Introduction to industrial and organizational psychology 6th edition riggio test bank

This instructor's manual was developed as a companion to the textbook, Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology 6th edition, which describes a broad, comprehensive body of ma

This instructor's manual was developed as a companion to the textbook, Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (6th edition), which describes a broad, comprehensive body of major issues of interest in the scientific study of human work behavior The text delineates the major theories, applications, and research findings concerning personnel issues, worker issues, organizational issues, and work environment issues investigated in industrial/organizational psychology The first chapter provides a brief history of early research and historical events that served as forces for the development of industrial/organizational psychology as a major subdiscipline in the study of human behavior, as well as a description of worker and organizational issues that are of interest to I/O psychologists in the future The ubiquitous chapter on research methods is also included (chapter 2) because an understanding of social scientific research methods is required in the development of a firm knowledge base for any social science Knowledge of social science research methods is of particular importance to

a thorough and scientifically-based understanding of industrial/organizational psychology because of the field’s extensive reliance on the use of various types of measurement instruments and techniques Personnel issues are examined in Chapters 3 through 7, which cover the topics

of job analysis, employee selection and screening, the evaluation of employee performance, and employee training Chapters 8, 9, and 10 examine worker issues, including worker motivation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment, stress, and positive and negative employee attitudes and behaviors Finally, Chapters 11 through 15 examine organizational issues, including workplace communication, group processes at work, leadership, influence, power, and politics, and the structure and development of organizations The chapters of this companion parallel those found in the book, and the various features contained in each were developed and constructed with detail and comprehensiveness in mind

The textbook is the most extensively referenced introductory I/O text available, an indication of the reliance on research findings for the understanding of phenomena Exercises for students and lecture suggestions were designed to stimulate critical evaluations of theories and research investigations The use of the text by the student and its companion by the instructor will hopefully aid the interested and dedicated student in the development of an in-depth and scientific understanding of the psychology of work

In addition to the regular chapter features, two special features are included The first is a brief section on how to construct a syllabus for the course that utilizes the text This is a standard feature that is included in most available instructor's manuals The second is a description of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT), a student-to-student study process designed and investigated by Ron Riggio and colleagues Professor Riggio presents the basic structure of RPT as well as the research findings supporting its effectiveness as a student study aid The method is highly

recommended as a method of student instruction, as well as an experience that provides an opportunity for student interaction and getting to know classmates The student exercises provided in this manual include exercises for use in the Reciprocal Peer Tutoring process

We would like to invite the instructor to enthusiastically tear apart the structure of this manual The features of it were designed to be versatile, with each being appropriate for various uses These alternative uses will be enumerated, however the instructor may obviously use this manual and its features in any preferred manner This companion was specifically designed to acquaint instructors with the text and to facilitate the effective use of the text in the classroom It was composed both for the instructor with an in-depth knowledge of I/O psychology and for those with a more limited range of knowledge We hope that it serves as a valuable tool in your role as

a teacher, and that it enables you to accomplish your teaching goals efficiently

The following are descriptions of the regular chapter features, including their proposed uses

Part I: Chapter Outline

Each chapter contains a chapter outline which is identical to that contained in the

text Providing such an outline allows the instructor to review the major topics

and organization of each chapter without the necessity of referring back and forth

from the manual to the text

Part II: Chapter Summary

Each chapter contains a chapter summary that is identical to that contained in the

text at the end of each chapter These summaries are comprehensive enough to

serve as a brief review of the material contained in each chapter

Part III: Learning Objectives

Each chapter contains a brief roster of objectives for student learning These objectives are merely broad guidelines for possible teaching goals; the instructor may choose

to focus more or less on certain chapters in the text, and on certain sections in

each chapter

Part IV: Lecture Features

A Suggestions for Lecture

Each chapter contains a listing of possible lecture and discussion topics for each major issue in the text chapter, as well as a list of all bold-print definitions in the chapter These suggestions require knowledge of text information, and they focus extensively on the complex relationships among variables of interest They include suggestions for drawing students into active class discussions

This section provides a narrative summary of two research investigations

concerning major concepts in the chapter, along with references that can be used

to assist in the development of a topic-specific lecture This section may be

particularly useful to the instructor who is attempting to present a detailed lecture

on a particular chapter, or who wants to present material not contained in the text

to students

Part V: Student and Classroom Exercises

Each chapter contains five student exercises, each of which requires a thorough knowledge of text material These exercises may be used as homework or in-class assignments Three of the exercises are designed for use by the individual student, although they of course may also be used as student-pair or group assignments The fourth exercise was specifically designed as a group classroom activity The fifth student exercise in each chapter is a Reciprocal Peer Tutoring exercise, created specifically as an added assignment for peer tutor partners These exercises do not have to be used in sequence, and the instructor is free to use all, some, or none of them It is recommended that they not be used as essay questions on examinations, because they do not tap learned knowledge to an extensive degree as they typically require the student to use personal, subjective experience to some extent

Part VI: Film and Video References

From three to five current videos on the topic of the chapter are presented along

with the running time, the distributor, and the item number Each video is briefly

described to help the instructor in selecting the one that he or she thinks would

best compliment classroom lecture Contact information for each film/video

distributor is listed before the test bank in this manual

Part VII: Test Bank

40 to 85 multiple choice, true/false, and essay questions are provided for each

chapter These questions cover all aspects of the material presented in the chapter Each multiple choice question has four (or infrequently five) alternative answers Each correct answer to multiple choice and true/false items is provided, as well as

the page number where the item may be found in the text

Transparency Masters:

The final portion of the Instructor’s Manual is a set of transparency masters of

selected figures in the textbook

We sincerely believe this manual will be a valuable tool to instructors of introductory courses in Industrial/Organizational Psychology Your comments and questions regarding this manual are solicited and will be appreciated You may address your comments/questions to Ron Riggio, Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, 850 Columbia Avenue, Claremont, CA 91711-6420 (ron.riggio@claremontmckenna.edu), or Heidi Riggio, Department of Psychology, California State University, Los Angeles, 5151 State University Drive, Los Angeles, CA

90032 (hriggio@calstatela.edu)

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring:

An Easy, Effective Approach for Enhancing Student Learning

Ron Riggio, Ph.D

During the past several years, I have become an advocate of a classroom learning strategy known

as Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT) - a technique developed by my friend John Fantuzzo at the University of Pennsylvania The technique takes advantage of the fact that the best way to learn something is to be obligated to teach it to another (the literature shows that tutors achieve higher cognitive gains in course material than the students they tutor) The RPT technique that I have implemented in many of my lecture courses requires students to alternately play the role of tutor and student In this way, students realize the benefits associated with both roles

How to Use RPT

Students are randomly paired at the beginning of the course (this prevents “leftover” students after others have selected their friends as partners) and work together throughout the term The course is divided into several units (I have used from three to five) Each unit culminates in an exam Before each unit exam, student pairs are required to meet, inside and/or outside of class, and complete certain structured assignments Each student must prepare a multiple-choice

“practice” exam (10-20 items) and administer the exam to the partner during the meeting Students also prepare an answer sheet with the right answer for each test item, along with a brief explanation of why the answer is correct Partners meet, take each others’ exams, and review and discuss the correct responses Students are also required to prepare outlines of answers to some general, essay-type questions on the unit material (devised themselves or assigned by the instructor), and they are expected to have a brief study session, using their materials to guide the session Finally, students write a brief, constructive “critique” of their partner’s exam (confusing items? too difficult? etc.) All of these materials - completed practice exams, answer sheets, essay/discussion question outlines, test critiques - are handed in to the instructor on the day of the unit exam Credit is given for completion of these materials (I do not grade them entirely on quality, but generally give full credit for completed assignments I do however, make comments

on the quality of the materials with suggestions for improvement, noting whether assignment quality is indeed improving over time)

The Payoffs

Are there benefits of using this RPT technique Yes, and they can be dramatic Research indicates that student academic performance is enhanced substantially In controlled experiments comparing the RPT technique with other formats (included students who worked on similar assignments alone, students assigned to unstructured discussion groups, and students exposed to course-related films in lieu of the RPT assignment), students in the RPT conditions earned an average 83% on unit exams compared to an average of about 70% for students in the other conditions (Fantuzzo, Dimeff, & Fox, 1989; Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989)

psychological benefits All students in these studies were administered various measures of psychological well-being (scales assessing student anxiety, depression, and distress over being evaluated) both at the beginning and end of the term Students in the RPT conditions showed significant increases in well-being over the term, while the well-being of students in other learning conditions showed no change, or ins some cases, increases in anxiety and depression (Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1989; Riggio, Fantuzzo, Connelly, & Dimeff, 1991)

Finally, students like the RPT strategy In fact, student course evaluations typically rise after introducing RPT My colleagues and I compared RPT with traditional cooperative learning groups in I/O courses Although RPT and cooperative learning students made equivalent cognitive gains, the RPT students liked their learning strategy significantly more that did students in the cooperative learning groups (Riggio, Whatley, & Neale, 1994) Informal student comments indicated that they appreciated the “partnering,” particularly some of the evening and part-time students, who mentioned that being assigned a partner “forces” them to get to know at least one person in the class Also, students have an assigned “study buddy” who they can rely

on for lecture notes in the case of absences

Here is the best part - the RPT technique is relatively simple to implement in almost any course and it is extremely cost- and time-efficient The technique requires no additional resources, and

a minimal degree of extra effort on the part of the instructor It really is a great technique and I hope you give it a try If you have any questions, or want additional information, please contact

me at the Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA 91711 ronald_riggio @mckenna.edu

Fantuzzo, J.W., Dimeff, L.A., & Fox, S.L (1989) Reciprocal peer tutoring: A

multimodal assessment of effectiveness with college students Teaching of Psychology, 16,

133-135

Fantuzzo, J.W., Riggio, R.E., Connelly, S., & Dimeff, L.A (1989) Effects of reciprocal peer tutoring on academic achievement and psychological adjustment: A component analysis

Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 173-177

Riggio, R.E., Fantuzzo, J.W., Connelly, S., & Dimeff, L.A (1991) Reciprocal peer tutoring: A classroom strategy for promoting academic and social integration in undergraduate

students Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 387-396

Riggio, R.E., Whatley, M.A., & Neale, P (1994) Effects of student academic ability on

cognitive gains using reciprocal peer tutoring Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9,

529-542

CONSTRUCTING YOUR CLASS SYLLABUS AND

READING SCHEDULE

Industrial/Organizational Psychology Office: Room ###

Office Hours: As posted

I Course Prerequisites

Psychology 101: Introduction to Psychology

II Course Description

This course offers a broad description and examination of the psychology of behavior at work, including the major theories, their applications in the work place, and research

investigations of both The course will examine job analysis, employee screening and selection, employee training, the performance appraisal process, worker motivation, job satisfaction, worker stress, communication in the workplace, group processes in the workplace, leadership and power, and organizational structure and development A thorough understanding of social scientific research methods and current psychological research findings are emphasized

III Required Text

Riggio, R.E (2013) Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (6th edition)

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

IV Reading and Lecture Schedule for the 15-Week Semester

1 Chapters 1 Introduction, History, and Research Methods

9 Chapter 9 Positive Employee Attitudes

12 Chapter 12 Group Processes in Work Organizations

14 Chapter 14 Influence, Power, and Politics Organizational

15 Chapter 15 Structure, Culture, and Development

Reading and Lecture Schedule for the 10-Week Semester/Quarter

Week Text Chapter Number Topic

1 Chapters 1 and 2 Introduction, History, and Research Methods

2 Chapters 3 and 4 Job Analysis and Employee Selection

3 Chapter 5 and 6 Employee Screening and Evaluating Performance

6 Chapters 9 and 10 Job Satisfaction, Worker Stress, & Attitudes

7 Chapters 11 and 12 Communication and Group Processes at Work

8 Chapters 13 and 14 Leadership, Power, and Politics at Work

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Definitions and History

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

What is Industrial/Organizational Psychology?

The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology

The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology

The Beginnings

World War I and the 1920s

The Great Depression Years and World War II

The Postwar Years and the Modern Era

Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future

First trend: The changing nature of work

Second trend: Expanding focus on human resources

Third trend: Increasing diversity of the workforce

Fourth trend: Increasing globalization of business

Summary

Introduction: Definitions and History

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Industrial/organizational psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the study of

work behavior I/O psychologists are concerned with both the science and practice of industrial/organizational psychology The scientific goal is to increase our knowledge and understanding of work behavior, while the practical goal is to use that knowledge to improve the psychological well-being of workers The study of work behavior is a multidisciplinary, cooperative venture Because I/O psychologists are not the only professionals who study work behavior, they combine their research with that of other social sciences

Important historical contributions that led to the development of the field of I/O psychology

include the work of Frederick Taylor, who founded the school of scientific management, which

held that work behavior could be studied by systematically breaking down a job into its components and recording the time needed to perform each The application of such

time-and-motion studies increased the efficiency of many manual labor jobs During both World

War I and World War II, psychologists became involved in the psychological testing of military recruits to determine work assignments This first large scale testing program was the beginning

of formalized personnel testing, which is still an important part of I/O Psychology Elton Mayo

and his human relations movement emphasized the role that social factors play in determining

worker behavior Through a series of studies he demonstrated the importance of worker morale

or satisfaction in determining performance Mayo also discovered the Hawthorne effect, Or the

notion that subjects' behavior could be affected by the mere fact that they knew they were being observed and by the expectations they associated with being subjects in an experiment Following World War II, there was tremendous growth and specialization in I/O psychology, including specialties within the field that focus on how work groups and organizations function, and on how technology and workers interface

Today, industrial/organizational psychology is a rapidly growing field Several important trends present challenges to I/O psychology and represent cutting-edge areas of research in the field These include: The changing nature of work, and the rapidly expanding nature of jobs, partly

caused by a reduction in workforce due to organizational downsizing for efficiency; an

expanding focus on human resources; increasing diversity in the workforce that presents both challenges and opportunities; and the increasing globalization of business Finally, I/O psychologists are having a bigger impact on shaping policies and practices regarding the workplace and issues regarding workers and the workforce

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Definitions and History

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying Chapter 1, students should be able to:

Define industrial/organizational psychology and discuss its various areas of interest

Describe the scientist-practitioner model as it is utilized in I/O psychology

Generally describe the history and development of I/O psychology, including the work of Taylor and scientific management, and the work of Mayo and the human relations movement

Describe the current and future research and application trends in I/O psychology

Introduction: Definitions and History

SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE

Definitions

1 Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes

2 Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology is the branch of psychology that is concerned

with the study of behavior in work settings and the application of psychology principles to change work behavior

3 Time-and-motion studies are procedures in which work tasks are broken down into simple

component movements timed to develop a more efficient method for performing the tasks

4 Scientific management, a movement started by Frederick Taylor, was a method of using

scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs

5 The Hawthorne effect refers to changes in behavior occurring as a function of participants’

knowledge that they are being observed and their expectations concerning their role as research participants

6 The human relations movement was a movement based on the studies of Elton Mayo that

emphasizes the importance of social factors in influencing work performance

7 Organizational downsizing refers to the strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to

improve organizational efficiency and/or competitiveness

The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology

1 Discuss the scientist-practitioner model

2 Discuss the multidisciplinary nature of I/O psychology Ask students how various disciplines may be interested in the study of work behavior

3 Ask students how the results of studies of work behavior could be applied to actual work settings

4 Discuss the case studies of I/O psychologists described in the chapter (Table 1.1) in terms of

the I/O psychologist as practitioner Discuss the research journals listed in the chapter

in terms of the role of the I/O psychologist as scientist

The Roots and Early History of I/O Psychology

1 Discuss Frederick Taylor, scientific management, and time-and-motion studies

2 Involve students in a discussion of how different jobs could be broken down into

component parts Ask students about their own jobs and how their jobs could or

could not be broken down

3 Discuss Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne studies Ask students how the results of these studies could have come about

4 Discuss the human relations movement and its basic principles

5 Discuss the importance of using scientific research methods in the study of work

behavior

6 Involve students in a discussion of different motivations for workers Ask students

what motivates them in their own jobs

7 Discuss the work of I/O and other psychologists in the developments of testing and

assessment during the two World Wars

8 Discuss the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Ask students how this legislation could have

affected the work of I/O psychologists

I/O Psychology Today and in the Future

1 Discuss the dwindling supply of workers Ask students how they think I/O

psychologists may become involved in this situation

2 Discuss the increasing globalization of business and the role of I/O psychology

3 Discuss the increasing diversity of the workforce Ask students to discuss the

implications of such increased diversity

4 Define organizational downsizing Ask students to come up with reasons why organizations may need to reduce their workforce

Introduction: Definitions and History

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPICS

The Interdisciplinary Nature of Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Since the science of psychology is largely multidisciplinary, I/O psychology research articles may be found in a variety of the most widely published scientific journals For example, the

February 1993 issue of the Journal of Applied Psychology contains articles that cover topics

ranging from the competence of jurors in civil cases to differences in ratings of performance between individuals and groups Eight of the 14 articles in this particular journal issue involve

I/O psychology research As another example, the February 1995 issue of the Journal of Applied

Psychology contains articles on topics ranging from differences in adolescent behavior across

cultures to an examination of the length of time it takes workers to recover from varying work shifts A closer look at some I/O related articles reveals the multidisciplinary nature of I/O psychology

First, a study by Barrick and Mount (1993) combined personality and I/O psychology by investigating the conditions under which personality may be related to performance in management jobs Second, a study by Harrison and McLaughlin (1993) draws from cognitive and I/O psychology by investigating the cognitive processes that generate responses to self-report measures, such as job satisfaction questionnaires According to the researchers, the context in which the item is presented (e.g., whether it is worded in a positive or negative manner) can influence how the worker interprets the question, retrieves information from memory, makes a judgment about the retrieved information, and ultimately responds to the question The importance of this study to I/O psychology is that such cognitive processes can influence the measurement of worker job satisfaction

A third study (Driskell, Olmstead, & Salas, 1993) uses findings from research in social psychology to show that interdependence among group members can, in some cases, lead to conflict between work groups Such conflict can in turn have negative effects on group performance Such findings are important to managers who are attempting to build effective work groups

As these examples indicate, research in I/O psychology builds upon and contributes to findings

in other areas of psychology and in many other social science disciplines For this reason, the student or practitioner of I/O psychology must become as interdisciplinary as the field itself Barrick, M R., & Mount, M K (1993) Autonomy as a moderator of the relationship between

the big five personality dimensions and job performance Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,

111-118

Driskell, J E., Olmstead, B., & Salas, E (1993) Task cues, dominance cues, and influence in

task groups Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 51-60

Harrison, D A., & McLaughlin, M E (1993) Cognitive processes in self-report responses:

Tests of item context effects in work attitude measures Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,

129-140

The History of I/O Psychology

Katzell and Austin (1992) offer a very current, detailed accounting and interpretation of the history of I/O psychology in the United States This article is ideal for the instructor who is interested in a more in-depth accounting of the field’s history in an opening lecture Covering several distinct historical time periods, the authors review the subject matter, methods of study, roles enacted by I/O consultants, and salient aspects of the contemporary intellectual, social, and political environment The article’s coverage spans from the turn of the century to the present day

The review begins with salient historical accounts of ancient I/O psychology activities, including

Plato’s recommendations for managerial selection and development outlined in The Republic

Other ancient occurrences include the use of multiple-hurdle selection systems for bureaucrats in ancient China, and Jethro as the first I/O consultant, who advised his son-in-law Moses on how

to staff and organize the ancient Israelites

I/O psychology began to emerge in the U.S around the turn of the century with the work of Taylor (see Chapter 1) and others Some of the earliest I/O studies dealt with the acquisition of such skills as telegraphy and typing Personnel selection based on individual differences was another popular research topic, including examinations of salespeople and streetcar motormen In these pre-World War I days, nearly all psychologists were trained in general experimental psychology and were primarily employed in academic settings

Major occurrences in I/O psychology during the World Wars focused on employee selection and ability measurement (see Chapter 1) The Hawthorne studies by Mayo and colleagues also occurred during the war era The review continues into the present day, and provides a very up-to-date summary of modern foci in I/O psychology Several tables presenting current topics in Industrial and Organizational Psychology are also provided

Katzell, R A., & Austin, J T (1992) From then to now: The development of

industrial-organizational psychology in the United States Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 803-835

Introduction: Definitions and History

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

Instructor tip: Any one of the following exercises may be adapted for use as a classroom or group activity Interesting variations in group discussions occur when different groups are assigned a task with regard to particular occupations, especially the students’ own jobs.

1 Discuss the work of Taylor and scientific management Describe how your own job could be broken down into component parts Discuss methods you have developed to improve the

efficiency of your work performance

2 Discuss the Hawthorne studies conducted by Mayo, and the results of those studies Consider and describe strategies which may have eliminated the occurrence of the Hawthorne effect Discuss how these results apply to the direct supervision and performance appraisal of workers

3 Discuss the increasing focus on international business as a trend in industrial/organizational psychology Identify specific organizational needs which may arise as a result of this trend, including personnel needs, leadership needs, and training needs Discuss how I/O psychologists could help organizations to meet these needs

Exercise 4: Classroom Activity

Divide the class into two large debating teams Have one side promote the advantages of

increasing diversity in the workforce, and have the other side discuss the difficulties associated with an increasingly diverse workforce Together the entire class may develop possible programs

to manage workplace diversity to maximize strengths

Exercise 5: Reciprocal Peer Tutoring Exercise

Specialties of I/O Psychologists

1 Together with your peer tutor, discuss some of the areas of specialization of I/O

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Definitions and History

FILM AND VIDEO REFERENCES

“All Together: Organization Behavior”

Explaining that each organization has its own unique culture, this program looks at

organizational behavior It introduces the ideas of Frederick Taylor, discusses the principles of scientific management, defines corporate culture, and considers the pitfalls of bureaucracy Insight Media #MTS3943 30 minutes

Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

Social Scientific Research Methods

Goals of Social Scientific Research Methods

Steps in the Research Process

Formulation of the problem or issue

Generation of hypotheses

Selecting the research design

Collection of data

Analyses of research data

Interpretation of research results

Major Research Designs

The Experimental Method

Two examples of the experimental method: A laboratory and a field experiment

Quasi-Experiments

The Correlational Method

Two examples of the correlational method

Key Issues in Measuring Variables: Reliability and Validity

Measuring Work Outcomes: The Bottom Line

Interpreting and Using Research Results

Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology

Summary

Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data

Descriptive Statistics

Inferential Statistics

Statistical Analysis of Experimental Method Data

Statistical Analysis of Correlational Method Data

Appendix Summary

investigating and changing work behavior Objectivity is the overriding theme of the social scientific

method used to study work behavior

The first step in conducting research involves the formulation of the problem or issue The second

step is the generation of hypotheses, which are simply statements about the supposed relationships

among variables It is through the systematic collection of observations of behavior that a researcher

may develop a set of hypotheses into a more general theory, or model, which are ways of

representing the complex relationships among a number of variables related to actual work behavior The third step in conducting research is choosing a particular design to guide the actual collection of data (the fourth step) The data collection stage includes sampling, the methods by which participants are selected for study The final steps in the process are the analyses of research data and the interpretation of research results

I/O psychologists use two basic types of research designs In the experimental method, the researcher manipulates one variable, labeled the independent variable, and measures its effect on the dependent

variable In an experimental design, any change in the dependent variable is presumed to be caused

by the manipulation of the independent variable Typically, the experimental method involves the

use of a treatment group and a control group The treatment group is subjected to the manipulation

of the independent variable, while the control group serves as a comparison by not receiving the treatment Variables that are not of principal concern to the researchers, but which may affect the

results of the research are termed extraneous variables In the experimental method, the researcher attempts to control for extraneous variables through the random assignment of participants to the

treatment and control groups, in order to ensure that any extraneous variables will be distributed evenly between the groups The strength of the experimental method is the high level of control that the researcher has over the setting, which allows the investigator to determine cause-and-effect relationships The weakness of the method is that the controlled conditions may be artificial and may not generalize to actual, uncontrolled work settings Quasi-experiments are often conducted when the researcher does not have the ability to randomly assign participants to different conditions The

other type of research method, the correlational method (sometimes called the observational

method), looks at the relationships among measured variables as they naturally occur, without the intervention of the experimenter and without strict experimental controls The strength of this design

is that it may be more easily conducted in actual settings However, the correlational method does not allow the specification of cause-and-effect relationships

Meta-analysis is a method that allows the results of a number of studies to be combined and

analyzed together to draw an overall summary or conclusion Meta-analysis may also be used to determine if the results of different studies of the same factors are significantly different from each other

The case study is a commonly used descriptive investigation that lacks the controls and repeated

observations of the experimental and correlational methodologies The case study can provide important information, but does not allow the testing of hypotheses

An important part of the research process involves the measurement of variables The term

operationalization refers to the process of defining variables so that they can be measured for

research purposes A variety of measurement techniques are used by I/O psychology researchers

Researchers may measure variables through the direct obtrusive or unobtrusive observation of

behavior In obtrusive observation, the researcher is visible to the research participants, who know that they are being studied Unobtrusive observation involves observing participants' behavior

without their knowledge Another measurement strategy is self-report techniques, which yield

information about participants' behavior from their own reports One of the most widely used

self-report techniques is the survey

When interpreting research results, a researcher should consider the limitations of the findings One concern is the extent to which the researcher is confident that changes in the dependent variable were actually caused by the independent variable, as opposed to extraneous variables This is called

internal validity Attention must also be given to the external validity of the findings, that is, whether

they will generalize to other settings A critical concern to I/O psychologists is the interrelation of the science and practice of industrial/organizational psychology

The American Psychological Association lists several core principles that should guide the ethical conduct of research in psychology, including I/O psychology One key element in working with

human participants is obtaining informed consent With informed consent, a research participant is

fully informed of the nature of the experiment and has the right to not participate in the research

CHAPTER 2

Research Methods in I/O Psychology

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying Chapter 2, students should be able to:

Explain why social scientific research methods are important, and describe the four goals of this method in I/O Psychology

Describe the six steps in the research process

Explain the role of a dependent variable in I/O research, and give examples of dependent

variables commonly examined in I/O

Explain and distinguish between the major research designs, and give examples of when each is appropriate or desirable

Explain the usefulness of meta-analysis in social science research

Define operationalization of variables, and describe various ways to measure variables

Explain why external validity is important in the interpretation and use of research results After reading and studying the Appendix in Chapter 2, students should be able to:

Understand the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics and be able to give examples of each

Understand the different statistical analyses involved in the experimental and correlational methods

Research Methods in Industrial/Organizational Psychology

SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURE

Definitions

1 Objectivity is the unbiased approach to observation and interpretations of behavior

2 Variables are the elements measured in research investigations

3 Hypotheses are statements about the supposed relationships between or among

variables

4 A theory or model is an organization of beliefs into a representation of the factors

that affect behavior

5 Sampling is the selection of a representative group from a larger population for

study Random sampling refers to the selection of research participants from a

population so that each individual has an equal probability of being chosen

Stratified sampling is the selection of research participants based on categories

representing important distinguishing characteristics of a population

6 The experimental method is a research design characterized by a high degree of

control over the research setting to allow for the determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables

7 Independent variables are variables that are manipulated by the researcher using the

experimental method, while dependent variables are the variables that are acted upon by the independent variable(s) (also known as the outcome variable)

8 The treatment group is the group in an experimental investigation that is subjected

to the change in the independent variable, while the control group is the group that

receives no treatment

9 Extraneous variables are variables other than the independent variable that may

influence the dependent variable

10 Random assignment is a method of assigning subjects to groups to control for the

effects of extraneous variables

11 Quasi-experiment follows the experimental design but lacks random assignment

and/or manipulation of the independent variable

12 The correlational method is a research method that examines the relationship among

or between variables as they occur naturally

13 Multiple regression design examines the relationship between a particular outcome

variable and multiple predictors

14 Meta-analysis is a technique that allows results from several different research

studies to be combined and summarized Meta-analyses typically rely on indicators of

effect size, or estimates of the magnitude of the relationship or effect found in a

17 Obtrusive observation is research observation in which the presence of the observer

is known to the participants In contrast, unobtrusive observation is observation in

which the presence of the observer is not known to the participants

18 Self-report techniques are measurement methods that rely on research participants’

reports of their own behaviors or attitudes Surveys are a common self-report

measure in which participants are asked to report on their attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors

19 Reliability refers to the stability or consistency of a measurement over time

20 Validity refers to the accuracy of inferences drawn from a measurement

21 Internal validity is the extent to which extraneous or confounding variables are

removed

22 External validity refers to whether research results obtained in one setting will apply

to another setting

23 Informed consent refers to when a research participant is fully informed of the

nature of the experiment and has the right to no participate

Social Scientific Research Methods

1 Define objectivity as the unbiased approach to observation and interpretations of

behavior Ask students why objectivity is necessary in the study of human behavior

2 Discuss the various steps in the research process

Major Research Designs

1 Describe the experimental method in detail, including the importance of experimental control

2 Define independent and dependent variables Ask students to think about what factors or behaviors may be examined as independent and dependent variables in the study of work behavior

3 Discuss why correlational methods must be used in the examination of certain variables

4 Compare and contrast the two main research designs, including their respective

advantages and disadvantages

5 Ask students how the two methods may be used in the study of work behavior

6 Discuss meta-analyses, their particular purposes, and their usefulness in integrating research

7 Discuss the case study method Ask students why the case study is not a preferred

method Ask students how the case study could be used in the study of work behavior

Measurement of Variables

1 Discuss the operationalization of variables Ask students how work-related variables of interest could be operationalized, including worker stress, motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity

2 Discuss the different observational techniques and when they are necessary Include discussion of the Hawthorne effect

3 Discuss self-report techniques Ask students why self-report techniques may not be completely accurate measurement tools

Key Issues in Measuring Variables: Reliability and Validity

1 Discuss how measurement instruments used in I/O psychology different from others (e.g.,

a thermometer)

2 Compare reliability to validity Ask students to come up with examples of measures that

might be highly reliable but only valid in certain contexts

Measuring Work Outcomes: The Bottom Line

1 Discuss the measurement of dependent variables in the study of work behavior Ask students what variables are most important to workers and to organizations

Interpreting and Using Research Results

1 Discuss external validity Ask students why it is important Involve students in a

discussion of how to achieve high generalizability of research results

Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology

1 Discuss the steps I/O psychologists take to protect human subjects

Appendix: Statistical Analyses of Research Data

1 Define descriptive statistics, including measures of central tendency and variability Describe what these measures tell us about a group of scores

2 Define inferential statistics, and how they are used to draw conclusions about groups of scores

3 Discuss statistical significance

4 Discuss the normal distribution and how it is used in various inferential statistical tests

5 Discuss differences in the analyses of experimental method and correlational method data

6 Define the correlation coefficient, including the implications of direction and strength Involve students in a discussion of correlation and causality

Research Methods in I/O Psychology

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPICS

Steps in the Research Process

Dwyer and Ganster (1991) conducted a study to determine the effects of workload and control over one's job on employee attendance and satisfaction The article published as a result of this study is used to demonstrate important concepts in research methods The concepts and terminology from the chapter in the text are used to explain this study and are italicized

One goal of this study was to describe some characteristics of jobs that may be associated with

important work behaviors (attendance) and attitudes (work job satisfaction) A second goal was

to test a descriptive model that proposes a relationship between job stress and employee

The research design selected (Step 3) was the correlational method The researchers measured

and determined the relationships between five variables (degree of control, job demands, absenteeism, tardiness, and job satisfaction) The participants in the study were actual employees

of a manufacturing company Therefore, the research setting was the work place

Data were collected (Step 4) in two ways First, the researchers asked participants to complete

questionnaires (self-report measures) Secondly, they collected data from the attendance records maintained by the employer This data was collected from 90 male workers who represented a wide range of ages (19 to 6) over a wide range of jobs (25) from three work shifts

The sampling technique was not random Since all employees who were given the questionnaire

did not return them, each individual did not have an equal probability of being selected to participate Neither was the sampling technique stratified since the number of participants of each gender, in each job, on each shift, and at each age did not mirror the actual breakdown of these groups in the total population of the company On the other hand, the sample was representative of male workers of all ages over all shifts in 25 different jobs in the company

The data were analyzed (Step 5) by computing correlation coefficients that showed the

relationship between the variables measured in the study (Please note that in the actual study there were several interaction effects between the variables measured that are not mentioned here for the sake of simplifying the material for introductory-level students.)

In their interpretation of the results (Step 6), the researchers concluded that a heavy work load

was apparently related to higher absenteeism and tardiness when workers have low control over their jobs However, heavy work load was apparently not related to higher absenteeism and tardiness when workers had a high degree of control over their jobs The researchers further concluded that the stress that accompanies a heavy work load and low control is linked to increased costs to employers (in time lost from work)

The external validity of these findings may not be automatically assumed For example, since this study was conducted in only one company, and with only male employees in certain jobs,

these findings may not hold true for (or generalize to) female employees who do different types

of jobs or for workers in other companies To determine the external validity of these findings, this study should be replicated using different workers in different companies

Dwyer, D J., & Ganster, D C (1991) The effects of job demands and control on employee

attendance and satisfaction Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12, 595-608

The Relationship Between Grades and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis

Employers and academics often have differing views on the value of grades for predicting job performance Students also tend to be particularly interested in how meaningful grades are for future work performance Roth, BeVier, Switzer, and Schippman (1996) examined the relationship between undergraduate and graduate grades (GPA) and job performance in a meta-analysis of 71 studies After correcting for research artifacts, a correlation of 30 between grades and performance was found However, the relationship between GPA and performance appeared

to be moderated by several factors For example, grades were found to be more strongly predictive of job performance for workers on the job for more than one year In addition, undergraduate GPA was found to be more predictive of job performance than graduate school GPAs, including those of individuals who completed Ph.D and M.D programs This study nicely illustrates procedures involved in meta-analyses, as well as the valid prediction of job performance through the use of GPA

Roth, P L., BeVier, C A., Switzer, F S., & Schippmann, J S (1996) Meta-analyzing

the relationship between grades and job performance Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(5),

548-556