performance appraisal, 109, 112–113 in selection, 153 Big Five personality traits, 142 in leaders, 356 BioData, 150–152, 151f, 155t Biographic information blanks, 151–152, 151f Biographical information, as predictor, 149–150 Blended learning, 213 Boeing, 122 Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ), 187, 189 Borman’s criterion model, 98–99 BP Amoco, 122 Brainstorming, 334 Brennan v Prince William Hospital, 186 Bureaucracy, 383–386, 384f Burnout, 294 Business necessity defense, 182 Business process redesign, 403–405 Business simulations, 215–216 Campbell Interest and Skill Survey, 9–10 Campbell’s Taxonomy of Performance, 90, 91t Case studies, 36 Caterpillar, 216, 408 Causal inferences, 27, 28 CDWorld.com, 392 Central tendency, in performance appraisal, 114–115 | 471 472 | Subject Index Centralized decision making, 385 Change agents, 394 Change effort, 394 See also Organizational change Cheaper by the Dozen (Gilbreth), 10 Checklists forced-choice, 109 for performance appraisal, 108–109, 109f, 111t weighted, 108–109 Chevron Oil Company, 344 Child-care benefits, 301t, 305–306, 309 Chrysler, 340 Cisco Systems, 380 Civil Rights Act, 12, 180, 185t, 186–188 Clerical ability tests, 139, 140f Cleverly v Western Electric, 189 Coaching, 106, 214–215 Code of ethics (APA), 26–27 Coefficient alpha, 43 Coefficient of determination, 52, 52f, 161–162 Coefficient of equivalence, 42 Coefficient of stability, 41 Cognitive ability tests, 9, 137–141, 137f, 139f, 140f, 155t Cognitive choice theories, 236–242 Cognitive evaluation theory, 235 Cognitive-processing models, of performance appraisal, 111–113, 112f Cohesion, 327–328 groupthink and, 337–339 Common-Metric Questionnaire (CMQ), 66–68 Comparable worth, 77–78 Compensable factors, 75–77, 76f Compensation comparable worth and, 77–78 compensable factors and, 75–77, 76f gainsharing and, 400–401 gender and, 77–78, 186 job evaluation and, 75–77 job satisfaction and, 265 pay for performance and, 247, 248, 265–266 wage equity and, 76–78, 76f Competencies in I/O psychology, 4–5, 4t KSAOs and, 72–74 Competency modeling, 72–74 See also Job analysis Competency-based training, 198 Composite criterion, 90–93 Computer-assisted instruction, 209–210 Concurrent validity, 44, 46f, 166–167, 167t Confounding variables, 28, 30 Consent, informed, 27 Consequences, 28 Consideration, in leadership, 358, 359f Construct, 44 Construct validity, 44, 46f, 88 Consumer psychology, Content validity, 44, 46f Context, for performance appraisal, 106 Contextual performance, 96–99, 97f job satisfaction and, 270 Contingency theories, of leadership, 360–363 Contingent reinforcement, 369 Continuance commitment, 276, 277f Continuous employee development, 123–125 Continuous improvement, 398–400 Continuous learning, 202 Control experimental, 29–30 scientific, 21 Control theory, 244–245 Convergent validity, 45 Coping emotion-focused, 295, 313 with job loss, 312–313 problem-focused, 295, 313 in stress management, 294t, 295–296 See also Stress in work–family conflict, 299 Core job dimensions, 233–235, 234f Core self-evaluation, job satisfaction and, 263–264 Corporate universities, 216–217 Correlation coefficient (r), 50–52, 50f, 51f, 161 Correlational research, 34–35 CorVitrus, 199 Counterproductive behaviors, 95, 98 definition of, 274 job satisfaction and, 274–275 organizational commitment and, 282 workplace violence and, 315–319, 315f, 317f Coworker relationships job satisfaction and, 264–265 stress and, 292 Credit Suisse, 147 Crime See also Counterproductive behaviors workplace, 315–319 Criteria, 28 actual, 85, 86f based on job analysis, 72 behavioral, 221–223, 222t composite, 90–93 criteria for, 85–89 definition of, 83–84 dynamic, 93–94 fairness of, 87t, 89 hard, 94–95 learning, 221–223, 222t multiple, 90–93 nonjudgmental, 94–95 objective, 94–95, 94t practicality of, 87t, 89 predictors and, 132, 136 See also Predictors reaction, 221–223, 222t relevance of, 86–87, 86f, 182 reliability of, 87t, 88 results, 221–223, 222t sensitivity of, 87t, 88–89 Subject Index | 473 soft, 95 subjective, 95 training, 220–224, 222t ultimate, 84, 86f Criterion contamination, 86f, 87–88 Criterion deficiency, 86–87, 86f Criterion measurement, 81–99 bias in, 88 Borman’s model of, 98–99 Campbell’s performance taxonomy and, 90–91, 91t cognitive variables in, 98–99 contextual performance and, 96–99, 97f counterproductive behavior and, 95, 98 criteria dimensions in, 85–89 See also Criteria error in, 87–88 expanded criteria for, 97–98, 97f job analysis and, 72 multiple vs composite criteria in, 90–93, 91t, 92t organizational citizenship behaviors and, 96–98 overview of, 82–83 personality variables and, 98–99 purpose of, 92–93 relevance of, 86–87, 86f, 182 task performance and, 96, 97f Criterion problem, 82, 90–94 Criterion-related validity, 44–45, 45f, 46f, 136–137, 155t, 162, 165–168 Critical incidents, 107–108 Cronbach’s coefficient alpha, 43 Cross-functional teams, 349 Cross-sectional data, 37 Cross-validation studies, 167–168 Cultural factors, in leadership, 368, 374–375 of recruiting, 164–165 in training, 217–220 in work–family conf lict, 299 Culture change, 406–407 Culture of diversity, 220 Cyclical inductive–deductive model, 25, 25f Data cross-sectional, 37 longitudinal, 37 theories and, 24–26, 25f Data collection, 31, 31f, 35–40 Data sets, secondary, 36–37 Day care, 301t, 305–306, 309 elder, 306 Decision making centralized, 385 group, 332–339 See also Group decision making Deduction, 24–25, 25f Dell, 391 Demographic analysis, for training, 201 Dependent variables, 27–28 Depression burnout and, 294 job loss and, 312 Description, scientific, 21, 35 Descriptive norms, 326 Descriptive research, 34–35 Determinism, 22 Development employee See Training organizational See Organizational development Developmental planning, in performance management, 106 Diaz v Pan Am, 183f, 187 Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 62–63, 63f, 90 Disabled workers discrimination against, 189–191 training for, 201 Discoverability, 22 Discrimination issues, 181–189 See also Legal issues age, 189 disability, 189–191 federal agencies, 188–189 gender See Gender issues national origin, 187–188 in performance appraisal, 110, 127–128 pregnancy, 188 racial, 127–128, 164–165, 180–189 religious, 188 in selection, 164–165, 180–189 serious health conditions, 191–192 sexual orientation, 188 in training, 201, 218–220 Disengagement, in selfregulation, 246 Disney, 406 Disparate impact cases, 186 Disparate treatment cases, 186 Dissertations, Distance learning, 212 Distributed practice, 203 Distributional errors, in performance appraisal, 114 Distributive justice, 239 Divergent validity, 44 Diversity, 8, 15–16 culture of, 220 leadership and, 368, 374–375 recruiting and, 164–165 training and, 218–220 work–family conflict and, 299 Division of labor, 383–384 Doctoral programs, in I/O psychology, 3–5, 4t, 13 Documentation, in performance appraisal, 105 Downsizing, 15 job involvement and, 283 psychological effects of, 311–315 stress and, 294 Dual-earner couples, 308–311 See also Work–family conflict DuPont, 122, 311, 400 Dynamic criteria, 93–94 Education and training See also Training of industrial/organizational psychologists, 3–5, 4t EEOC v U of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 189 80% rule of thumb, 181–182 E-learning, 212–213 Electronic brainstorming, 334 474 | Subject Index Elements, in job analysis, 59, 65 Emotion regulation, 284 Emotional dissonance, 285 Emotional intelligence, 140–141 leadership and, 376 Emotional labor, 284–285 Emotional strains, 294 See also Stress Emotion-focused coping, 295 job loss and, 313 Empire Steel and Tin Plate Company, 400 Empiricism, 22 Employee comparison procedures, 109–110, 111t Employee compensation See Compensation Employee development, 213–217 See also Training job satisfaction and, 265–266 Employee empowerment, 15 Employee morale, performance appraisals and, 115–116 Employee relationships job satisfaction and, 264–265 stress and, 292 Employee well-being See also Stress; Work–family conflict (WFC) environmental determinants of, 296–298, 296t job loss and, 314–315 Employee–supervisor relationships job satisfaction and, 264–265, 283–284 layoffs and, 313 performance appraisal and, 119–120 stress and, 283–284 Employment at-will, 180–181 Employment interviews, 152–156 Employment laws, 184–192, 185t See also Legal issues Engineering psychology, Enthusiastic workaholics, 283 Entitleds, 239 Entropy, 389–390 Environmental determinants of well-being, 296–298, 296t job loss and, 314–315 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 180, 218 Equal Pay Act (EPA), 185t, 186 Equifinality, 390 Equity sensitivity, 239 Equity theory, 236–239 ERG theory, 231–232, 233f Ernst & Young, 408 Error training, 205 Essential functions, 190 Ethics, 26–27 Ethridge v State of Alabama, 190 E-Toys.com, 392 Executive coaching, 215 Executive Order 11246, 185t, 188–189 Expatriates, performance criteria for, 97–98 Expectancy, in VIE model, 239–242, 240f Expectancy theory, 239–242, 363 Experience sampling methodology (ESM), 39–40 Experimental design, 27–30, 31, 31f, 34 pre/post, 223–224, 223t Solomon four-group, 223t, 224 for training evaluation, 223–224, 223t Experimental methods, 32–40 See also Research Explanation, scientific, 21 External validity, 29, 33 Extraneous variables, 28, 30 Faces Scale, 267, 269f Fairness See also Organizational justice of appraisal process, 42, 105, 110, 127–128 of criteria, 87t, 89 equity theory and, 236–239 Faking, in personality testing, 142–143 Family and Medical Leave Act, 185t, 191–192, 304 Family issues See Work–family conflict (WFC) Family Leave Insurance Act, 192 Family-friendly policies, 301–302, 301t Family-leave policies, 301t, 304–305 FedEx, 310 Feedback in control theory, 245–246 motivation and, 205, 243, 245 multisource, in performance appraisal, 122–123 in open-system cycle, 388f, 390 in performance management, 106 360-degree, 122–123, 246 in training, 204–205 Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory, 362–363 Fiedler’s contingency theory, 360–363, 361f Field experiments, 33 First impression error, 116 Five-factor personality model, 142 leadership and, 356 Flexibility, leadership and, 356 Flexible work alternatives, 279, 301–302, 301t Forced distribution, 110 Forced-choice checklists, 109 Formal groups, 325 Forming stage, of group development, 329, 329t Frame of Reference (FOR) Training, 117–118 Free riding, 332 Frito-Lay, 340 Frustration–regression hypothesis, 232 Functional Job Analysis, 61–63, 65–66 Functional organizational design, 401–402, 401f Gainsharing, 400–401 Games, management, 215–216 The Gap, 392 Gateway, 391 Gays and lesbians, discrimination against, 188 Subject Index | 475 Gender issues See also Women comparable worth, 77–78 compensation, 77–78, 186 dual-earner couples, 308–311 hostile work environment, 188 leadership, 355–356, 368, 371–374 performance appraisal, 127–128 pregnancy, 188 selection, 164–165, 187, 188 sexual harassment, 188, 217–218 work–family conflict, 298–310 See also Work–family conflict (WFC) General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), 36–37 General Electric, 12, 110, 122, 216, 251, 311, 344, 400, 408 General Motors, 251, 311, 400 Glass ceiling, 371–372 Globalization, 14–15 criterion measurement and, 97–98 organizational development and, 391–392 Goals learning, 244 motivation and, 242–246 in performance management, 106 unattainable, 246–247 Goal-setting theory, 242–243 management by objective and, 251–252 Going postal, 316 Good man/good woman theory, 355 Goodyear, 123 Google, 302–303 Graduate Training Programs in Industrial/Organizational Psychology and Related Fields (SIOP), Graphic rating scales, 107–108, 107f, 111t Gratz v Bollinger, 184 Grievances, 95 Griggs v Duke Power, 186, 187 Group(s), 323–339 development of, 329–331 dissolution of, 330 formal, 325 informal, 325 intact research, 34 punctuated equilibrium models of, 331 social compensation in, 332 social enhancement in, 332 social influence in, 326–332 social loafing in, 331–332 stage models of, 329–331, 329f vs teams, 325 See also Work teams work, 325 Group cohesion, 327–329 groupthink and, 337–339 Group decision making, 332–339 brainstorming in, 334 effective, 333–335, 333t groupthink in, 337–339, 338f ineffective, 335–339 process loss in, 336–337 production blocking in, 334 shared vs unshared information in, 336–337 steps in, 333–335, 333t Group norms, 326 Group performance law, 336 Group preference, 347 Group tests, 135 Groupthink, 337–339, 338f Growth need strength, 235 Growth opportunities, job satisfaction and, 265–266 Grutter v Bollinger, 184 GSX Corporation, 404 Guidelines for Education and Training at the Doctoral Level in Industrial/Organizational Psychology (SIOP), Halo, 113–114, 117 Hard criteria, 94–95 Harless v Duck, 71 Harley-Davidson, 344 Hawthorne Studies, 10, 10t, 228 Hearing tests, 141 Herzberg’s two-factor theory, 232, 233f Hewlett-Packard, 110, 406, 407, 408 Hiring See Selection decisions Hogan Personality Inventory, 142 Home Depot, 122 Homosexuals, discrimination against, 188 Honesty tests, 143–144, 155t Honeywell, 122 Hostile work environment, 188 Human capital, 200 Human factors psychology, Humanistic theory, 386–388, 386f, 387t Hygienes, 232, 233f Hypothesis, 31, 31f IBM, 303, 308, 391, 392, 406 Identical elements theory, 206 Illness family-leave policies and, 301t, 304–305 stress-related, 294–295 Immigration See also Diversity discrimination issues and, 187–188, 218–220 Implicit leadership theory, 366–368 Impression management, 120 In-basket tests, 148, 149t Incremental validity, 138 Incumbents, 60, 61, 65–66, 68–69 Independent variables, 27 Individual tests, 135 Induction, 24–25, 25f Industrial psychology, 58 framework for, 59f job analysis in, 57–79 vs organizational psychology, Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology career paths in, 5–7, 5f, 6t competencies for, 4–5, 4t definition of, diversity in, education and training in, 3–5, 13 history of, 8–14 international scope of, 13–14 overview of, 2–3 practical applications of, 5–7, 5f, 6t scientist/practitioner model of, Informal groups, 325 476 | Subject Index Information technology (IT), 404 See also Internet in knowledge management, 408 Informed consent, 27 Initiating structure, in leadership, 358, 359f Instructional design, 202 Instrumentality, in VIE model, 240, 240f, 241–242 Intact research groups, 34 Integrity tests, 143–144, 155t Intel, 122, 302 Intelligence, emotional, 140–141 Intelligence tests, 137–141, 137f, 139f, 140f, 155t Army Alpha/Beta, Wonderlic Personnel Test, 137–138, 137f Interactional justice, 239 Inter-item reliability, 43 Internal consistency, 43, 46f Internal validity, 28–29, 33 International Association of Applied Psychology, 14 Internet information technology and, 404–405 in knowledge management, 408 in organizational development, 404–405 in recruiting, 163–164 telecommuting via, 279, 303, 346 in training, 212–213 virtual work teams and, 346 Interpersonal orientation, of leaders, 358–360 Interpersonal relationships job satisfaction and, 264–265 stress and, 283–284, 292 Interrater reliability, 43, 46f Intervention, 394 Interviews definition of, 152 employment, 152–156 legally suspect questions in, 153–155, 154t performance appraisal, 125–127, 126t structured, 152, 155t survey, 39 unstructured, 152–153, 155t Intrinsic motivation, 235 Job core dimensions of, 233–235, 234f definition of, 59 Job analysis, 57–75 advances in, 68–69 approaches to, 60 bias in, 68–69 Common-Metric Questionnaire (CMQ) in, 66–68 comparable worth and, 77–78 competency modeling and, 72–74 criterion development and, 72 See also Criteria definition of, 59 Dictionary of Occupational Titles and, 62–63, 63f elements in, 59, 65 functional, 61–63, 65–66 hybrid methods of, 60, 63 incumbents in, 60, 61 job classification and, 71–72 job description in, 69–70 job design/redesign and, 74 Job Element Method in, 65–68 job specifications in, 70 job-oriented, 60–65, 200 KSAOs in, 65, 70, 133, 134f legal issues in, 71, 71t methods of, 60–69 metrics for, 86 Occupation Information Network (O*NET) and, 63–65, 64f, 68 performance appraisal and, 72 Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) in, 66, 67f predictors and, 133, 161 purposes of, 70–75 selection and placement and, 72–74 subject-matter experts in, 60, 61, 65–66, 68–69 task inventories in, 60–61, 61f, 66–67 technology in, 68 terminology of, 59 training and, 74–75, 200 worker-oriented, 60, 65–68 Job attitudes, 7, 257–286 See also Job satisfaction behavioral correlates of, 259–260, 260f, 269–275 emotional labor and, 284–285 emotions and, 284 job involvement and, 282–283 organizational commitment and, 275–282 perceived organizational support and, 283–284 of team members, 344, 347–348 theory of planned behavior and, 259–260, 260f, 269 work centrality and, 282–283 Job characteristics theory, 233–236, 234f, 252–253 job enrichment and, 252–253 job satisfaction and, 261–262 Job classification, 71–72 Job description, 69–70, 161 Job Descriptive Index (JDI), 266–267, 267f Job design/redesign, 74 Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS), 266–267, 268f Job Element Method (JEM), 65–68 Job enrichment, 252–253 Job evaluation, 75–78 compensable factors and, 75–77, 76f point system in, 75–77, 76f Job insecurity job involvement and, 283 stress and, 294, 311–315 Job interviews, 152–156 Job involvement, 282–283 Job loss, 15 psychological effects of, 311–315 Job performance See Performance Job satisfaction, 261–275 See also Job attitudes absenteeism and, 270–272 Subject Index | 477 antecedents of, 261–266, 262f compensation and, 265 consequences of, 261, 262f, 269–275 counterproductive behaviors and, 274–275 coworker relationships and, 264–265 definition of, 261 dimensions of, 266–267, 266f, 267f of dual-earner couples, 309 growth opportunities and, 265–266 individual/personal characteristics in, 262–264 job characteristics and, 261–262 lateness and, 272–273 measurement of, 266–267, 266f, 267f organizational citizenship behavior and, 270 organizational commitment and, 275–282 performance and, 270 role ambiguity and, 265 social factors in, 264–265 stress and, 266 turnover and, 273–274, 274f two-factor theory of, 232, 233f withdrawal behaviors and, 270–274, 271f, 274f Job specifications, 70, 161 Job-oriented job analysis, 60–65, 200 Johnson & Johnson, 122 Judgmental criteria, 95 Just cause policies, 181 Justice See also Organizational justice distributive, 239 interactional, 239 procedural, 239 Kern River Asset Team, 344 Kirkland v New York Dept of Correctional Service, 71 Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy, 221–222 augmented framework for, 222–223, 222t Knowledge management, 407–409 Knowledge Network, 408 Knowledge-of-results (KOR), 205 See also Feedback KSAOs, 65, 70 competencies and, 72–74 definition of, 65 identification of, 65–66, 72–74 in job analysis, 65, 70, 133, 134f, 200 predictors and, 133, 134f See also Predictors in training, 200 work teams and, 384 Kuder-Richardson 20, 43 Laboratory experiments, 33 Lateness, job satisfaction and, 272–273 Lateness rates, 94–95 Law of group performance, 336 Layoff decisions, 161 See also Job loss; Selection decisions Leader behaviors, 363–364, 363t Leader Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ), 358, 359f Leaderless group discussion (LGD), 148–149 Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, 119–120, 365–366 implicit leadership theory and, 367 Leadership, 351–376 behavior theories of, 356–360 consideration and, 358, 359f contemporary theories of, 364–371 contingency theories of, 360–363 cultural aspects of, 368, 374–375 definition of, 353 delegation in, 384 effective, 353 emotions and, 376 gender issues in, 355–356, 368, 371–374 groupthink and, 338–339 implicit leadership theory of, 366–368 initiating structure and, 358, 359f interpersonal orientation in, 358–360 leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of, 119–120, 365–366, 367 new theories of, 369–371 path-goal theory of, 363–364, 363t, 364f prototypes of, 367–368, 375 task orientation in, 358–360 trait theories of, 355–356 transactional, 369 transformational, 369–371 vertical dyad linkage theory of, 365 Leadership Behavior Descriptive Questionnaire (LBDQ), 358, 359f Leadership ratings, 367–368, 367f Leadership self-efficacy, 356 Leadership style, average, 365 Learning See also Training active, 202 blended, 213 continuous, 202 in corporate universities, 216–217 definition of, 202 distance, 212 distributed vs mass practice and, 203 feedback in, 204–205 overlearning and, 204 principles of, 202–205 whole vs part, 203 Learning criteria, 221–223, 222t Learning goal orientation, 244 Learning organizations, 201, 407 Least preferred coworker (LPC) scale, 361–362 Leave/time-off policies, 301t, 304–305 Lectures, training, 208–209, 223 478 | Subject Index Legal issues, 180–192 adverse impact, 181–182, 181t affirmative action, 182–185 bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ), 187, 189 business necessity defense, 182 disability, 189–192 discrimination, 181–189 See also Discrimination issues disparate impact, 186 disparate treatment, 186–187 employment at-will, 180–181 employment laws, 184–192, 185t hostile work environment, 188 interviewing, 153–155, 154t job analysis, 71, 71t performance appraisal, 105, 110, 127–128 personality testing, 142 polygraph use, 143 prima facie case, 182 selection, 168–169, 180–192 sexual harassment, 188 termination decisions, 180–181 Lego Company, 396 Leniency, in performance appraisal, 114, 121, 125 Lesbians, discrimination against, 188 Levi Strauss, 310, 392 Lewin’s change model, 394–395, 395f Life management theory, 300 Longitudinal data, 37 Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award, 398–399 Management by objectives (MBO), 251–252 Management games, 215–216 Management teams, 341–342, 341t See also Work teams Marriott International, 219, 310 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 230–231, 230f Massed practice, 203 Matrix organizational design, 403, 403f Maytag, 312 McDonald’s, 216 Mean, 47 Measurement, 40–45 criterion, 81–99 See also Criterion measurement errors in, 40 problems in, 40–41 reliability of, 40–43 statistics and, 30, 46–53 See also Statistics validity of, 44–45 Measures of central tendency, 46–47 Measures of dispersion, 47 Measures of variability, 48 Mechanical ability tests, 138, 139f Median, 47 Mental Measurements Yearbook (Geisinger et al.), 133 Mercer Consulting, 248 Meritor Savings Bank v Vinson, 188 Meta-analysis, 52–53 Metropolitan Life, 12, 306–307 Micro-managers, 384 Microsoft, 294 Mindguards, 339 Minnesota Clerical Test, 139, 140f Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 142 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, 267 Mode, 47 Moral commitment, 276 Morale, performance appraisals and, 115–116 Motivation, 227–255 attendance, 272 cognitive choice theories of, 236–242 cognitive evaluation theory of, 235 control theory of, 244–245 equity theory of, 236–239 ERG theory of, 231–232 expectancy theory of, 239–242 feedback and, 205, 243, 245 goal-setting theory of, 242–243, 251–252 inputs and outputs and, 236–239, 237f inspirational, 370 intrinsic, 235 job characteristics theory of, 233–236, 234f, 252–253, 261–262 job enrichment and, 252–253 management by objectives and, 251–252 need–motive–value theories of, 230–231, 230f organizational behavior management and, 247–249 overview of, 228–229 pay for performance and, 247, 248 self-determination theory of, 235–236 self-regulation theories of, 242–247 social cognitive theories of, 243–247 in training, 205 transformational leadership and, 370 two-factor theory of, 232, 233f valence–instrumentality– expectancy model of, 239–242, 240f work, 229 Motorola, 216, 340, 400 Multi-factor performance model, 90–91, 91t Multimedia training programs, 211–212 Multiple cutoff approach, 169–171, 170t, 171t Multiple hurdle approach, 170–171, 171t Multiple regression, 171–174 Narrative review, 53 National Study of the Changing Workforce, 301, 302 Naturalistic observation, 35–36 Subject Index | 479 Need–motive–value theories, 230–231 Negative entropy, 389–390 NEO Personality Inventory, 142 New leadership theories, 369–371 New-employee training, 213–214 Nonjudgmental criteria, 94–95 Nordstrom, 310, 406 Norm(s), 326 descriptive, 326 prescriptive, 326 subjective, 259–260 Normal distribution, 48–49, 49f Normative commitment, 276, 277f Norming stage, of group development, 329t, 330 Northwestern National Life Insurance Company, 315 NRG::Seattle, 302 Nunn-Bush Shoe Company, 400 Objective criteria, 94–95, 94t Occupational Information Network (O*NET), 63–65, 64f, 68, 90 Occupational psychology, 14 Older workers discrimination against, 127–128, 189 training of, 201 Onsite child-care, 305–306 On-the-job training, 208–209 Open-system theory, 388–390, 388f, 389t Organizational behavior management (OBM), 247–249 Organizational change, 392–394 action research model of, 395–396 cultural, 406–407 leader–member exchange theory and, 365 Lewin’s model of, 394–396, 395f stress and, 292–293, 293t Organizational citizenship behavior, 96–98 job satisfaction and, 270 organizational commitment and, 270 transformational leadership and, 370 Organizational commitment, 275–282, 278f affective, 276, 277f, 278–279 antecedents of, 276–280, 278f components of, 276, 277f consequences of, 278f, 280–281 continuance, 276, 277f counterproductive behaviors and, 282 definition of, 275 individual/personal characteristics in, 279–280 job involvement and, 282–283 normative, 276, 277f organizational citizenship behavior and, 270 organizational mechanisms and, 276–279 performance and, 280–281 social factors in, 280 withdrawal behaviors and, 281–282 work centrality and, 282–283 Organizational context, for training, 201–207 Organizational design functional, 401–402, 401f matrix, 403, 403f product-based, 402–403, 402f Organizational development (OD), 7, 390–408 competition and, 391 culture change in, 406–407 definition of, 390 gainsharing in, 400–401 globalization and, 391–392 information technology in, 404–405 interventions for, 396–409 knowledge management in, 407–409 organizational change and, 392–393 organizational design and, 401–404, 401f–403f organizational transformation and, 406–409 positive, 405–406 purposes of, 391–393 survey feedback in, 396–397 team building in, 397–398 technostructural interventions for, 401–405, 401f–403f total quality management in, 398–400 Organizational justice, 239, 265 distributive, 239 gainsharing and, 400–401 interactional, 239 job satisfaction and, 265 motivation and, 239 organizational commitment and, 280 procedural, 239 Organizational politics, performance appraisals and, 120 Organizational psychology See also Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology definition of, 228 vs industrial psychology, Organizational socialization, 213–214 Organizational theory, 379–390 bureaucracy, 383–386 classical, 381–386 definition of, 381 humanistic, 386–388, 386f, 387t open-system, 388–390, 388f, 389t Scientific Management, 382–383 Organizational transformation, 406–409 Organization-based selfesteem, 264 Organization-motivated aggression, 317 Organization-motivated violence, 317–318, 318f Orientation training, 213 Outcomes, 28 Outdoor experiential training, 398 Overjustification effect, 235–236 Overlearning, 204 Overt integrity tests, 144 480 | Subject Index Paired comparisons, 110 Paper-and-pencil tests, 135 Parallel forms reliability, 42–43, 46f Parallel teams, 341t, 342 See also Work teams Parental leave, 304–305 Parents v Seattle School District, 184 Path-goal theory, 363–364, 363t, 364f Pay for performance, 247, 248 See also Compensation job satisfaction and, 265–266 PDI Shanghai, 357 PepsiCo, 124 Perceived behavioral control, 260 Perceived organizational support (POS), 283–284 Perceived System Knowledge (PSK), 125–126 Percentile score, 48–49 Performance See also Criteria Campbell’s taxonomy of, 90, 91t contextual, 96–99, 97f definition of, 84 dynamic nature of, 93–94 group cohesion and, 327–329 job satisfaction and, 270 multi-factor model of, 90–91, 91t organizational commitment and, 280–281 task, 96–98, 97f Performance appraisal, 7, 12–13, 103–129 behaviorally anchored rating scales in, 107–108, 108f, 111t central tendency in, 114–115 checklists in, 108–109, 109f, 111t cognitive-processing models of, 111–113, 112f context for, 106, 118–127 critical incidents in, 107–108 definition of, 104 distributional errors in, 114 documentation and, 105 due process metaphor view of, 128 employee comparison procedures in, 109–110, 111t employee development and, 123–125 employee morale and, 115–116 employee participation in, 125 employee reactions to, 118–120 employee understanding of, 125–127 forced distribution in, 110 graphic rating scales in, 107–108, 107f, 111t halo effects in, 113–114, 117 interview guidelines for, 125, 126t job analysis and, 72 legal issues in, 105, 110, 127–128 leniency in, 114, 121, 125 LMX theory of, 119–120, 365–366 multiple rates in, 122–123 negative effects of, 105 organizational politics and, 120 paired comparisons in, 110 in performance management, 106 primacy effect in, 116 purposes of, 104–105 range restriction in, 115 rank-ordering in, 110 rater comfort with, 120–121 rater goals and accountability and, 121–122 rater reactions to, 118–119, 120–121 rater training for, 116–118 rating errors in, 111–116 rating formats for, 106–111, 107f–109f, 111t reaction criteria for, 118–119 recency error in, 116 research on, 106, 118–127 role of I/O psychologists in, 105–106 severity in, 115–116 similar-to-me error in, 116 supervisor–subordinate relationships and, 119–120 test metaphor vs due process view of, 128 360-degree feedback in, 122–123 training and, 200–201 trust in, 120–121 upward ratings in, 122–123 Performance Appraisal Discomfort Scale (PADS), 121 Performance criteria See Criteria Performance goal orientation, 244 See also Goals Performance management, 106 Performance taxonomy, 90–91, 91t Performance tests, 135 Performing stage, of group development, 329t, 330 Person analysis, 200–201 Person–environment (PE) fit, 163 Person–organization fit, 163 Personality Big Five model of, 142, 356 definition of, 142 job satisfaction and, 262–264 of leaders, 356 training and, 205–206 work teams and, 347 Personality tests, 133, 141–143, 155t Personality-type integrity tests, 144 Personnel psychology See Industrial psychology Personnel Selection (Thorndike), 84 Petit vs Chicago, 184 Pets.com, 392 PGA Tour, Inc., v Martin, 191 PhD programs, in I/O psychology, 3–5, 4t, 13 Physical fidelity, of simulators, 210 Placement, job analysis and, 72–74 Planned behavior theory, 259–260, 260f, 269 Point system, in job evaluation, 75–77, 76f Polygraphs, 143 Position, 59 See also Job Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), 66, 67f Positive psychology, 233, 405 Subject Index | 481 Power, 353–355 Power tests, 134 Practice See also Training distributed vs mass, 203 overlearning and, 204 Precursors, 28 Prediction, scientific, 21, 35 Predictive validity, 44, 46f, 165–166, 167, 167t, 176–177, 176f Predictors, 28, 131–156 See also Test(s) application blanks, 150 assessment centers and, 146–149 BioData, 150–152, 151f, 155t biographical information, 149–150 classification of, 133–135 clerical ability tests, 139, 140f cognitive ability tests, 9, 137–141, 137f, 139f, 140f, 155t correlation among, 161–162 criteria and, 132, 136 See also Criteria definition of, 132 development of, 133 emotional intelligence, 140–141 faking and, 142–143 in-basket tests, 148, 149t individual vs group tests, 135 integrity tests, 143–144, 155t interviews, 152–156, 155t See also Interviews job analysis and, 133, 161 leaderless group discussion, 148–149 legal aspects of, 142 mechanical ability tests, 138, 139f paper-and-pencil tests, 135 parallel tests, 42–43 performance tests, 135 personality tests, 133, 141–143, 155t power tests, 134 psychomotor tests, 141, 155t purpose of, 136 realistic job preview, 153 relevance of, 182 reliability of, 41–43, 136 in selection batteries, 161–162, 165–169, 174–179 See also Selection batteries selection of, 133, 161 situational judgment tests, 145–146, 155t sources of, 133–134 spatial ability tests, 138–139 speed tests, 134 types of, 136–137 utility of, 174 validity of, 28–29, 33, 44–45, 136, 155–156, 165–169, 167t, 176–177 See also Validity for work teams, 347–348 Pregnancy, discrimination and, 188 Pre/post design, 223–224, 223t Prescriptive norms, 326 Prima facie case, 182 Primacy effect, 116 Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures (SIOP), 180 Problem-focused coping, 295 job loss and, 313 Procedural justice, 239 Process loss, 336–337 Procter & Gamble, 122, 219 Product-based organizational design, 402–403, 402f Production teams, 341, 341t See also Work teams Productivity, 95 See also Performance job satisfaction and, 270 management by objectives and, 252 organizational commitment and, 280–281 Programmed instruction, 209 Project teams, 341t, 342 See also Work teams Promotion decisions, 161 See also Selection decisions criterion measurements for, 92, 92t Prosocial organizational behaviors (POBs), 96 See also Organizational citizenship behavior Prototypical leadership, 367–368, 375 The Psychological Corporation, 9, 10 Psychological fidelity, of simulators, 210 Psychology consumer, engineering, human factors, industrial, 3, 57–59 See also Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology occupational, 14 organizational, 228 positive, 233, 405 work, 14 Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (Munsterberg), The Psychology of Management (Gilbreth), 10 Psychomotor tests, 141, 155t Punctuated equilibrium models, 331 Purdue Pegboard, 141 Quality of work life, See also Work–family conflict (WFC) Quasi-experiments, 34 Questionnaires, 37–38 Quid pro quo harassment, 188 Race See also Discrimination issues; Diversity in leadership, 368, 374–375 in performance appraisal, 127–128 in selection, 164–165, 180–189, 186–189 Random assignment, 32 Range, 48 Range restriction, in performance appraisal, 115 Rank-ordering, in performance appraisal, 110 482 | Subject Index Rater Error Training (RET), 116–117 Rating scales behaviorally anchored, 107–108, 108f, 111t graphic, 106–107, 107f, 111t Rational choice models, 259 Reaction criteria, 221–223, 222t Readiness, for training, 205–206 Realistic job preview (RJP), 153 Reasonable accommodations, 190 Reasoned action theory, 259 Recency error, 116 Recruitment, 163–165 Reengineering, 403–405 Regressions, 51–52 multiple, 171–174 in selection, 171–174 Reinforcement, contingent, 369 Reliability, 41–43, 46f definition of, 41 goals for, 43 inter-item, 43 internal consistency and, 43, 46f interrater, 43, 46f parallel forms, 42–43, 46f of predictors, 136 split-half, 43 test–retest, 41–42, 42f, 46f Religious discrimination, 188 Research, 32–53 archival, 36–37 basic concepts of, 27–32 case studies in, 36 causal inferences and, 27, 28 data in, 24–26, 25f collection of, 35–40 deduction in, 24–25, 25f descriptive (correlational), 34–35 ethics in, 26–27 experience sampling methodology (ESM) in, 39–40 field experiments in, 33 induction in, 24–25, 25f informed consent in, 27 intact groups in, 34 interviews in, 39 laboratory experiments in, 33 measurement in, 40–53 See also Measurement meta-analysis in, 52–53 methodology of, 32–53 model of, 31–32, 31f narrative review in, 53 naturalistic, 35–36 observational methods in, 34–36 publication of, 31–32 random assignment and, 32 reliability in, 40–43 stages of, 31–32, 31f statistics in, 30, 46–53 See also Statistics study design in, 27–30, 31, 31f, 34 See also Experimental design terminology of, 27–32 theories in, 4, 22–26 See also Theories validity in, 28–29, 33, 44–45, 45f, 46f See also Validity variables in, 27–28, 30, 33 manipulation of, 21, 32 writing up, 31–32 Research papers, 31–32 Results criteria, 221–223, 222t Right Management, 73 Role(s) definition of, 292 group, 326–327 Role ambiguity, 292 job satisfaction and, 265 Role concept, 327 Role conflict, 292 Role differentiation, 327 Role sharing, by dual-career couples, 310 Rooney v Koch Air, LLC, 190–191 Safety improvement, 248–249 Salaries See Compensation Sandwiched generation, 306 Scanlon Plan, 400 School-to-work initiatives, 63 Science, 20–27 See also Research assumptions of, 22 definition of, 20–21 ethics in, 26–27 goals of, 21–22 Scientific Management, 10, 382–383 Scientific theories, 22–26 Scientist/practitioner model, The Scott Company, Secondary data sets, 36–37 Selection batteries, 161–162, 162f utility of, 174–179, 179t validation of, 165–169, 182, 187 Selection decisions, 6–7, 12–13 accuracy of, 174–176, 175f base rate and, 177 costs of, 177–178 human capital and, 200 job analysis and, 72–74 legal issues in, 168–169, 180–192 See also Legal issues multiple cutoff approach to, 169–171, 170t, 171t multiple hurdle approach to, 170–171, 171t multiple regression in, 171–174 overview of, 161–162 person–environment fit and, 163 predictors in, 131–158 See also Predictors recruitment and, 163–165 selection battery for, 161–162, 162f, 165–169, 174–179, 179t selection ratio and, 177 training and, 200–201 validation study for, 165–168, 182 validity generalization and, 168–169 for work teams, 346–347 Selection ratio, 177 Self-actualization, 230–231 Self-administered questionnaires, 37–38 Self-determination theory, 235–236 Self-efficacy expectations, 244 Self-efficacy training, for raters, 121 Self-esteem job satisfaction and, 263–264 organization-based, 264 Subject Index | 483 Self-evaluation, 243–244 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 386 Self-managed work teams, 343–344 Self-observation, 243 Self-reactions, 244 Self-regulation theories, 242–247 Self-transcendence, 231 Sensemaking, 396 Sensory tests, 141 Service industries, emotional labor in, 284–285 Service teams, 341t, 342 See also Work teams Severity, in performance appraisal, 115–116 Sex discrimination See Gender issues Sexual harassment, 188, 217–218 Sexual orientation, discrimination and, 188 Shaker Consulting Group, 279 Similar-to-me error, 116 Simulations, business, 215–216 Situational judgment tests, 145–146, 155t Situational specificity, 168 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, 142 Social cognitive theories, 243–247 Social compensation, 332 Social enhancement, 332 Social factors in job satisfaction, 264–265 in organizational commitment, 280 Social justice, equity theory and, 236–239 Social loafing, 331–332 Social support employee development and, 125 job loss and, 313 stress and, 296, 300 work–family conflict and, 300 Socialization, organizational, 213–214 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), 3–4, 6, 180 Soft criteria, 95 Solomon four-group design, 223t, 224 Soroka v Dayton Hudson, 142 Southern California Edison, 252 Southwest Airlines, 380 Span of control, 384–385 Spatial ability tests, 138–139 Speed tests, 134 Spillover model, 298, 300, 309 Split-half reliability, 43 Squared correlation, 52, 52f, 161–162 SRA Test of Mechanical Concepts, 138, 139f Stage models, of group development, 329–331, 329f Standard deviation, 48–49, 49f Standard Oil of New Jersey, 12 Standardized tasks, 385 Starbucks, 310 Statistical process control, 399 Statistics, 30, 46–53 correlational, 34, 50–52, 50f, 51f definition of, 46 measures of central tendency and, 46–47 measures of dispersion and, 47 regression and, 51–52 Storming stage, of group development, 329, 329t Strains, 294–295 See also Stress definition of, 291 Stress, 291–296 burnout and, 294 challenge-related, 295 coping with, 294t, 295–296 definition of, 291 hindrance-related, 295 illness and, 294–295 interpersonal relationships and, 292 job insecurity and, 294, 311–315 job satisfaction and, 266 model of, 291–292, 291f organizational change and, 292–293, 293t role ambiguity and, 292 role conflict and, 292 social support and, 296, 300 sources of, 293 strains and, 291, 294–295 work–family conflict and, 298–310 Stressors, 293 Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Men, Subjective criteria, 95 Subjective norms, 259–260 Subject-matter experts (SMEs), 60, 61, 65–66, 68–69 Sucker effect, 332 Sunk costs commitment, 276 Supervisor–employee relationships job satisfaction and, 264–265, 283–284 layoffs and, 313 performance appraisal and, 119–120 stress and, 283–284 Suppression, in emotion regulation, 284 Surveys, 37–40, 38f in organizational development, 396–397 Tardiness, job satisfaction and, 272–273 Task, definition of, 59 Task inventories, 60–61, 61f, 66–67 Task Inventory Approach, 60 Task orientation, of leaders, 358–360 Task performance, 96–98, 97f Task requirements, 69–70 Task standardization, 385 Taskwork, 344 Taylorism, 382–383 Taylor-Russell Tables, 178, 179t Team building, 397–398 Team Role Test, 384 Teamwork, 344 See also Work teams Teamwork Test, 348 Technological training, 201 Technology in job analysis, 68 organizational development and, 392–393 484 | Subject Index Telecommuting, 279, 303 work teams and, 346 Termination decisions See also Job loss; Selection decisions criterion measurements for, 92, 92t employment at-will and, 180–181 just cause policies and, 181 legal issues in, 180–181 Test(s), 133–135 See also Predictors classification of, 133–135 definition of, 133 percentile score in, 48–49 Test–retest reliability, 41–42, 42f, 46f Texas Instruments, 110, 219, 340 Theories, 4, 22–26 See also Research data and, 24–26, 25f definition of, 22 essential elements of, 22–24 in I/O psychology, The Theory of Advertising (Scott), Theory of planned behavior, 259–260, 260f, 269 Theory of reasoned action, 259 Theory X and Theory Y, 386–387, 387t Third Opinion (Joni), 343 Third Wave, 216–217 3M, 110 360-degree feedback, 122–123, 246 Tommy Hilfiger, 392 Total quality management (TQM), 398–400 Training, 7, 195–225 See also Learning active learning in, 202 affective reactions to, 222, 222t audiovisual techniques in, 211–212 behavior modeling in, 215 blended learning in, 213 business simulations in, 215–216 coaching in, 214–215 competency-based, 198 computer-assisted, 209–210 continuous learning and, 202 definition of, 197 demographic analysis for, 201 discrimination in, 201, 218–220 distance learning in, 212 distributed vs massed practice in, 203 diversity, 218–220 e-learning in, 212–213 in employee development, 213–217 error, 205 evaluation of, 220–224 feedback in, 204–205 human capital and, 200 identical elements theory and,206 importance of, 197 instructional design and, 202 job analysis and, 74–75 KSAOs in, 200 learning context for, 201–207 learning principles and, 202–205 lectures in, 208–209, 223 motivation in, 205 needs assessment for, 198–201 new-employee, 213–214 on-the-job, 208–209 organizational analysis for, 198–199 orientation, 213 overlearning in, 204 overview of, 196–197 performance appraisals and, 123–125, 200–201 person analysis for, 200–201 personality factors in, 205–206 programmed instruction in, 209 readiness for, 205–206 relevance of, 203–204 selection and, 200 self-directed, 209–210 self-efficacy, 121 sexual harassment, 217–218 task analysis for, 199–200 technological, 201 technology-based, 212–213 trainee characteristics in, 205 trainer characteristics and, 206 transfer of, 206–207 trial-and-error, 205 utility reactions to, 222, 222t work simulators in, 210–211 Training criteria, 220–224, 222t Trait theories, of leadership, 355–356 Transactional leadership, 369 Transfer of training, 206–207 Transformational leadership, 369–371 Trial-and-error training, 205 True halo, 114, 117 Trust, performance appraisal and, 120–121 Trust in the Appraisal Process (TAPS) Survey, 120–121 Turnover job satisfaction and, 273–274, 274f organizational commitment and, 281–282 unfolding model of, 274 Turnover rates, 94–95 Two-factor theory, 232, 233f Ultimate criterion, 85, 86f Undue hardship, 190 Unemployment, 15 psychological effects of, 311–315 Unfolding model, 274 Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, 180 United Airlines, 311 Universities, corporate, 216–217 Unobtrusive naturalistic observation, 36 Upward appraisal ratings, 122–123 U.S Department of Labor, 63 U.S Employment Service, 36–37 Utility, of predictors, 174 Utility reactions, 222 Valence–instrumentality– expectancy (VIE) model, 239–242, 240f, 260 Validation, of selection batteries, 165–169 Subject Index | 485 Validation studies, 165–168, 182 Validity, 28–29 concurrent, 44, 46f, 166–167, 167t construct, 45, 46f, 88 content, 44, 46f convergent, 45 criterion-related, 44–45, 45f, 46f, 136–137, 155t, 162, 165–168 divergent, 45 external, 29, 33 incremental, 138 internal, 29, 33 predictive, 44, 46f, 165–166, 167, 167t, 176–177, 176f of predictors, 28–29, 33, 44–45, 136, 155–156, 165–169, 167t, 176–177 situational specificity of, 168 Validity coefficients, 136–137, 155t, 162 Validity generalization (VG), 168–169 Validity shrinkage, 167–168 Van Aken v.Young, 168 Variables dependent, 27–28 extraneous (confounding), 28, 30 independent, 27 manipulation of, 21, 32 Variance, 48 Vertical dyad linkage (VDL) theory, 365 VIE model, 239–242, 240f, 260 Violence, workplace, 315–319, 315f, 317f Virtual work teams, 346 Vision tests, 141 Vocational aptitude tests, 9–10 Wages See Compensation Websites See Internet Weighted checklists, 109 Well-being See Worker well-being Western Electric, 10, 189 Westinghouse, Whole Foods Market, 303 Whole vs part learning, 203 Withdrawal behaviors job satisfaction and, 270–274, 271f, 274f organizational commitment and, 281–282 in work teams, 344 Women See also Gender issues in I/O psychology, 10 as leaders, 355–356, 368, 371–374 Wonderlic Personnel Test, 137–138, 137f Work adjustment theory, 267 Work centrality, 282–283 Work groups, 325 See also Group(s); Work teams Work motivation, 229 See also Motivation Work psychology, 14 Work sample tests, 144–146, 155t Work simulators, 210–211 Work teams, 339–348 See also Group(s) advisory (parallel), 341t, 342 backup behavior of, 345–346 composition of, 345–346, 345f cross-functional, 342 effectiveness of, 344–346, 345t employee attitudes toward, 347, 348 group preference and, 347 job attitudes of, 344 leadership of, 365 See also Leadership management, 341–342, 341t personality factors and, 347 production, 341, 341t project, 341t, 342 selection for, 346–348 self-managed, 343–344 service, 341t, 342 taskwork of, 344–346 team building for, 397–398 teamwork in, 344–345 trends affecting, 346–348 types of, 341–344, 341t virtual, 346 vs work groups, 325 withdrawal behaviors of, 344 Workaholics, 282–283 enthusiastic, 283 Worker well-being See also Stress; Work–family conflict (WFC) environmental determinants of, 296–298, 296t, 297t, 314–315 job loss and, 314–315 Worker-oriented job analysis, 60, 65–68 Work–family conflict (WFC), 298–310 child-care benefits and, 305–306, 309 cultural aspects of, 299 definition of, 298 dual-earner couples and, 308–311 elder-care assistance and, 301t, 306–308 family-leave policies and, 304–305 gender issues in, 299–300 job satisfaction and, 266 life management theory and, 300 social support and, 300 spillover effects of, 298, 300, 309 work-life supports and, 301–302 Work–family enrichment, 298, 300 Working Scared (Wexley & Silverman), 292 Work-life supports, 301–302 Workplace violence, 315–319, 315f, 317f organization-motivated, 317–318, 318f Xerox, 216, 340, 392 ... trends ■ industrial/ organizational (I/O) psychology The application of psychological principles and theories to the workplace What Is I/O Psychology? Industrial/ organizational (I/O) psychology. .. Traditionally, industrial psychology and organizational psychology have been distinguished from each other based on their respective content areas Industrial psychology (sometimes called personnel psychology, ... Graduate Training Programs in Industrial- Organizational Psychology and Related Fields (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, n.d.) The work of I/O psychology can also be done by