beginning chemistry

Beginning Chemistry v 1.0 This is the book Beginning Chemistry (v 1.0) This book is licensed under a Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/ 3.0/) license See the license for more details, but that basically means you can share this book as long as you credit the author (but see below), don't make money from it, and make it available to everyone else under the same terms This book was accessible as of December 29, 2012, and it was downloaded then by Andy Schmitz (http://lardbucket.org) in an effort to preserve the availability of this book Normally, the author and publisher would be credited here However, the publisher has asked for the customary Creative Commons attribution to the original publisher, authors, title, and book URI to be removed Additionally, per the publisher's request, their name has been removed in some passages More information is available on this project's attribution page (http://2012books.lardbucket.org/attribution.html?utm_source=header) For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page (http://2012books.lardbucket.org/) You can browse or download additional books there ii Table of Contents About the Author Acknowledgments Dedication Preface Chapter 1: What Is Chemistry? Some Basic Definitions 11 Chemistry as a Science 26 Chapter 2: Measurements 36 Expressing Numbers 38 Expressing Units 47 Significant Figures 57 Converting Units 71 Other Units: Temperature and Density 87 End-of-Chapter Material 100 Chapter 3: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 103 Atomic Theory 105 Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature 116 Masses of Atoms and Molecules 127 Ions and Ionic Compounds 138 Acids 157 End-of-Chapter Material 162 Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions and Equations 166 The Chemical Equation 167 Types of Chemical Reactions: Single- and Double-Displacement Reactions 173 Ionic Equations: A Closer Look 186 Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions 197 Neutralization Reactions 205 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 214 End-of-Chapter Material 226 iii Chapter 5: Stoichiometry and the Mole 230 Stoichiometry 234 The Mole 242 The Mole in Chemical Reactions 251 Mole-Mass and Mass-Mass Calculations 258 Yields 267 Limiting Reagents 273 End-of-Chapter Material 281 Chapter 6: Gases 285 Kinetic Theory of Gases 288 Pressure 291 Gas Laws 296 Other Gas Laws 309 The Ideal Gas Law and Some Applications 316 Gas Mixtures 332 End-of-Chapter Material 343 Chapter 7: Energy and Chemistry 347 Energy 351 Work and Heat 355 Enthalpy and Chemical Reactions 364 Stoichiometry Calculations Using Enthalpy 374 Hess’s Law 382 Formation Reactions 389 End-of-Chapter Material 402 Chapter 8: Electronic Structure 406 Light 408 Quantum Numbers for Electrons 414 Organization of Electrons in Atoms 424 Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 434 Periodic Trends 448 End-of-Chapter Material 459 iv Chapter 9: Chemical Bonds 463 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams 467 Electron Transfer: Ionic Bonds 477 Covalent Bonds 486 Other Aspects of Covalent Bonds 503 Violations of the Octet Rule 514 Molecular Shapes 520 End-of-Chapter Material 529 Chapter 10: Solids and Liquids 531 Intermolecular Forces 535 Phase Transitions: Melting, Boiling, and Subliming 542 Properties of Liquids 551 Solids 562 End-of-Chapter Material 572 Chapter 11: Solutions 574 Some Definitions 578 Quantitative Units of Concentration 584 Dilutions and Concentrations 596 Concentrations as Conversion Factors 601 Colligative Properties of Solutions 610 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutes 625 End-of-Chapter Material 632 Chapter 12: Acids and Bases 635 Arrhenius Acids and Bases 639 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases 645 Acid-Base Titrations 654 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases and Their Salts 659 Autoionization of Water 671 The pH Scale 677 Buffers 684 End-of-Chapter Material 693 Chapter 13: Chemical Equilibrium 696 Chemical Equilibrium 697 The Equilibrium Constant 700 Shifting Equilibria: Le Chatelier’s Principle 713 Calculating Equilibrium Constant Values 722 Some Special Types of Equilibria 731 End-of-Chapter Material 749 v Chapter 14: Oxidation and Reduction 753 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 757 Balancing Redox Reactions 768 Applications of Redox Reactions: Voltaic Cells 781 Electrolysis 797 End-of-Chapter Material 801 Chapter 15: Nuclear Chemistry 806 Radioactivity 810 Half-Life 818 Units of Radioactivity 827 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes 836 Nuclear Energy 845 End-of-Chapter Material 854 Chapter 16: Organic Chemistry 858 Hydrocarbons 862 Branched Hydrocarbons 876 Alkyl Halides and Alcohols 893 Other Oxygen-Containing Functional Groups 904 Other Functional Groups 916 Polymers 930 End-of-Chapter Material 941 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements 949 vi About the Author David W Ball Dr Ball is a professor of chemistry at Cleveland State University in Ohio He earned his PhD from Rice University in Houston, Texas His specialty is physical chemistry, which he teaches at the undergraduate and graduate levels About 50 percent of his teaching is in general chemistry: chemistry for nonscience majors, GOB, and general chemistry for science and engineering majors In addition to this text, he is the author of a math review book for general chemistry students, a physical chemistry textbook with accompanying student and instructor solutions manuals, and two books on spectroscopy (published by SPIE Press) He is coauthor of a general chemistry textbook (with Dan Reger and Scott Goode), whose third edition was published in January 2009 His publication list has over 180 items, roughly evenly distributed between research papers and articles of educational interest Acknowledgments The decision to write a new textbook from scratch is not one to be taken lightly The author becomes a saint to some and a sinner to others—and the feedback from the “others” is felt more acutely than the feedback from the “some”! Ultimately, the decision to write a new book comes from the deep feeling that an author can make a positive contribution to the field, and that it is ultimately time well invested It also helps that there are people supporting the author both personally and professionally The first person to thank must be Jennifer Welchans of Unnamed Publisher I have known Jen for years; indeed, she was instrumental in getting me to write my first academic book, a math review book that is still available through another publisher We reconnected recently, and I learned that she was working for a new publisher with some interesting publishing ideas With her urging, the editorial director and I got together, first by phone and then in person, to discuss this project With all the enthusiasm and ideas that Unnamed Publisher brought to the table, it was difficult not to sign on and write this book So thanks, Jen—again Hopefully this won’t be the last book we together Thanks also to Michael Boezi, editorial director at Unnamed Publisher, for his enthusiastic support Jenn Yee, project manager at Unnamed Publisher, did a great job of managing the project and all of its pieces—manuscript, answers to exercises, art, reviews, revisions, and all the other things required to put a project like this together Vanessa Gennarelli did a great job of filling in when necessary (although Jenn should know better than to take a vacation during a project) Kudos to the technology team at Unnamed Publisher, who had the ultimate job of getting this book out: Brian Brennan, David Link, Christopher Loncar, Jessica Carey, Jon Gottfried, Jon Williams, Katie Damo, Keith Avery, Mike Shnaydman, Po Ki Chui, and Ryan Lowe I would also like to thank the production team at Scribe Inc., including Stacy Claxton, Chrissy Chimi, Melissa Tarrao, and Kevin McDermott This book would not exist without any of these people Thanks to Mary Grodek and Bill Reiter of Cleveland State University’s Marketing Department for assistance in obtaining a needed photograph A project like this benefits from the expertise of external reviewers I would like to thank the following people for their very thoughtful evaluation of the manuscript at several stages: Acknowledgments • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Sam Abbas, Palomar College Bal Barot, Lake Michigan College Sherri Borowicz, Dakota College of Bottineau Ken Capps, Central Florida Community College Troy Cayou, Coconino Community College Robert Clark, Lourdes College Daniel Cole, Central Piedmont Community College Jo Conceicao, Metropolitan Community College Bernadette Corbett, Metropolitan Community College James Fisher, Imperial Valley College Julie Klare, Gwinnett Technical College Karen Marshall, Bridgewater College Tchao Podona, Miami-Dade College Kenneth Rodriguez, California State University–Dominguez Hills Mary Sohn, Florida Institute of Technology Angie Spencer, Greenville Technical College Charles Taylor, Pomona College Susan T Thomas, The University of Texas at San Antonio Linda Waldman, Cerritos College Thanks especially to ANSR Source, who performed accuracy checks on various parts of the text Should any inaccuracies remain, they are the responsibility of the author I hope that readers will let me know if they find any; one of the beauties of the Flat World process is the ability to update the textbook quickly, so that it will be an even better book tomorrow I am looking forward to seeing how the Unnamed Publisher model works with this book, and I thank all the adopters and users in advance for their help in making it a better text David W Ball February 2011 Dedication For Gail, with thanks for her support of this book and all the other projects in my life I scorn to change my state with kings - William Shakespeare, Sonnet 29 Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry 28 Name the functional group(s) in urea, a molecule with the following structure: 29 Ethyl acetate is a common ingredient in nail-polish remover because it is a good solvent Draw the structure of ethyl acetate 30 A lactone is an ester that has its ester functional group in a ring Draw the structure of the smallest possible lactone (which is called acetolactone, which might give you a hint about its structure) 31 Draw the structure of diethyl ether, once used as an anesthetic 32 The smallest cyclic ether is called an epoxide Draw its structure 33 The odor of fish is caused by the release of small amine molecules, which vaporize easily and are detected by the nose Lemon juice contains acids that react with the amines and make them not as easily vaporized, which is one reason why adding lemon juice to seafood is so popular Write the chemical reaction of HCl with trimethylamine, an amine that is given off by seafood 34 Putrescine and cadaverine are molecules with two amine groups on the opposite ends of a butane backbone and a pentane backbone, respectively They are both emitted by rotting corpses Draw their structures and determine their molecular formulas 35 With four monomers, draw two possible structures of a copolymer composed of ethylene and propylene 36 With four monomers, draw two possible structures of a copolymer composed of ethylene and styrene 37 Draw the silicone that can be made from this monomer: 16.7 End-of-Chapter Material 944 Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry 38 One of the ingredients in the original Silly Putty was a silicone polymer with two methyl groups on each Si atom Draw this silicone 16.7 End-of-Chapter Material 945 Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry ANSWERS cyclopropane, cyclobutane, and cyclopentane Both molecular formulas are C4H6 11 C2H6 + 6Cl2 → C2Cl6 + 6HCl 13 15 two 17 16.7 End-of-Chapter Material 946 Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry 19 21 23 ethyne 25 The names are 1,2-dihydroxyethane and 1,1-dihydroxyethane, respectively 27 29 31 33 (CH3)3N + HCl → (CH3)3NHCl 35 (answers will vary) 16.7 End-of-Chapter Material 947 Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry 37 16.7 End-of-Chapter Material 948 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements In this chapter, we present some data on the chemical elements The periodic table, introduced in Chapter "Atoms, Molecules, and Ions", lists all the known chemical elements, arranged by atomic number (that is, the number of protons in the nucleus) The periodic table is arguably the best tool in all of science; no other branch of science can summarize its fundamental constituents in such a concise and useful way Many of the physical and chemical properties of the elements are either known or understood based on their positions on the periodic table Periodic tables are available with a variety of chemical and physical properties listed in each element’s box What follows here is a more complex version of the periodic table than what was presented in Chapter "Atoms, Molecules, and Ions" The Internet is a great place to find periodic tables that contain additional information One item on most periodic tables is the atomic mass of each element For many applications, only one or two decimal places are necessary for the atomic mass However, some applications (especially nuclear chemistry; see Chapter 15 "Nuclear Chemistry") require more decimal places The atomic masses in Table 17.1 "The Basics of the Elements of the Periodic Table" represent the number of decimal places recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, the worldwide body that develops standards for chemistry The atomic masses of some elements are known very precisely, to a large number of decimal places The atomic masses of other elements, especially radioactive elements, are not known as precisely Some elements, such as lithium, can have varying atomic masses depending on how their isotopes are isolated The web offers many interactive periodic table resources For example, see http://www.ptable.com 949 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements 950 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Table 17.1 The Basics of the Elements of the Periodic Table Name Atomic Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes actinium* Ac 89 aluminum Al 13 americium* Am 95 antimony Sb 51 121.760(1) g argon Ar 18 39.948(1) g, r arsenic As 33 74.92160(2) astatine* At 85 barium Ba 56 berkelium* Bk 97 beryllium Be 9.012182(3) bismuth Bi 83 208.98040(1) bohrium* Bh 107 boron B 10.811(7) bromine Br 35 79.904(1) cadmium Cd 48 112.411(8) 26.9815386(8) 137.327(7) g, m, r g *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 951 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Name Atomic Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes caesium (cesium) Cs 55 132.9054519(2) calcium Ca 20 40.078(4) g californium* Cf 98 carbon C 12.0107(8) g, r cerium Ce 58 140.116(1) g chlorine Cl 17 35.453(2) g, m, r chromium Cr 24 51.9961(6) cobalt Co 27 58.933195(5) copernicium* Cn 112 copper Cu 29 curium* Cm 96 darmstadtium* Ds 110 dubnium* Db 105 dysprosium Dy 66 einsteinium* Es 99 erbium Er europium Eu 63.546(3) r 162.500(1) g 68 167.259(3) g 63 151.964(1) g *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 952 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Name fermium* Atomic Symbol Fm Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes 100 fluorine F 18.9984032(5) francium* Fr 87 gadolinium Gd 64 157.25(3) gallium Ga 31 69.723(1) germanium Ge 32 72.64(1) gold Au 79 196.966569(4) hafnium Hf 72 178.49(2) hassium* Hs 108 helium He 4.002602(2) holmium Ho 67 164.93032(2) hydrogen H 1.00794(7) indium In 49 114.818(3) iodine I 53 126.90447(3) iridium Ir 77 192.217(3) iron Fe 26 55.845(2) krypton Kr 36 83.798(2) g g, r g, m, r g, m *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 953 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Name Atomic Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes 138.90547(7) g lanthanum La 57 lawrencium* Lr 103 lead Pb 82 207.2(1) lithium Li [6.941(2)]† g, m, r lutetium Lu 71 174.967(1) g magnesium Mg 12 24.3050(6) manganese Mn 25 54.938045(5) meitnerium* Mt 109 mendelevium* Md 101 mercury Hg 80 200.59(2) molybdenum Mo 42 95.94(2) g neodymium Nd 60 144.242(3) g neon Ne 10 20.1797(6) g, m neptunium* Np 93 nickel Ni 28 58.6934(2) niobium Nb 41 92.90638(2) nitrogen N 14.0067(2) g, r g, r *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 954 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Name Atomic Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes nobelium* No 102 osmium Os 76 190.23(3) g oxygen O 15.9994(3) g, r palladium Pd 46 106.42(1) g phosphorus P 15 30.973762(2) platinum Pt 78 195.084(9) plutonium* Pu 94 polonium* Po 84 potassium K 19 39.0983(1) praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765(2) promethium* Pm 61 protactinium* Pa 91 radium* Ra 88 radon* Rn 86 roentgenium* Rg 111 rhenium Re 75 186.207(1) rhodium Rh 45 102.90550(2) 231.03588(2) *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 955 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Name Atomic Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes rubidium Rb 37 85.4678(3) g ruthenium Ru 44 101.07(2) g rutherfordium* Rf 104 samarium Sm 62 150.36(2) g scandium Sc 21 44.955912(6) seaborgium* Sg 106 selenium Se 34 78.96(3) r silicon Si 14 28.0855(3) r silver Ag 47 107.8682(2) g sodium Na 11 22.98976928(2) strontium Sr 38 87.62(1) g, r sulfur S 16 32.065(5) g, r tantalum Ta 73 180.94788(2) technetium* Tc 43 tellurium Te 52 127.60(3) terbium Tb 65 158.92535(2) thallium Tl 81 204.3833(2) g *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 956 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Name Atomic Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Footnotes g thorium* Th 90 232.03806(2) thulium Tm 69 168.93421(2) tin Sn 50 118.710(7) titanium Ti 22 47.867(1) tungsten W 74 183.84(1) ununhexium* Uuh 116 ununoctium* Uuo 118 ununpentium* Uup 115 ununquadium* Uuq 114 ununtrium* Uut 113 uranium* U 92 238.02891(3) vanadium V 23 50.9415(1) xenon Xe 54 131.293(6) g, m ytterbium Yb 70 173.04(3) g yttrium Y 39 88.90585(2) zinc Zn 30 65.409(4) zirconium Zr 40 91.224(2) g g, m g *Element has no stable nuclides However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and for these an atomic mass is tabulated †Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material g Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material The difference between the atomic mass of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty m Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation Substantial deviations in the atomic mass of the element from that given in the table can occur r Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise Ar(E) being given; the tabulated Ar(E) value and uncertainty should be applicable to normal material 957 Chapter 17 Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements Source: Adapted from Pure and Applied Chemistry 78, no 11 (2005): 2051–66 © IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) 958